Far-right in Catalonia and Spain - February 2020 - Departament de la ...
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
Far-right
in Catalonia
and Spain
February
2020
1
Index
Far-right in Catalonia and Spain
February 2020
1. Introduction
2. Historical contextualization
The Franco regime survives
3. Radical right at the street
3.1 Radical right and hate and discrimination
3.2 Summary of attacks, acts and violent activities
4. Institutional far-right
5. Far-right in executive and judicial powers
5.1 Far-right and security forces
5.2 Far-right and judicial power
6. Conclussions
2
1. INTRODUCTION
The 28/2018 Decree, June 7, restructuring the Department of the Vice-
Presidency and Economy and Finance created the Civil and Political Rights
Office. October 1 of 2018 Government appointed director of the Civil and Political
Rights Office to Adam Majó Garriga.
During 2019, Civil and Political Rights Office de Drets Civils i Polítics published
the Political intolerance’s Cartography, a collection of 655 documented and
contrasted cases in which the civil society itself violates, attacks or restricts basic
rights, such as political participation, association, meeting, manifestation, or
freedom of expression.
According to the point 2 of the motion1 subsequent to the Government's appeal
on the rise of the far right in Europe, Parliament of Catalonia shows concern
for the growth of the extreme right throughout Europe and, in particular, the
Spanish State, and:
a) Calls to the main institutions, political and social actors of the State to normalize not
fascism or to launder its policies.
b) Orders to the political forces presents in this Parliament that they don’t collaborate
with the far-right, neither actively nor passively, neither counting their votes nor sharing
mobilisations at the street.
c) Denounces the impunity that so often have the far-right’s actions at the street and that
too often they appear to be collusion with judicial institutions, and the State security
bodies and forces. In this way finds alarming specially the position of the State Attorney
General's Office of considering far-right collectives who are likely to be victims of hate
crimes.
d) Considers specially urgent that the State Government bet on a policy of dialogue and
democratic solutions for Catalonia, leaving the court way, where he shares accusations
with the far-right.
e) Requests that the State Government abandon the path of authoritarian and repressive
policies that are marked by far-right, being the unique offer provided to solve the political
conflict in Catalonia by the State Government so far until now.
According to the 24.2 point of the Resolution 693/XII of the Parliament of
Catalonia, on the recognition and guarantee of women's rights (BOPC 505,
January 9 2020), the Parliament of Catalonia has urged the Government:
a) To elaborate, by the Civil and Political Rights Office, a report on the rise of far-right in
Europe and how this affect to women’s rights.
1
See Parliament
3 b) To elaborate, by the Civil and Political Rights Office, a specific report of women’s rights threatened in the Spanish state and raise solutions to be able to protect them. Article 104, section g). 43/2019 Decree, February 25, establishes that the Office must ensure compliance and drive the measures adopted in the Resolution of the European Parliament 2018/2869 (RSP), October 25, on the rise of neo-fascist violence in Europe, reason why it becomes necessary inform on the actual situation, x-ray under the name Far right in Catalonia and Spain. February 2020. This report, to comply with the Resolution 693/XII of the Parliament of Catalonia, on the recognition and guarantee of women's rights, will be accompanied in the coming months with the more specific reports The rise of far right in Europe and women’s rights, and Women’s rights threatened in Spain. The working methodology of this report is born in the study of media, sources of expertise and data extracted from sector’s, in order to value terms, news and concepts that allow us to grasp, explain and transmit the analysis of reality. Sources for X-ray Reality have taken into account that there is never a single way to tell the facts, but the facts are as they are. For this reason, we wanted to be careful with the words that collect them, and with the objectivity needed to understand the severity and significance of the detected violations.
4
2. HISTORICAL CONTEXTUALIZATION
As Isaac ROSA remembers, at the prologue of How Fascism Works: The Politics
of Us and Them2, “Spanish is the only democracy in Europe that was
not built on the defeat of fascism, the only one who was not born an anti-
fascist. Even more: the only country in which antifascist (assimilated to violent,
radical and undemocratic) raises more suspicion than the term fascist”.
Francoists at Paracuellos del Jarama,
1976 © Carlos Bosch
THE FRANCO REGIME SU RVIVES
Nazism and Italian fascism were defeated at II WW. This was not the
case with Francoism, which under a dictatorial regime was perpetuated until
the death of the dictator, on November 1975, and beyond, becoming a democracy,
thanks to the Spanish Constitution of 1978.
As FONTANA3 noted “We usually think of a constitution as an instrument of
renewal that breaks the past and lays the foundations for a new age. These
would be cases like the Constitution of 1812, which liquidated absolutism, or the
one in 1931, which ended the monarchy. But the 1978 rule did not meet these
conditions, because it was born of an agreement with the old Francoist regime,
and not of a victory that would have allowed it to be replaced by an entirely new
one”.
2
See How Fascism Works: The Politics of Us and Them;. Stanley, Jason. Blackie Books. 2019. Prologue.
3 See also the article Catalanofobia (El Periódico, August 2 2009) of Carles Duarte.
5 As CUCURELLA 4 remembered, Felipe Gonzalez said in 1984, at Toledo, “Terrorism in the Basque Country is a matter of public order, but the real danger is the Catalan differential”. In an expression that illustrates the difficulty in understanding, accepting and managing the cultural, linguistic and national plurality of Spain, both during the dictatorial period and with the subsequent democracy. Over 42 years after Amnesty Act 1977, it’s advisable to take stock to contextualize where we came from and how we have been born and with what roots the radical right, and the far-right in Catalonia. On the one hand, foundations that glorify the figure of the dictator Francisco Franco and the values of the dictatorship, with the motto “One, Great and Free”, exacerbated by the proposed exhumation of the dictator's body from the Valle de los Caídos, which took place on October 24, 2019. On the other hand, the rise of Catalan independence, which partially replaces immigration as the culprit of all evils, in the role of scapegoat to alleviate fears, justify crises and point “the inner enemy”. A simplistic discourse that points to evils, which does not know how to cure, but positions those who promote it as guarantor of their homeland and their virtues, to the point of encouraging and / or exerting violence to impose the supposedly saving ideas of the Spanish nation. In this context, the economic factor is decisive. The crack of 1929 help us to understand the growth of Nazism, Italian fascism, communism and Francoism. The current economic crisis become crucible to alleviate the fear of the loss of work, housing and conditions of the welfare state by which the financial system was rescued with more than 70,000 million euros, in Spain, and the bursting of the housing bubble. In this context, people from immigration become targets for projecting frustrations and accumulated anger. The other determining factor, in the influence of far-right approaches in Spain, is historical. Almost genealogical. Families that united power in a totalitarian state have retained power and influence in the 41st year of what should be a rule of law, democracy and social. If we analyze the pillars of the whole state - the legislative, the executive and the judiciary - we will find that the majority party in recent years (not in Catalonia but in the state) was the Popular Party. Born of Alliance Popular, founded among others by former Francoist ministers León Herrera Esteban or Manuel Fraga Iribarne. By their hands circulated the vertebrate power, with the leg of the army (scare aside 23-F), that cannot be freed of some objective data: the Emeritus 4 See La politització miop del procés català (El País, March 15 2014), CUCURELLA, Santiago.
