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First Peoples Child & Family Review
A Journal on Innovation and Best Practices in Aboriginal Child Welfare Administration,
Research, Policy & Practice
Identity lost and found: Lessons from the sixties scoop
Raven Sinclair
Volume 3, Number 1, 2007 Article abstract
The “Sixties Scoop” describes a period in Aboriginal history in Canada in which
URI: https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/1069527ar thousands of Aboriginal children were removed from birth families and placed
DOI: https://doi.org/10.7202/1069527ar in non-Aboriginal environments. Despite literature that indicates adoption
breakdown rates of 85-95%, recent research with adults adopted as children
See table of contents indicates that some adoptees have found solace through reacculturating to
their birth culture and contextualizing their adoptions within colonial history.
This article explores the history of Aboriginal adoption in Canada and
examines some of the issues of transracial adoption through the lens of
Publisher(s)
psychology theories to aid understanding of identity conflicts facing Aboriginal
First Nations Child and Family Caring Society of Canada adoptees. The article concludes with recommendations towards a paradigm
shift in adoption policy as it pertains to Aboriginal children.
ISSN
1708-489X (print)
2293-6610 (digital)
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Cite this article
Sinclair, R. (2007). Identity lost and found: Lessons from the sixties scoop. First
Peoples Child & Family Review, 3(1), 65–82. https://doi.org/10.7202/1069527ar
Copyright ©, 2007 Raven Sinclair This document is protected by copyright law. Use of the services of Érudit
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https://www.erudit.org/en/First Peoples Child & Family Review
A Journal on Innovation and Best Practices in Aboriginal Child Welfare
Administration, Research, Policy & Practice
Volume 3, Number 1, 2007, pp. 65-82
Identity lost and found: Lessons from the sixties scoop
Raven Sinclair
Abstract
Introduction The “Sixties Scoop” describes a period
in Aboriginal history in Canada in
According to the adoption literature, transracial
which thousands of Aboriginal children
adoption (adoption of a child from one ethnic
were removed from birth families and
group into another ethnic group) usually
placed in non-Aboriginal environments.
concludes with positive adjustment outcomes
Despite literature that indicates
for adoptees (Bagley, 1993; Fiegelman and
adoption breakdown rates of 85-95%,
Silverman, 1984, 1990; Bagley, Young, and
recent research with adults adopted as
Scully, 1993; Bagley and Young, 1984; McRoy,
children indicates that some adoptees
Zurcher, Lauderdale and Anderson, 1984; Simon
have found solace through re-
and Altstein, 1981, 1992). The implications of
acculturating to their birth culture and
these findings might be that they are applicable
contextualizing their adoptions within
to all transracial adoptions and that the
colonial history. This article explores
experience of success is life-long. Aboriginal
the history of Aboriginal adoption in
transracial adoption, however, presents a
Canada and examines some of the
problematic situation. Although transracial
issues of transracial adoption through
adoption in general results in positive outcomes
the lens of psychology theories to
for the adoptee and their adoptive family, for
aid understanding of identity conflicts
Aboriginal transracial adoptees, adoption tends
facing Aboriginal adoptees. The article
to result in consistently negative outcomes
concludes with recommendations
(Adams, 2002; Fournier & Crey, 1997; Bagley,
towards a paradigm shift in adoption
1993; RCAP, 1996; Stevanato and Associates,
policy as it pertains to Aboriginal
1999). The success rate and outcomes in the
children.