6
King was designated King by the dictator Francisco Franco, to succeed
it. The Constitution considers him irresponsible, against the principle of equality
of all citizens established in article 14 of the same rule. In institutions like the
Civil Guard, also of a military nature, in the 1980's they could still be found
commands who had been fighting in the Nazi 250th Division, the Blaue
Division, and they had sworn allegiance to the Fürher. From the Francisco Franco
National Foundation website, you can consult an article by Fernando Garrido
Polonio 5 , reminiscent of participation of the Civil Guard in the Nazi 250th
Division. It must be remembered, for example, that 7 Managing Directors of
the Civil Guard served in his day as chiefs or officers at the Nazi 250th
Division:
1) Luis Zanón Aldalur (10-12-1962/31-12-1965)
2) Angel Ramírez de Cartagena y Marcaida (4-1-1966/21-11-1967)
3) Luis Díez-Alegría Gutiérrez (7-3-1969/13-1-1972)
4) José Vega Rodríguez (17-5-1975/10-10-1975)
5) Ángel Campano López (11-10-1975/23-12-1976)
6) Antonio Ibáñez Freire (23-12-1976/2-5-1978)
7) José Luis Aramburu Topete (21-4-1980/26-10-1983)
On Saturday, May 11 2013 the Civil Guard paid tribute to Blue Division (Nazi
250th Division) in an act with the government delegate at Catalonia, then María
de los Llanos de Luna, at Sant Andreu de la Barca. That would be unimaginable
in France, the United Kingdom or Germany: the image of a ruler handing an
award to a person in a Nazi army uniform.
These data introduce the social perception of one trivialization of Nazism, as
had already happened in official events on October 12, 2004, where a veteran of
the Blue Division parade next to a Republican of Leclerc Division6.
Here is a brief historical note. In 1941, during World War II, one week in
Grafenwöhr, was enough for the Blue Division to swear allegiance to Hitler 7 ,
which made it member of the Wermacht. Cochenhausen pronounced the formula
of the oath in German; which, immediately afterwards, was repeated in Spanish
by Colonel Troncoso: “Swear before God and for your Spanish honor
absolute obedience to the German Army Chief Adolf Hitler in the fight
against communism, and swear to fight like brave soldiers ready to give your
life every moment to fulfill this oath?”. In this way, the Blue Division
became the 250th Wehrmacht Infantry Division, under Hitler and German high
command.
5 See Civil guard in the Blue Division
6 See El Mundo
7 See La División Azul. Moreno Juliá, Xavier. Crítica. Barcelona. 2015. Pages 132-133.7 European Parliament Resolution 2018/2869 (RSP). October 25, on the rise of neo-fascist violence in Europe, remember us that awareness of history is one of the preconditions, for preventing such crimes, from occurring in the future and plays an important role in educating the younger generations, because minimizing the severity of Nazi crimes is a first step toward repeating similar facts. In October 24 2019, 44 years after his burial, the dictator Francisco Franco was exhumed from the Valle de los Caídos8 (Valley of the Fallen), and his burial was relocated and buried at Mingorrubio cemetery, at El Pardo, beside his wife, Carmen Polo. Fascists made of the exhumation a tribute, and van exalted the dictator taking advantage of the exit of the Valle de los Caídos9. Except for the dictator's family, nobody did more than Vox, far-right party, to prevent the transfer of the dictator’s remains. Rocío Monasterio, its spokeswoman at the Community of Madrid, asked the Government of Isabel Díaz Ayuso to deny permits to carry out the exhumation work (not necessary, according to Supreme Court). Its leader, Santiago Abascal, unsuccessfully appealed to the Central Electoral Board to suspend it, saying that it was a propagandistic act prohibited by law in election campaign. Once exhumation became unstoppable, Vox put the focus on criticism to the Goverment 10 , taking the path of popular prosecution to bring to court their political ideas, contrary to the politicians imprisoned by October 1, to the president of the Generalitat of Catalonia, and the own autonomy of Catalonia. The last minister of the Army, named for Franco, Francisco Coloma Gallegos y Pérez, from 1973 to 1975, arrived to the degree of Lieutenant General. When the emeritus king Juan Carlos de Borbón received Josep Tarradellas, he considered him an expired, although later it explained his relation with the president of the Generalitat then saying: “you know how I think, but when the man knows how to command, we obey him”11. 8 See Exhumation 9 See Franco out of the Valley 10 See El País 11 See La Vanguardia
8
3. RADICAL RIGHT AT THE STREET
Radical right is the segment of far-right that rejects liberal democracy and
does not exclude violence in order to achieve its ends.
Radical right it seeks not what unites but what separates, it seeks no dialogue but
imposition. Radical right, just like the far-right in general, it seeks to channel,
especially among young people, the disaffection and frustration caused by
cultural, social and even technological changes, the expectations of unfulfilled
well-being, the impoverishment, the objective and subjective distance with
economic power and politician, etc... Far-right includes proposals that are aimed
at a wider and more heterogeneous audience, while radical right aims to reach
more radicalized and activist sectors, especially young people.
Image of the report ''Arriba España'' premiered in TV3
3.1 RADICAL RIGHT AND HATE AND DISCRIMINATION
The presence of far-right has become habitual in recent years on October 12 at
Montjuïc12, with the radical groups that articulate xenophobic, homophobic and
racists speeches. It is worth remembering the deaths related to hate crimes and
discrimination in Catalonia, by a transgender person in 1991 by a group of neo-
Nazis, and in 2004 by a young man, on knives, at the Gràcia festival.