teen years are extremely poor regardless of
age of placement. For the most part, these
adoptions start deteriorating relatively quickly statistic since a forum for those statistics to be
and current statistics indicate a breakdown rate compiled has not yet been created. Exceptions
of 95% (Adams, 2002) by the time the adoptee to the statistics on disruption are now emerging
is in the mid-teens. Of course, adoptions that as more research is undertaken with adults who,
do not breakdown are going to be a hidden as children, were adopted transracially. Those
65Identity lost and found: Lessons from the sixties scoop
stories are currently being told in dissertation (Johnston, 2005). The term, “Sixties Scoop”,
and thesis research nation wide (Carriere, 2005; was appropriate because, first, Johnston
Sinclair, nd; Nuttgens, 2004; Swidrovich, 2004). observed in the statistics that adoption as the
mechanism to address problematic child welfare
In the Aboriginal transracial adoption literature,
issues had resulted in notable increases in
there are factors that the research has yet to
Aboriginal child apprehensions in the decade
account for. These include socio-economic
of the 1960s. Secondly, in many instances,
factors, as well as psychological, emotional,
Aboriginal children were literally apprehended
and mental factors that confront the adoptee as
from their homes and communities without the
an adult. Most importantly, racism and racial
knowledge or consent of families and bands
identity issues that are alluded to in the literature
(Johnston, 1983 Timpson, 1995; RCAP, 1996,
are not yet adequately addressed in terms
Saskatchewan Indian, 1977). Johnston recalled
of impacts and remedial approaches. These
being provided with the term by a BC social
dynamics combined create tremendous obstacles
worker who told him “…with tears in her eyes
to the development of a strong and healthy sense
– that it was common practice in BC in the
of identity for the transracial adoptee. Although
mid-sixties to “scoop” from their mothers on
recent studies are indicating that many adoptees
reserves almost all newly born children. She
may develop strong identities in adulthood
was crying because she realized – 20 years later
despite the challenges and turmoil alluded
– what a mistake that had been” (Johnston,
to in the literature (Sinclair, nd; Nuttgens,
2005).
2004), for the children who are currently in
adoption placements or will be in the future, At that point in time, Aboriginal children were
specific changes in adoption theory and practice apprehended in disproportionate numbers
are needed to address the problematics of throughout Canada and adopted primarily
Aboriginal adoption in Canada. The historical into non-Aboriginal homes in Canada, the
context of the adoption of Aboriginal children United States, and overseas. Approximately
provides the framework from which Aboriginal 70% of those children were adopted into non-
transracial adoption has evolved. Aboriginal homes (Fanshel, 1972, York, 1992;
Timpson, 1995; Fournier & Crey, 1997). By
The Sixties Scoop
the 1970s, one in three Aboriginal children
The adoption of Aboriginal children in Canada were separated from their families by adoption
between the years of 1960 and the mid- or fostering (Fournier & Crey, 1997). This
1980s was first coined the “Sixties Scoop” in decade marked a rapid increase in Aboriginal
a report written by Patrick Johnston (1983) children in care in Canada – 44% in Alberta,
published as Aboriginal Children and the Child 51% in Saskatchewan, and 60% in Manitoba
Welfare System by the federal department (McKenzie and Hudson, 1985, p.126).
of Social Policy Development. Johnston
At the same time as we may be alarmed by the
undertook extensive and thorough research
statistics, it is important to recognize that the
and his findings were vetted through the many
“Sixties Scoop” was not a specific child welfare
groups that provided him with statistical
program or policy. It names one segment of a
data, including various levels of government,
larger period in Aboriginal child welfare history
Aboriginal organizations, and band councils,
66First Peoples Child & Family Review, Volume 3, Number 1, 2007
where, because questionable apprehensions policies (see also Chrisjohn & Young, 1997).
and adoptions figured prominently, a label The UN Convention on Genocide (1948),
was applied. The “Sixties Scoop” has evolved Article 2 (e) states that “forcibly transferring
as a descriptor that is now applied to the children of the group to another group”
whole of the Aboriginal child welfare era, constitutes the deliberate destruction of a
simplistically defined here as roughly the time culture, and defines an element of genocide that
from the waning of residential schools to the is punishable (UN Convention, 1948; Chrisjohn
mid-1980s period of child welfare devolution & Young, 1997). Children were apprehended by
and last closings of Indian residential schools. the thousands, in questionable circumstances,
Sadly, the involvement of the child welfare with economic incentive rather than neglect
system is no less prolific in the current era. Dr. or abuse emerging as the motive for removing
Lauri Gilchrist of Lakehead University noted children from their homes.
that given current child welfare statistics, the
The white social worker, following on the heels
“Sixties Scoop” has merely evolved into the
of the missionary, the priest, and the Indian
“Millenium Scoop” and Aboriginal social
agent, was convinced that the only hope for the
workers, recruited into the ranks of social
salvation of the Indian people lay in the removal
services and operating under the umbrella of
of their children (Fournier & Crey, 1997).
Indian Child and Family services, are now the
ones doing the “scooping”. Economic incentive for newly established
child welfare agencies fit well with ongoing
Resistance
government political agenda towards Aboriginal
In 1981, a young, charismatic Aboriginal people (Fournier & Crey, 1997). Adams
leader of the Shushwap Band in BC, Wayne (2002) elaborates, “the obscene marketing of
Christian, was outraged at the high numbers Aboriginal children had stopped in the 1960s
of apprehensions and subsequent transracial and 70s. These children were marketed in local
adoptions of children from his own community. newspapers and on television, but it was done
His efforts initiated a movement among in a way that did not draw attention to the
Aboriginal leaders to voice discontent about government policy of assimilation”. Rather,
child welfare approaches (McKenzie & adoption was touted as a way to provide a
Hudson, 1985). Aboriginal people charged that loving and secure home for a “disadvantaged
government authorities were adhering to the child” (Wharf, 1993; Johnston, 1983).
assimilationist colonial model that assumed
Resistance to child welfare involvement
Aboriginal people were culturally inferior and
emerged during the Indian social movement of
unable to adequately provide for the needs of
the 1960s that came on the heel of the 1960 Bill
their children (Kimmelman, 1985; McKenzie
of Rights in Canada. Perhaps as a result of the
& Hudson, 1985; Timpson, 1995; Sinclair,
Bill and then acquiring the franchise in 1961,
Phillips, & Bala, 1991). These authors describe
Aboriginal people became more politicized in
the forced removal of the children as an act of
matters concerning them. Lobbying efforts of
genocide, which was deliberately implemented
the social movement that began in the field of
upon the demise of the residential school system
education with the dissemination of the position
to perpetuate the governments’ assimilation
paper “Indian Control of Indian Education”1
© Raven Sinclair 67Identity lost and found: Lessons from the sixties scoop
by the National Indian Brotherhood (1972) had family life. The context referred to is the history
a direct influence in the area of child welfare. of government-Aboriginal colonial relations,
Assuming “control” thus extended to other specifically, the residential school system.
social spheres. The ideology behind the residential school
system was to “civilize” Aboriginal people
The discontent with child welfare practices
and to assimilate them into the mainstream
vocalized by Aboriginal people across North
body politic (Milloy, 1999; Miller, 1996).
America led to two actions that culminated in
Consquently, Aboriginal communities and
moratoria on Aboriginal transracial adoptions
families have now faced several decades of fall-
in the United States and Canada. In the United
out from the Residential school period, which
States, tribes forced in implementation of
included, as by-products of an assimilationist
the 1978 Indian Child Welfare Act which
agenda, the deliberate destruction of
disallowed the transracial placement of Indian
traditional family, social, and political systems,
children without band consent. In Canada,
intergenerational abuse, and social pathology
growing unrest and dissent about the transracial
in many communities. A logical consequence
placement of children led to two publications
of the replacement of traditional socialization
that voiced the concerns of the Aboriginal
with institutional abuse and trauma3 over
population and led to moratoria on the adoption
several generations is the current high level of
of Aboriginal children. The first, already
child welfare involvement in the Aboriginal
mentioned, was Johnston’s (1983) report that
population. Child welfare intervention that
provided the first statistical overview of child
began in the late 1950s, referred to in retrospect
welfare concerns pertaining to Aboriginal
as the Sixties Scoop, was the tip of the emerging
children. The second was a judicial review of
iceberg of what is now the institution of
Aboriginal adoption in the province of Manitoba
Aboriginal child welfare. Currently, Aboriginal
led by Justice E. Kimmelman in 1985. The
children are still “in care” in disproportionate
report of the review was a harsh condemnation
numbers, but for a multitude of reasons beyond
of some of the child welfare practices in
just apprehensions by “overzealous social
apprehending and placing Aboriginal children
workers”4.