On December 1 2019 a couple were victims of one homophobic attack at Sant
Boi de Llobregat, by one group of 15 fascists13. Between 2012, to 2017, Mossos14
registered 1.726 related testimony with hate crimes, and carried out 78 judicial
investigations “for criminal acts allegedly made by the far-right and the radical
right”.
According with the memory of the Hate Crime and Discrimination Service of the
Barcelona Provincial Prosecutor's Office, in 2017 were registered 291 court
12 See El País
13 See Grup feixista apallissa
14 See Mossos and far-right9
proceedings, in front of 225 of 2016 or 136 of 2015, with a two-year increase of
110% in the number of causes caused by hatred and discrimination.
2018. Memory of the Office of the Public Prosecutor of Catalonia, at 7 point, states
that “Within the framework of the independence demands there have been
criminal constitutional actions to be prosecuted and prosecuted. This action has
led to an increase in the number of investigative proceedings as well as hate
crimes and discrimination”. The following table shows the evolution of registered
testimony from 2015 to 2017, the trend of reported facts.
Hate crimes and discrimination
Province 2015 2016 2017
Barcelona 232 198 279
Girona 13 21 33
Tarragona 35 29 48
Lleida 12 19 29
Unspecified - 5 4
Catalonia Total 292 272 393
The following table, provided in the report of the Prosecutor's Office by the
Mossos d'Esquadra, offers an overview of the evolution in Catalonia from 2016 to
2017.
Hate crimes and discrimination – 2017 Attests
Barcelona Girona Tarragona Lleida w.s. 2017 2016 2016/17
Ethnic/ national/racial 94 17 12 10 1 134 108 24%
Political orientation 83 3 21 13 1 121 54 124%
LGTBI phobia 67 8 11 3 89 62 44%
Religious 24 4 4 2 34 13 162%
Mental disability 2 1 1 4 5 -20%
Sexism 4 4 19 -79%
Phobia to poor people 3 3 2 50%
Physical / sensory disability 1 1 2 - 100%
Anti-Semitic 1 1 2 9 -78%
CATALONIA 279 33 48 29 4 393 272 44%10
According to the 2019 Report of the State Attorney General's Office15, in Spain
the quantitative data (for 2017) are summarized in the following 2 tables:
Incidents of hate crimes
Anti-Semitism 6
Phobia to poor people 11
Religious beliefs or practices 103
Functional diversity 23
Sexual orientation or identity 271
Racism-Xenophobia 524
Ideology 446
Sex / gender discrimination 35
SPAIN TOTAL 1.419
Type of fact
Lesions 276
Threats 253
Others against Constitution 113
Damages 109
Discrimination 93
Insults 79
Racist acts, xenophobes at sport 64
Denigrating treatment 63
Against freedom of conscience and religious 32
feelings
Rest 337
SPAIN TOTAL 1.419
The night of October 12, 2018, at Ripollet16, the state youth coordinator of the
National Democracy fascist party, and an ultra were detained by Mossos
d’Esquadra by an assault with sharp weapons, which ended with two
injuries.
On December 24, 2019, some streetlights and walls in Tarragona appeared filled
with stickers, posters, painted with swastika and other Nazi symbols 17 .
Xenophobia and racism are a symptom but not a cure. As COHEN18 wrote “great
lies give rise to great fears which generate great need for great strong men”. As
BAUMAN 19 mused “to know if the conversation is the path to mutual
understanding, reciprocal respect and finally agreement (even if it comes down
15
See Memory 2019 Fiscalia
16 See 12-0 Assault with sharp weapons
17 See Fascists symbols a Tarragona
18 See The New York Times (31/12/2015), Roger COHEN
19 See Desconeguts a la porta de casa. BAUMAN, Zygmunt. Arcàdia, 201611
to agreeing to disagree), you need to participate in the conversation and direct
it towards the purpose of jointly negotiating the obstacles that will arise from
the process”. The host crisis has strengthened the presence of groups that do not
want any coexistence that is solid, peaceful or enriching to everyone, and who
choose to normalize and promote hate speech.
In the face of the inequalities and impoverishment caused by financial capitalism
this time and the difficulty in identifying culprits and / or solutions, the “first us
before those outside”. As BAUMAN said, “we live in a present presided over by
the divorce between power (the ability to do things) and politics (the ability to
decide what to do)”.
At FAQS program, 11.24.18, Benjamin HARNWELL interviewed said: “it would
be a cultural suicide to let anyone in Africa who wants to enter it go. I think
immigrants are one existential threat”. As BAUMAN20 said, “evil and fear
are Siamese brothers. It is impossible to meet one without being at the same time
with the other. They may even be two different names for the same experience:
one refers to what we see, or hear, and the other to what we feel; one points to
the outside, to the world, and the other inside, to each of us. What we fear is bad;
what is bad causes us fear”.
Far right and xenophobia and racism
On March 2019, the SOS Racism Association presented the report InVisibles.
L’estat del racisme a Catalunya, where you can see a change in the typological
tendency of cases of racism. Police abuses and aggressions have been common so
far, and aggression and discrimination among individuals have been common
since 2018, with 36% of cases detected, responding to conflicts between
neighbors or on the street, and responding to a fragile or perhaps non-existent
social cohesion.
On March 2019, Barcelona City Council presented the report La discriminació a
Barcelona 2018 where 265 cases are collected, concluding that racism and
xenophobia were the first cause of discrimination in Barcelona, ahead of sexual
orientation and gender identity.
From January to August 2019, l’Oficina per la No-Discriminació (OND) attended
to 145 people who had suffered a situation of discrimination in Barcelona, and
racism and xenophobia were still present in 40% of cases.
Plataforma per la Democràcia convened in Palma de Mallorca, on March 23,
2019, a rally calling for a world against racism and fascism. They released a video
that encourages telling a lot about lies, aggression, and insults.
20 See Liquid Fear. BAUMAN, Zygmunt. Page 54.12 On November 16 201921, the European Network Against Racism (ENAR) alert that the Vox rise at the 10-N Spanish elections can cause “an increase of the hate crimes” against the minorities. So Juliana WAHLGREN indicates it, that defend that there is a “link between hate speech and hate crimes” and warns that there is more and more racism in Europe. “Politicians are normalizing their position on power of racism and discrimination”, and they are also "empowering" these positions with society. WAHLGREN says “it’s important for people to be more and more informed because many of these discourses are based on false stories”, and more local communication channels are needed because “they represent what is happening in society”. She thinks it’s necessary “change information communication structures. The truth no longer matters and we need to understand that we must believe in the truth again”. In October 29 2017, at Barcelona, at Pau Claris street with Casp street corner, a Sikh street vendor selling Spanish flags was stolen and assaulted by a group of neo-Nazi protesters. One of the assailants, who had a swastika tattooed on his hand, tells him “look, look, Moorish” after stealing it and while showing him stolen flags a few yards away. The Mossos d'Esquadra investigated by trade. The prosecution asked for 4 years in prison for a member of the young branch of National Democracy accused of assaulting a Moroccan man. The events took place on July 2, 201722, when next to a girl member also from the far right group, he hung napkins on a street in Sant Feliu de Llobregat against building a mosque. Moroccan children stopped reading posters and insulted and threatened the accused. The children fled to their parents' homes, and the two defendants pursued them and also insulted their parents. Agents of the Mossos d'Esquadra intercepted them and put a knife in them. Against this background, the young man assaulted the father of the children. The prosecutor's office also accused the girl and of each of them, in addition to two years in prison, for six felony offenses. The prosecutor says in his letter that National Democracy is a "radical right" political formation created in 1995, result of the merger of the groups Juntas Españolas, Spanish National Front, Spanish Circle of Friends of Europe, 21 See ENAR alert 22 See Racist aggression
13
Autonomous Bases and National Revolutionary Vanguard. He explains that this
formation encompasses the Young National Democracy, of which the two
defendants are a part. To explain the youth's far-right ideology, he describes the
boy wearing a tattooed swastika on his chest, Adolf Hitler's face on his right arm,
another swastika shield on his right elbow, and the word "Nazi" on his toes left,
among others. The girl has a tattooed on her right arm a cross with a military
helmet and a rifle with the words 'honour and glory blue division' and on her back
an eagle with a swastika, among others. The prosecutor considered the elements
of a felony of injury with dangerous instrument and six offenses of threat, with
aggravation of commission on discriminatory grounds by reason of nation and
religion. In the case of the accused aggravated recidivism. For this reason, for the
defendant the prosecutor requested 4 years in prison for the injuries and 2 years
more for the threats. For the defendant he requested 2 years in prison for the
threats of threats.
In October 8 2017, two protesters wearing Spanish football jerseys assault
passenger with hits and kicks, possibly racist-motivated. Other passengers in the
wagon isolate the violent ones, preventing further damage. Hours earlier, the two
individuals, visibly drunk, give fascist greetings in front of the Spanish Police
Station on Via Laietana. The Mossos d'Esquadra investigated by trade.
In October 29 2017, at Plaça de Catalunya, at Barcelona, four Spanish-flagged
protesters board a train and take on various racist-motivated passengers as they
shout and strike against the wagon. One of them does the Nazi salute by raising
his arm to the cry of “Sieg hail!” when a Maghreb man goes up. The group then
threatens a SER radio channel reporter who is recording.
In January 8, 2020, they beat at la Sagrera, at Sant Andreu district, to two young
people, for racist reasons: one is of Moroccan origin and the other is of Senegalese
origin23.
Far right and Catalan-phobia
Violence against Catalans, their symbols or their language, by reason of hate, it is
not a modern question. Catalan-phobia is rooted already in the 17th century, but
earlier, when literary figures of the Castilian golden age, as Quevedo, proposed
the physical liquidation of the Catalans. In 1640 the Reapers' War broke out, to
which he wrote: “Whereas in Catalonia there was only one Catalan left,
and stones in the deserted fields, we must have an enemy and war”24.
This feeling of hate were manifested loyalty to the King, at the same time that to
the Motherland and to the State.
23 See Racist beating
24 See Hostility Catalans14 As DUARTE 25 remembered, the report of José Patiño after the September 11, 1714, found intolerable that the Catalans would not accept taxes without a pact and they were usually expressed themselves in Catalan, with the cliché still maintained of describing them “more likely to save than not to consume as necessary for food and clothing”. Official use of Catalan language was prohibited it by New Plant Decrees. At the administration, and at the schools, by the certificates of 1768, 1825 and 1902, as well as in the dictatorships, the years 1923 and 1939. At the same time, was also banned it from commercial and university books, 1772 and 1773, in the theater, 1801, or in the courts, 1881. Catalonia is a land of passage and of welcome. During the 20th century, migrations from Aragon, Murcia and Andalucia, among other territories, increased the population. The Francoist dictatorship favoured them for Castilianizing Catalonia but, as COROMINES26 denounced, did not succeed in attempting cultural genocide and linguistics. Anyway, hate against Catalan language survives. As an example, May 8, 2016, at the post-match briefing in the newsroom of the Santiago Bernabéu27, a TV3 journalist asked a question to the madridista goal keeper, in Catalan. Both are Catalan-speakers. The player turned around seeking the approval of the club's news chief, and he shook his head. A situation that would have been normal, because of the language, became a hopeful case of Catalan-phobia. In the XXI Century, some Spanish institutions see and understand the use of the Catalan language as a provocation to his idea of Spain. On May 201728, the whistle against the Spanish anthem in the final of the football King’s Cup set off a festival of Catalan-phobia at Twitter, with hundreds of tweets as “Catalan shit”, “Catalan fucking” or “motherfuckers”. With one of the Civil Guard appealing to pride, or one of the Spanish police, which even incorporated a video of the whistle, saying they use the Catalan flag daily as a “doormat”. This hate had manifested itself before, for example, in November 2014 29, with dozens of users tweeting against 9-N at social network, with insults against the participatory process, the Catalans and the government, asking for nuclear bombs or military intervention, with expressions as “Catalan fucking”, “Catalan fucking shit”, or “there is nothing to vote motherfuckers”. 25 See Catalan-phobia (El Periódico, August 2, 2009) of Carles Duarte 26 See VII Congrés Internacional de Lingüística Romànica el 1953 27 See Catalan-phobia 28 See Insults at twitter 29 See Bombs