and the province placed a moratorium on
Aboriginal adoption2. Subsequently, other A significant difference, however, exists
provinces followed suit and long-term foster between the Sixties Scoop era and the current
care has been the norm in most provinces since “Millenium” era of child welfare. Currently,
that time. Aboriginal children are being institutionalized
through long term foster and institutional care
Colonial Context
with little chance for adoption. This is perhaps
As we look back on that dark period in the most deleterious outcome of the moratoria
Aboriginal child welfare and critique the fact on transracial adoptions. Long-term childcare
that child in care statistics increased rapidly, and foster care statistics for Aboriginal children
and many children were removed under have skyrocketed while transracial adoption
questionable circumstances, it is important to statistics have plummeted. In the United States,
remember the context in which the child welfare an attempt to address this issue took place
system became heavily involved in Aboriginal through implementation of the Multi-ethnic
68First Peoples Child & Family Review, Volume 3, Number 1, 2007
placement Act (MEPA) of 1994, along with out birth family and cultural ties (Fournier &
the 1996 Removal of Barriers to Interethnic Crey, 1997; Hall, 2003). According to Bagley
adoption (IEP)5. These pieces of legislation were (1993), the crux of the issue for adoptees is
designed to reduce the practice of race matching being “reacquainted with the most marginalized
in adoptive placement and the MEPA-IEP and oppressed group within Canadian society”.
relies on the notion that it is better for a child This, he argues, exacerbates the already
to be in a transracial adoptive home rather than problematic identity issues that Aboriginal
languish in long-term foster care. The policy adoptees experience.
was designed to “eliminate discrimination in the
Literature on Aboriginal Adoption
practice of adoptive and foster care placements
on the basis of race, colour, or national origin” A review of adoption literature, Aboriginal
(Adams, 2002). In Canada, no such legislation transracial adoption in particular, is important in
was implemented, and as a result, there are understanding how transracial adoption practice
extremely high numbers of Aboriginal children has played out and impacted on Aboriginal
in long-term foster and institutional care, with children. Reviewing the early literature might
limited possibility of adoption placement. lead one to believe that adoption outcomes for
Optimistically, there is the potential that this “Indian” children were positive (Fanshel, 1972;
situation will shift given a recent Saskatchewan Simon and Altstein, 1983), although Simon and
Court of Queen’s Bench ruling (December Altstein (1992), in a follow-up study, concluded
2004) by Justice J. Ryan-Froslie, who argued that Aboriginal adoptions seem to comprise
that denying a child the opportunity for an a “special case”. Adjustment to adoption in
adoptive home is unconstitutional6. As a Aboriginal children appears to deteriorate
result, the provincial government is in the as the children get older, with a reported
early stages of developing strategies to address adoption breakdown rate of 85% (McKenzie
transracial adoption in ways that will meet the and Hudson, 1985) with Adams (2002) noting
needs of adoptable children and First Nation that rate is as high as 95%. No studies examine
communities. the experiences or long-term adjustment of
Aboriginal adults who were transracially
Repatriation
adopted as children (Jaffee and Fanshel, 1970;
Many transracial adoptees of the Sixties Scoop Bagley and Young, 1981: Hall, 2003). The most
era, now adults, have encountered Aboriginal recent research and literature on Aboriginal
child welfare agencies as they seek to repatriate adoption express growing concerns about the
(reunite) with birth families. A large proportion damaged self-esteem and identity confusion
of former adoptees’ first point of contact is in Canadian adolescent Aboriginal adoptees
through addiction services and street agencies (Bagley, 1993; Hall, RCAP, 1995; Stevenato
(Gilchrist, 1995). Many adoptees are facing and Associates, 1998, 1999; Adams, 2002). The
identity issues because of being socialized and voice of adult Aboriginal transracial adoptees
acculturated into a middle-class ‘white’ society has been absent in the literature, with the
(Hall, 1995; Gilchrist, 1995; Richard, 1998). exception of a small body of grey literature that
For transracial adoptees, identity issues are can be found on the internet (see, for example
exacerbated by the factors that arise in seeking The Aboriginal Adoptee website at http://www.