15 Hate against Catalonia survives, also, from media, with messages that can nourish radical right ideas. From Esradio, on Friday, May 11, 2018, a journalist defended, around the Catalans, “of course we can bomb them. Another thing is that the "garbage" of Government that we have is not able to show how clear we have airplanes to bomb”. He was calling the 200,000 Germans living in the Balearic Islands hostage, warning of explosions in Bavaria breweries, due to the Puigdemont situation in Germany, considering the president Quim Torra a racist psychopath, “the dumbest and most ridiculous of the place”. Contemptuous public messages also fuel the radical right. Unfortunately, there are examples of constant public insult and contempt in newspapers, networks and television, such as the rating of "asshole" live by a journalist at the then Vice President of the Catalan Government, Oriol Junqueras. Or the rating of “shit” live to the then President Carles Puigdemont, by a journalist, who on September 29, 2018, at La Sexta Noche TV program, about the riots in Catalonia said “The cops should have fired in the air to disperse this mob”. On January 3 2019 it was denounced at Espinelves vandalism against independence symbols30. On November 13 2017 appeared graffiti of Nazi and fascist symbols at ERC headquarters at Figueres31. La nit de Nadal de 2018 a Valls they painted a pastry shop by its independence symbols 32. On April 26 2018 fascists groups attacked homes at Vilafortuny by its independence symbols, o by freedom of political prisoners33. Following the events of Catalonia in the fall of 2017, intolerance samples have increased, as well as the number of incidents related to Catalan identity or to the independence symbolism. When Gabriel Rufián, ERC Deputy Spokesman for Congress, wrote at Twitter on September 17 2017 “Francoism did not die on November 20, 1975 in a bed in Madrid, he will die on October 1, 2017 in a ballot box in Catalonia” several users wished the same end as the former President Lluís Companys. The 123rd President of the Generalitat, Lluís Companys, it was assassinated after being captured in France by the Nazi Gestapo at the request of the Francoist police. In Spain, he was tortured, submitted to a war council (for the crime of rebellion) and shot, with bare feet, at Montjuic Castle, on October 15, 1940. In 2014 the monolith of tribute to Lluís Companys, in his hometown of Tarròs, was beheaded34. On November 12, 2017, it appeared damaged and painted with 30 See Canal taronja 31 See Figueres 32 See El vallenc 33 See Revista cambrils 34 See Attack monument Companys
16 the name Franco. They stole his bronze medallion with the effigy and made the graffiti on the stone with spray. On May 27 2018 bust of Lluís Companys35, located in front of the Slaughterhouse Theater, it was painted in red spray, as well as the commemorative plaque, which had already received a similar attack in March 2017. On August 15 2018, statue of Lluís Companys, at Rambla of Tarragona36, waked up that Wednesday with the bust and the nameplate painted with the colours of the Spanish flag. Statue of Lluís Companys at Barcelona 37 , on April 3 2018, next to the Arc de Triomphe, it was also dotted with yellow, with paint. On January 12 2019, at Tetuan Square 38, at Barcelona, there was a parade of Catalan National Assembly that was attacked by a group of radicals. They were participating in the protest called about 200 meters away, whose participants were carrying Spanish flags, some of whom mocked the people at the stop, took material and pulled yellow bows. @jm_clavero tweeted who witnessed directly that Xesco had been assaulted, Maria had been broken and her cellphone had been dropped twice, she had hit a gentleman with a knife, stole another cellphone, stolen a banner and a banner, and the Mossos they had refused to identify the fascists. On May 18 2016, there was a radical attack on the Macià Space in Les Borges Blanques 39 . Two strangers entered, their faces covered, shouting slogans like “Viva España” and knocking down objects and threatening to death the civil servant. On September 17 2018, a radical group take off the giant stellar flag that was wearing for some time the district of Ca n’Aguilera40. Days after, on 30, they came back to cut the mast of the stellar flag. From 13 years ago, the neighbours of Ca n'Aguilera organized for the Dyad a flag-raising on the mountain, a singing of the Reapers and a breakfast of brotherhood, and they had never retaliated until then. On Saturday April 7 2018 a radical right group attacked, at dawn, several citizens hung yellow bows at Artés41, taking advantage of the fair that was to be held that 35 See Attack monument Companys Lleida 36 See Attack statue Tarragona 37 See Yellow against Companys 38 See Radical attack Tetuan 39 See Radical attack Macià 40 See Anoia diari 41 See Fascist attack
17 weekend. The assailants had identified members of a bunch of fascist ideology bikers in the same village. On July 25 2018 the mayor of Barcelona tweeted at Twitter “yesterday a new fascist attack took place in #9Barris with violence and Nazi symbols. We call for @interiorcat and prosecutor's office should act with full force against these expressions of hatred in the city. Barcelona is and always will be anti-fascist”. On August 29 2018 a Telemadrid camera was attacked with 4 punches when he was recording a protest where were presents the then national leader and the leader at Catalonia of Ciutadans political party, that condemned the attack. According to the camera they had been confused him with a TV3 camera42. 3.2 SUMMARY OF ATTACKS, ACTS AND VIOLENT ACTIVITIES The evolution of groups of radical right in Catalonia 43 , x-ray by Mossos d’Esquadra on October 2019, notes that although for years the radical right movement in Catalonia was only visible on 12-O in Montjuïc, lately some of its members are present at other unionist or xenophobic protests. Falange, Spanish Catholic Movement and National Democracy are the three groups of radical right that do not exclude violence to achieve its ends. Recently, due to the political context, other groups (organized and that the Mossos disassociate with the radical right) appear that remove independence symbolism. Groups, however, with police interest, because they have engaged in confrontations with people of the opposite ideology and crimes of injury, damage and threats. In April 201844 it was reported a network of called Groups of Defense and Resistance (GDR), dozens of entities with about twenty people each, with neo- fascist and far-right gestures of some of them, and the objective of acts of "cleaning" of independence symbolism. Far-right fought for against- yellow squads 45 and the control of their activities. Vox money explains the ability to penetrate, for example, in the Bages region, with funds for banners, ladders, gas for vehicles and legal advice against criminal proceedings and administrative penalties. In December 12 2018, two hundred far-right protesters are concentrated in Montjuïc46, to claim the unity of Spain and to demand the imprisonment of Carles Puigdemont, with unconstitutional flags. They make public the coalition of Falange Española de la JONS, Falange, Alternativa Española and National Democracy to concur, under the acronym ADÑ, Spanish Identity, to the 42 See Camera man assaulted 43 See Evolution radical right groups 44 See Nació digital 45 See Against-yello squads 46 See El país
18
European elections of May 2019. At Sant Jordi Square they burn half a dozen of
stellar flags, and while they parade they salute with arm raised, in the
fascist style, and shout against the exhumation of the corpse of Franco.
On September 2018, in the face of repeated attacks on unionist demonstrations,
RIUS47 says “its flag is the unit of Spain. Unionist demonstrations are led by
National Democracy, and in the end, ordinary people, voters of Citizens, add to
the chants propagated by those of the radical groups, from Puigdemont to
prison, or Spain one and not fifty-one”.
Far-right, majority, it manifests itself ideologically as Spanish nationalist. The
Secretary General of PxC, on December 2 2018, via Twitter, congratulated “to
@Vox_es and its president @Santi_ABASCAL for success in Andalusia, for
delivering messages as important as the defense of Spain, the fight against
illegal immigration and the expulsion of corruption from the political map”.
With the independence process, the radical right becomes visible in the physical
space, the street, and also in the virtual space, such as at Facebook, Twitter or
Youtube. As BLATT48 says, “when we are free from the responsibility and the
need to dialogue, convince or agree that we require our representatives, we are
less good. A sad truth. // More than a global village, digital space has reborn
the tribal organization”.
After analyse the cases, the Office detects more than 191 of radical right, attacking
the life, the physical integrity, the freedom of expression and of manifestation.
Collected in 5 big blocks: the 62 against the physical integrity, the 28 of
intimidation, insults and threats, 28 acts of vandalism against entities, 73 acts of
vandalism against individuals, and 5 of other types of violent activity.
The non-exhaustive summary of the most representative cases, in the form of
tables (22 standouts from 2019, are added to the different blocks), is as follows:
Attacks against physical integrity
62 cases from January 1 2017 to December 31 2018
58 Cases of physical aggression (punching, pushing, kicking) 58
2 Cases of injuries for pardons (BB gun) (Palamós, Manlleu) 2
2 Cases of injuries with Sharp weapon (Santa Margarida de Montbui, Igualada) 2
Total 62
47 See Vilaweb
48 See Historia reciente de la verdad. 2018. BLATT, Roberto. Madrid. Turner Publicaciones. Page 114.19
7 featured cases of 2019
Date Facts Town
01/13/2019 Two people attacked by about a dozen Vox supporters including the Hospitalet
president of Spanish Democracy and Unity (DUE). One of them use a de Llobregat
string to assault them.
01/17/2019 Two people attack a merchant of Parets. They were hooded but before the Parets del
attack merchant didn't attend one person wearing neonazi symbology. Vallès
"It's clear the political motivation of the aggression". They push him at floor
and they hit many times before going..
04/16/2019 "Fascist" aggression to a militant of Front Republicà party, hooking posters Badalona
at Sant Ignasi de Loiola avenue. Aggressor shout 'Viva Spain' and makes the
nazi salute before nail a punch to the victim, as it can be seen on a video.
Attacked person has injuries at the nose and at the teeth and must be
attended it the hospital. He denounces.
04/25/2019 Three men attack a militant of Jovent republicà at Mataró shouting ‘Viva Matarò
Vox’. Militant, waring one antifascist t-shirt, see a car stopping in front of
him and three men shooting him with one BB gun. Aggression shouting
‘Viva Vox, son of a bitch’. The young is attended at Mataró Hospital and he
denounces at Mossos d'Esquadra.
10/17/2019 Fascists with flags of Spain with fascist symbolism hit a worker that was not Barcelona
wearing any flag, and was wearing black clothes. Contusion at the jaw and a
central broken incisor.
10/17/2019 14 fascists hit brutally with coups, kicks and with sticks to an antifascist Barcelona
young man.
10/18/2019 They hit at head with a baseball bat to a 62 years old man that were going Molins de
to the Freedom March. Rei
Intimidations, insults and threats
28 cases from January 1 2017 to December 31 2018
28 Cases of intimidations, insults and threats, specially: 28
3 cases of dead threats (2 a Barcelona i 1 a Madrid) -
1 case of threats with scissors (Badalona) -
1 case of threats with a baseball bat (Barcelona) -
Total 28
4 featured cases of 2019
Date Facts Town
03/16/19 1 Line #metromadrid (subway). They stretch the yellow scarf that one woman Madrid
wears at the neck, with shouts of catalan dog.
09/13/19 Graffiti at public places "Spanish Village, Go Spain, Viva Spain, Be carefoul Major" Palamós
with one swastika and the yoke and the arrow of the Spanish Falange. Graffiti
"Torra son of a bitch", Viva Spain, Viva Spain until the dead. Swastika. Puig son of
a bitch, you're dead. Lluís Puig at Palamós you're dead. Llluís Puig you're dead.
Shot in the nape.
10/13/19 They increase, insult and throw objects against the Celrà's major car. Agressions Celrà
and threats, with iron bats and an ax, screaming "Viva Spain"..
10/16/19 Verbal aggression (Son of a bitch, subnormal, what happens at Catalonia Palma de
is your guilt) and broken of glass at the airport parking by wearing and sticker of Mallorca
an stellar flag at the car.20
Acts of vandalism against entities
28 cases from January 1 2017 to December 31 2018
26 Cases of fascist attacks and/or fascists paints and/or Nazi symbols 26
2 Cases of fires (at Barcelona and at Cervera) 2
Total 28
3 featured cases of 2019
Date Facts Town
03/29/19 They paint swastikas at private homes at L'Arboç and at the Council L’Arboç
04/26/19 Graffiti pro Vox at CUP headquarters facade at Barcelona. Graffiti, in green colour Barcelona
as Vox, "Women we're going for you. Viva Vox".
10/15/19 Attack to the Palafrugell's Council. Graffiti at the facade "Viva Spain" and at the Palafrugell
entrance of the building 2 swastikas
Vandalism attacks against individuals
73 cases from January 1 2017 to December 31 2018
25 Cases of fascist attacks and/or fascists paints and/or Nazi symbols 25
7 Cases of damaged cars (Nazi symbols, fascist and/or insults) 7
14 Cases of shots of pardons against independence homes 14
3 Cases of broken glasses 3
16 Cases of damage of independence symbols (burning, cutting masts, destruction 16
of murals, breakage or robbery of symbols)
8 Cases of hooded groups (from 8 to 12 people), with para-military appearance, of 8
cleaning of independence symbolism, with its face covered, nightly performance
and various objects such as poles, screwdrivers, razors, saws and cutters and / or
ladders and poles (Tivissa –2 times-, Verges –2 times-, Tàrrega, Taradell, Palamós,
La Bisbal)
Total 73
8 featured cases of 2019
Date Facts Town
03/14/19 Provençals del Poblenou neighbours, CDR members, have suffered two attacks Barcelona
with pellets at home.