© Raven Sinclair 69Identity lost and found: Lessons from the sixties scoop
ncf.carleton.ca/~de723/adoptee.html). There only 3 had self-identified as having mental
are also an increasing number of dissertations health problems (p.59). This type of reporting
and Master’s theses recently completed by and in research seems more indicative of racial bias
with Aboriginal adoptees across Canada and than valid research.
the United States (Carriere, 2005; Sinclair, nd;
The evidence of prejudice in studies is
Nuttgens, 2004; Swidrovich, 2004).
frightening in its implications for Aboriginal
Within the early literature, quite outdated at this adoptees, particularly when the bias is evident
point, the political agenda was evident in the from the responses of adoptive parents. Simon
unequivocal support of Aboriginal transracial and Altstein (1992) questioned parents about
adoption (Lyslo, 1960, 1961). Fanshel’s (1972) their child identifying with their Aboriginal
Far from the Reservation, study examined the culture. One couple responded that it was
experiences of 97 adoptive families. The Bureau unlikely their child would identify with their
of Indian Affairs as well as the Child Welfare culture because “there is no contemporary
League of America, which wanted to promote American Indian culture…” (p.88) [emphasis
the Indian Adoption Project, funded this study. is mine]. Such an attitude might have serious
Although the authors hypothesize that parents consequences for a child’s ability to identify
who adopted transracially would be politically with and feel positively about their ethnicity
more liberal than same race adoptive parents, given the implication that a parent who holds
it appears that the true intention of the study the belief that there is no Aboriginal culture is
was to promote the adoption project itself. A highly unlikely to be able or willing to teach the
summary of the project reported, “It has been child anything about that culture. Conversely,
gratifying to see the opportunities afforded these several studies found that a positive parental
Indian children through adoption, as well as attitude towards the child’s ethnic group, as well
the full acceptance which they have received” as some form of social involvement with that
(p.18). ethnic group in the family’s life, is significantly
correlated with a child’s positive adjustment and
The fact that the creators of the Indian Adoption
positive sense of ethnic identity (Ladner, 1977;
project commissioned Fanshel’s study makes
Morin, 1977; McRoy and Zurcher, 1983, 1984:
the results of the study questionable, as is the
Lee & Quintana, 2005).
author’s reference to the money saving aspects
of adoption. He notes that each adoption saved Christopher Bagley, an adoption researcher
the government $100,000 per child, who would out of Canada, found in many studies that
have otherwise ended up in foster care or a outcomes for transracial adoption are generally
boarding school. excellent. He noted, however, that outcomes for
Aboriginal adoptees in Canada were distinct
The study also implicates negative social
from the norm. Bagley’s (1993) research
attitudes. Fanshel gathered demographic data
on Aboriginal transracially adopted youth
on Aboriginal birth mothers based on adoption
concludes that outcomes for this group were
agency data. Fanshel states that “almost 45%
extremely poor. Bagley suggested that, as
were described in terms which indicated that
the result of widespread discrimination and
they suffered from quite severe personality
prejudice, adoptive parents cannot transmit
disorders”, although out of 95 birthmothers,
70First Peoples Child & Family Review, Volume 3, Number 1, 2007
an adequate sense of ethnic identity to their Racial and racial identity issues discussed
children. This concept is supported in several sparingly in the research shed some light on
studies that theorize that adoptive parents the challenges facing Aboriginal adoptees and
cannot adequately role model coping skills for serve to highlight that attention to the area of
the discrimination that adoptees face in society transracial identity development is needed.
(Bensen, 2001; Triseliotis, 1989); skills which Hayes (1993) criticizes the measures used
may be vital for minority adopted children (see in many studies of transracial adoption as
also Kim, 1978). Bagley’s study found that by inadequate and unable to “get at the richness
the age of 15, 20% of the Aboriginal adoptions and complexity of a sense of identity” (p.303).
had broken down, and two years later this figure It is this complexity that contemporary studies
had risen to 50%. He found that Aboriginal need to theorize about and address. For
youth had extremely poor self-esteem and an example, Bausch and Serpe (1997) in their study
extraordinarily high rate of suicidal ideation. of transracial adoptees who exhibit high levels
Aboriginal adoptees who did not exhibit any of discomfort with their physical appearance
outward signs of behavioral or emotional or racial heritage, theorize that this is largely
problems, also scored lower on measures of attributable to the fact that most adoptees live
self-esteem and higher on suicidal ideation in predominantly white neighborhoods and are,
scales (p.26). Significantly, he found that non- therefore, isolated from inter-ethnic contact.
adopted Aboriginal youth had self-esteem rates From studies like this (and Kim, 1978), we can
comparable to non-adopted white youth. From glean some understanding of the transracial
this study, we can infer that something intrinsic adoption experience and identity conflicts for
to transracial adoption merits scrutiny. adoptees.
Bagley’s work provides a vital reference point Theorizing about Identity Conflict
for research on adult Aboriginal adoptees. The
The lack of literature and research in the area
research supports what is common knowledge
of Aboriginal adoption means that to this point
among Aboriginal people, adoption workers and
we rely largely on common knowledge in
others who have been exposed to Aboriginal
order to influence policy and develop programs
adoptions over time; that for Aboriginal children,
for adoptees. There are some answers to
adoption is problematic. One Aboriginal scholar,
be gleaned from contemporary literature in
in a doctoral study of street youth, found that
the social sciences, particularly psychology
the majority of the homeless Aboriginal street
and race theory, as to why the transracial
youth that she encountered were Aboriginal
adoption of Aboriginal children, in particular,
adoptees (Gilchrist, 1995). Kenn Richard, the
is problematic. Bagley (1993) was perhaps
Executive Director of Toronto Native Child and
exceedingly accurate to articulate that systemic
Family Services, has expressed his concern for
racism and the general denigration of Aboriginal
years about the high number of adoptees who
culture may provide impossible socio-cultural
come to agency in crisis (1998). Informally,
contexts for adoptees.
those involved in the adoption field know that
the levels of substance abuse, homelessness, Identity is an extremely tumultuous journey
incarceration, and suicide among adoptees in the for all adoptees (Sorosky, Baron, & Panner,
last thirty years have been alarming. 1975). Developing a cultural identity related
© Raven Sinclair 71Identity lost and found: Lessons from the sixties scoop
to one’s biology when raised in a different their family ethos. Kim (1978) explains that
cultural context is exceedingly difficult. for a child who wants to fit in, bringing in
In contemporary society, there are very information that highlights their difference
few redeeming characteristics attributed to might be emotionally challenging. The family
“Aboriginality”. The Canadian ethos has been provides an element of safety; a secure enclave
that Canada is not a racist country and racism from their experiences of the outside world.
does not occur. Indeed, Canada has been very This redeeming factor for the transracial adoptee
proud of its international reputation as a land of may, however, also be the source of tremendous
equality. Unfortunately, people who live on the conflict. Once the adoptee leaves the enclave
other side of the “colour line” in Canada have a of their adoptive home environment, unless
different perspective (Frideres, 2001). Adoptive they have learned to adequately cope with the
parents who buy into a belief that racism does realities of being an Aboriginal person in this
not exist may not be able or willing to prepare country, they may find their identity to be a
a child to deal with issues that “do not exist.” source of conflict.