03/22/19 One fascist band saw the stellar flag of Collsabadell, at Llinars del Vallès. Llinars del
Neighbours alert Mossos de Esquadra and identify band members. Vallès
04/19/19 They shot with one pellets carabine to the window of a floor of the Manresa Manresa
older neighbourhood where it's hanging ong one stellar flag and one Damascus of
Free political prisoners.
04/24/19 Someone shot at dawn against one window of Gràcia neighbourhood whith Barcelona
yellow ties in favor of political prisoners.
05/08/19 A governing of Sant Feliu de Llobregat (Baix Llobregat) Council and LGTBI Sant Feliu de
activist, suffer an homphobe attack. His car is lined and painted with swastikas Llobregat
and punctured wheels.21
8 featured cases of 2019
05/22/19 The car of a neighbour from the historical Center, in front of the Saint Martins' Lleida
Curch, suffers shreds and striped with abbreviations of PP and VOX
07/22/19 A building located to 100 meters from the customs of the Jonquera is attacked by La Jonquera
shots by third time. A police expert confirm that it's a 9 mm projectile.
10/19/19 They enter at night at the terrace of a private home and they steal the stellar Cerdanyola
flag and the damascus of political prisoners. For doing it, they must bring del Vallès
a wall of 2 meters until the street and cut the ropes that held the 2 flags with an
scissors, so we must understand that it was not an spontaneous action if not
planned consciously.
5 examples of others kinds of violent activities
Date Facts Town
10/08/17 They burn the Ateneu Popular the Machia of Gavà while there are people Gavà
inside. The Athenaeum has suffered dozens of attacks from the far right.
Although no injuries had been regretted, the attack could have been fatal.
10/27/17 Agents of Madrid’s Police laud Hitler and threaten and insult Madrid
immigrants, independence and Podemos in a chat
07/30/18 The Mossos d’Esquadra denounce an activist of radical right by trying to Balsareny
boycott the Torch March and another by possession of prohibited
weapons
11/10/18 5 people burst with flags of Spain in presentation's book 'Nudo Spain' (Arpa Barcelona
Ediciones), Pablo Iglesias and Enric Juliana, at Book's Home at Barcelona.
They come with hooded face and they shout "Podemos out, here we don't
want you" and “‘viva Spain’” saluting fascists, with flags of Spain, to
boycott the act.
04/29/19 At @FGC Padua Railroads station, graffiti identifying catalans and jews: Barcelona
"Fuck Catalans = Jews" [sic]22
4. INSTITUTIONAL FAR -RIGHT
On February 10 2019, at Madrid, coinciding with the 76 years from the more
known battle of the 250th Blue Division, at Krasny Bor, at Colon Square, gathered,
among others, political representatives of Citizens, the Popular Party, and Vox,
next to the Falange, Hogar Social, National Democracy or Spain 2000 49 . The
protest gathered more than 45,000 people according to the State Government
and according to the organizers 5 times more.
2019. Elections of 10-N entailed the collapse of Ciudadanos and Albert Rivera
resigned to leave the political life.
These two images help us to see how the far-right political party phagocytized
much of the formally moderated right-wing political discourse, and Vox replaced
so Ciudadanos’ political representation, in state political landscape.
Santiago Abascal, in a Vox rally
at Andalucia | Flickr Vox
In December 13 2018, Mediterraneo digital informed that Plataform by Catalonia
(PxC) was one step away from their disappearance50, confirmed in February 16,
2019 51 . In a congress at Mataró, the party approved its dissolution. It
transformed into a foundation and it encouraged its supporters to move to Vox.
Whatever the case, different xenophobic formations were waiting to see what
happened with the elections (municipal, regional and European) in May
2019.The extreme Catalan right gravitated to Vox52.
At the Catalan elections to Parliament of Catalonia of 2010 Platform by Catalonia
(PxC) obtained 75.134 votes, that were 2.40% of total, and in 2012 60.107 votes,
with the moto “First those of home” that were 1.65% from total53. At 2015 and
2017 elections they didn’t participate. It seems clear that the Respect federation
49 See Nació digital
50 See Mediterrani digital
51 See El País
52 See El temps
53 See Parliament results23 (formed by Spain 2000, Platform for Catalonia (PxC) and the Party for Freedom (PxL) did not run on 21-D to remove votes in the block against independence. The cover letter of PxC start saying: “We are all aware of the danger we face in losing our identity. It's time to say aloud and without fear what we all think: enough is enough, that first we’re those of home and not immigrants”54 . Think on “those of home” is what made Casal Tramuntana55 at Barcelona, closed in 2015. It was a group which participated in the days most demanded by Spanish nationalism, being very active and agitating participation during the rallies that have been held in Barcelona since 2012 to celebrate on October 12 or the different events (rallies, demonstrations, colloquiums) organized by Somatemps, as Jordi BORRÀS indicated at his book Plus Ultra56. BORRÀS said “some of its founders are familiar faces on the radical right scene, such as the ex-member of MPC and ex-governing of PxC at Hospitalet de Llobregat Alberto Sánchez, or the ex-militant of MSR and then also at PxC Alejandro Fernández”57. In Catalonia, there is also an independence extreme right, very minority but active and organized, as National Front of Catalonia, Catalan Identity Movement (MIC), and 33 or Catalan National Unity (UNC)58, which we must have an equally watchful attitude. After the municipal elections of May 26, 2019, the National Front of Catalonia, in Ripoll, entered the Plenum of the City Council with a councilor, and with an open anti-immigration speech, which hides a xenophobic ideology that wants to generate hatred and social fracture, classifying people into different categories by reason of their origin59. Migrant people are the subject of their speech as a source of conflict, ignoring poverty or discrimination, saying: “social services and assistance should be a priority for our seniors and our young people”. However, the extreme right of the majority in Catalonia extols Hispanicity, with the indivisible unity of the motherland, as an element of nationalist identity and affirmation, in contrast to the Catalan independence symbolism, which puts at risk the territorial indivisibility of the State. In August 19 1995, Umberto Eco said to The Guardian, that he did not see “difference between the skinheads and neo-Nazis of today and the Nazis of a 54 See Plataforma 55 See La Vanguardia 56 See El crític 57 See El crític 58 See Nació digital 59 See El temps