The child, who may experience racism and
Many adoptees experience a lack of cultural
discrimination in their social encounters will
mirrors in their adoptive social environments.
learn quickly that their experiences do not
Within their adoptive context, their roles and
necessarily match with what they are told or
expectations are understood, and most likely,
what they have been socialized to anticipate that
there is no aura of ‘otherness’ surrounding their
life will be like. They may believe that they are
existence. However, once they walk out the
inherently “different” because they know that
door, their social status alters drastically, as
their parents and family do not experience those
do the expectations of them and the treatment
same things (Kim, 1978). Rue & Rue (1984)
accorded them by others. The adoptee may
astutely recognize the challenge of racism for
eagerly and readily embrace and adapt to the
the adoptee:
culture of their adoptive family, but socially,
“Racism, even its non-violent forms, is still they may be excluded from enacting that culture
pernicious. The difficult thing about racism and those roles out in the social arena.
in our particular situation is that when it is
The adoptee, like any child, does not question
directed at [our adopted son] Carl, he must deal
their socialization; they just live it. Many
with it alone. He does not have the comfort of
adoptees are raised in an environment of
knowing that the rest of the family shares in
privilege, power, and status (Sinclair, nd;
his experience. If we were an entire family of
Nuttgens, 2004, Swidrovich, 2004). Their
minorities, his situation would be much different
economic status may be higher than the average
in this respect. And [sic] since neither of us has
“white” person and yet they do not carry
ever been the victim of racial prejudice, we are
that status on their own. At some point, they
ill-prepared to help him develop the skills useful
are inevitably forced to confront a socially
in combating it (p.249).
ascribed inferior status associated with their
Further, an adopted child who experiences ethnic minority group (Kim, 1978). Not only
racism and discrimination may not share that are Aboriginal adoptees’ ethnic and cultural
with their family because it is not part of identity wrapped up in cultural stigmatization,
72First Peoples Child & Family Review, Volume 3, Number 1, 2007
their identities are most likely associated There are aspects of some social and
with poverty, alcoholism, and other negative human behaviour theories that can assist
stereotypes. The conflict that results from in contextualizing and understanding the
the need to constantly adapt is likely a source experiences and the negative reactions of
of angst from which many adoptees engage Aboriginal adoptees.
in destructive and harmful behaviours to
Contemporary Theoretical Links
themselves, their adoptive family, and their
environment (see, for example, Adams 2002; Socialization, according to Kim (1978) refers
Gilchrist, 1995). For many adoptees, the to “the process [that] enables individuals to
tensions have led to incarceration, substance participate effectively as members of interest
abuse, or suicide7. Recent Corrections Canada groups, local communities, and larger society”.
data indicates that 63% of Aboriginal offenders Kim says that, according to Erickson, identity
stated that they were adopted or in foster care crisis in socialization consists of people asking
(Trevethan, Moore, Auger, Macdonald & the question “who am I?” Erickson argued
Sinclair, 2005). that this is a crucial developmental task during
adolescence and was the “final establishment
In response to the growing awareness of
of a dominant positive ego identity” (p. 306).
identity conflicts in Aboriginal adoptees,
Without this development, one will confront
adoption agencies and adoptive families
identity diffusion. Young (1969) adds “as
sought to find solutions. Some of conventional
racial and cultural minority group members,
adoption literature emphasizes the importance
minority children have more and more
of instilling a cultural heritage in the child
particular difficulties in defining a positive
through books, movies, and culturally relevant
identity because minority status carries with it
events such as pow wows (Adams, 2002).
goal restriction.” (p.1103). Ascribed inferior
Unfortunately, these are idealized versions of
status and negative stereotyping occurs in the
Aboriginal culture and not realistic as means
forms of name-calling and social exclusion.
for instilling identity. What the child sees
The most insidious problem, however, is the
when they venture out into the world as an
compounding of daily prejudice and rejection
adult is not necessarily going to match with
with “the pervasive restraining force operating
idealized versions of Aboriginal culture. Indeed,
in parts of American society, which is now
chances are high that what they observe will
commonly called institutional racism” (Young,
more readily match the negative stereotypes
1969). These socialization dynamics relevant to
learned in the course of their daily lives through
minority people are essential in understanding
media and education. What child is going to
transracially adopted Aboriginal children and
want to identify with negative stereotypes; the
youth who grow and develop in unique contexts.
derogatory names they have been called, the
The unique context is described by Kim (1978)
destitute individual on the street? What the
as a paradox. “Adoptive parents are faced with
adoptee may not know is that they are not seeing
a dilemma; they have the contradictory task of
Aboriginal culture; they are seeing the vestiges
incorporating a child fully into a family and
of colonization and a neo-colonial society’s
simultaneously promoting a sense of distinct
construction of Aboriginal culture. However,
ethnic identity. The very “success” of transracial
who is available to explain that context to them?