24 previous generation. There is the same kind of stupidity, the same determination to annihilate; identical hatred of others, identical desire for destruction”. 24 years later, in Catalonia we see how the influence of the far right, despite the minor electoral impact until the 10-N, seeks to root society with the same speech of hate, threat and rejection of language of the concord. On January 2017, Josep Irla Foundation published the report L’extrema dreta, un fenomen europeu60, where the sharp growth of the extreme right in Europe has been attributed, in recent years, to the triple crisis suffered by European society: the economic, the values, and the institutions. Far-right was an absent presence, in the political space, until 10-N. Xavier CASALS used the term “absent presence” to define “the ability of the extreme right in Spain and the Catalan Countries to set the political agenda without becoming visible. With a clear example in the municipal elections in Badalona, with the then leader of PP of Catalonia, Xavier Garcia Albiol, made a campaign with mottos as “We clean Badalona”, racist and radical right mottos. At the general elections of April 2019, Vox bounced into Congress with 24 deputies and with more than 2.6 millions of votes61. At the general elections of November 2019, Vox obtained 52 deputies and 3.64 millions of votes62, which 243.000 obtained at Catalonia63. Pablo Iglesias, leader of Podemos, considered that the campaign by November 10, 2019, “that coincided with the exhumation of Franco and the prison sentence of Catalan independence leaders, was the gasoline that catapulted the radical right”64. In November 26, 2019, Alberto Garzón, on the occasion of the presentation of his book ¿Quién vota a la derecha?, said to Europe Press that in countries with democratic memory, such as France and Germany, conservative rights establish cordon sanitaire on far-right because they know that Hitler's 13 million voters in 1932 were not all neo-Nazi skinheads65. The historical ties of far-right with explicit fascism and even with the Nazism are public and notorious. So on February 8, 2014, just two months before the public appearance of Catalan Civil Society, one of the founding partners gave a conference at the headquarters of radical right party National Democracy to present his book Cataluña Hispana66. It started with a minute of 60 See Publico 61 See Rtve 62 See Rtve 63 See El periodico 64 See El país 65 See La vanguardia 66 See El crític
25 silence in memory of the fallen combatants of the 250th Blue Division, of the Nazi Army of Adolf Hitler. Vox has nominated candidates with a fascist and Nazi past 67 . At the helm, in Barcelona, on October 2, the Executive of Santiago Abascal appointed 2 people processed by hate to immigrants 68 . From the xenophobic party Platform by Catalonia (PxC), ended on February, and who became Vox's main political quarry in the May 26, 2019, municipal election 69, and most of their leaders are from other organizations of far-right, from New Force to National Front of Youth, or National Democracy70. The anthropologist Jaume FRANQUESA, interviewed on November 26, 201971, considered that inside the global rise of the far-right, “Vox has Spanish specifics, but also outside. (...) The general perception is that things do not work the way they should (impoverishment, austerity and democracy does not work) and that we are governed by distant powers (multinationals, the Troika, the judiciary). To this situation, the far-right response usually has three variants. First: find one scapegoat, usually immigration, but in the case of Spain the so-called peripheral nationalisms often do the same. You want to blame someone for the evils. Second, the search for hierarchy and authority. The voter of the far-right parties, to solve the problems, seeks no more democracy but more authority. Viktor Orban says that we need to go towards non-liberal democracies. Finally, nostalgia. In the Spanish case, it is seen with claims about the imperial past and the nostalgia of the Franco regime”. As Jaume FRANQUESA noted also, “if Vox has no route in Catalonia it is because of its furious anti-Catalanism”. However, one must be alert to the social symptoms of fascism. Such as the fear of difference (calling against strangers, for example, the MENA, with racism, by definition). Nationalism and xenophobia (obsession with plots). Permanent war (anti-pacifism). Elitism (contempt for the weak). Sexism (hate non-conformist sex). Qualitative populism (opposition to the government and Parliament, the voice of the people not authentic). Rejection of critical thinking (disagreement is treason) opposed to seek scapegoats, to blame immigrants and to enhance the nostalgia of an imagined past. Santiago Abascal, at Twitter, with a helmet of the Reconquista. Far-right it feeds on speeches of hate, fear and confrontation. At the 10-N elections, the axis of Vila-seca, Salou and Tarragona, most of the coastal strip 67 See El plural 68 See El país 69 See El diario 70 See El crític 71 See Vilaweb
26 (from Roses and Lloret to Cambrils) and the Vall d’Aran were three of the zones with greater vote for far-right72. Far-right manufacture fake news for winning votes73, as you can see with Vox and Demoscat, an agency created from far-right, which publishes polls that favour it far-right, which are later elaborated as related news (even controlled by far-right) and shared on social media by the own far-right. We must fight against lies with truthful information and data. For example, when Ignacio Garriga, Vox, debated74 at 8 in TV3 by 10-N said “Vox condemn fascism, racism and all the ism". He then assures that “the permissiveness of the left- wing parties has led to a call for illegal immigration to Spain”, despite official figures, the arrival of immigrants has halved in the last year. Specifically, the number of people who arrived on the southern border of Spain has exceeded from 54.000 people in 2018 to 27.300 in what we have of year 2019. When Garriga assured that illegal immigration collapses health and linked immigration with insecurity it is worth remembering that currently 3 out of 4 crimes committed in Spain are committed by Spaniards. Fake news perhaps influenced Vox's success in the elections of May and November of 2019. May 12, 2019 Albert LLIMÓS75 was pointing that radical right used networks, patriotic speech and fear to obtain 2.7 millions of votes. Antoni GUTIÉRREZ-RUBÍ indicated that Vox had understood a mood, had a strategy of strong emotional attachment to the elector, a climate of insurgency, and they used language and aesthetics that led to links without media mediation. Marc AMORÓS explained: “what they have achieved is not bought with money, but with bonds and commitment. They have understood networks as an instrument of political participation, not of communication. You are invited to be a protagonist and to participate”. The communication strategy of Trump, Bolsonaro or Vox goes far beyond fake news and involves the use of digital mass misinformation tools 76 . As Javier TORET indicates, they buy, they trade with our data and they take advantage of the platforms to hack them and have the ability not only to discredit the enemy, but also to convince those who doubt to enlist. They practice full-blown democracy hack. Perhaps the key to Vox's strategy was to bypass journalists in order to avoid questioning its speech. As LLIMÓS concluded, “Vox has also leaned on ultraconservative platforms as Citizen Go, a community based at Madrid but with presence at 50 countries known in Spain as Hazte Oir. It’s an 72 See El critic 73 See El plural 74 See Fake news 75 See Vox fake news 76 See Digital machines of radical right
You can also read