© Raven Sinclair 73Identity lost and found: Lessons from the sixties scoop
adoption, is indicative of its failure as this however, usually do not have the safety nor
success has been achieved at the expense of the security of an enclave afforded by same-race
development of an ethnic identity” (p.485). relatives and community, but as indicated, a
safe, nurturing and positive adoption context
We can understand more clearly the dilemmas
may provide the necessary comfort and
and paradoxes facing adoptees by looking
contradiction.
at the assertions of various social theorists
including Kohlberg, Ericsson, Mead, and A final theory that lends a great deal of insight
Cooley. For example, Kohlberg’s model of into the world of the Aboriginal transracial
moral development (Schriver, 2001) includes adoptee is symbolic interaction. Symbolic
a stage that refers to “maintaining the good interaction holds that “people are seen first
relations and the approval of others”, while and foremost as beings who interact with
Erickson’s epigenetic model, stage six, discusses one another based on shared meanings and
competence as arising out of “identification symbols. Thus human interaction is symbolic
with and acceptance of peers”. In a social interaction” (Robbins, Chatterjee & Canda,
context where discrimination may be a regular 1998, p.268). People assign social meanings
occurrence, the problem for the Aboriginal to their experiences, and human behaviour is a
adoptee is how to achieve ‘good relations’, function of social behaviour. Cooley (cited in
‘approval’, and ‘acceptance’ of others when Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 1998) theorized
racial exclusion is the norm. If a child is deemed that we are dependent upon the reflections
deficient by virtue of their ethnicity, the chances that we receive in interactions with others and
are high they will be excluded and ostracized by from them we make judgments of ourselves.
peers. According to Ericsson, failure to achieve If reflection, according to Symbolic inter-
these goals leads to feelings of inferiority and actionists, is the means by which we come
incompetence. Of course, Ericsson’s theory to our self-concept and self-conceptions, the
and other conventional theories of human implications for Aboriginal adoptees are quite
development do not include ethnicity as a frightening. If we create meanings and symbols
consideration. in our interactions with other people, what
happens when those meanings and symbols
[Ethnicity] may be especially significant if
are constantly changing, or worse, primarily
we are attempting to develop a positive sense
negative? For Aboriginal people in Canada,
of who we are in the context of a hostile
social interaction is, at times, a guessing
environment. Such a hostile environment exists
game. Young argues that “only rarely does a
for many members of the diverse groups with
child of minority status escape the damaging
which we are concerned as social workers
effects of racism” (p.43). One individual
(Schriver, 2001, p.251).
may be extremely friendly and engaging, and
One of the mitigating factors for minority the next individual may be blatantly hostile,
children existing in a ‘hostile environment’ contemptuous, and even violent. For the
is the comfort afforded by close contact with Aboriginal adoptee that is in their formative
family, friends, and their community. In this years, it would be difficult to create, and then
safe context, children can develop strong and rely upon, consistent interpretations of meanings
positive self-identification. Aboriginal adoptees, and symbols in that social environment.
74First Peoples Child & Family Review, Volume 3, Number 1, 2007
In the context of these contemporary theories and are exceptionally attentive parents to their
of human behaviour and social development, children. Some report difficulties in dealing with
the traumatic experiences of adoptive emotional upheavals as adults and many identify
families (see for example, Adams, 2002) who relationship difficulties as a consequence of
adopted Aboriginal children may be more their adoptive experiences. However, many
easily understood8. These theories help us adoptees also acknowledge having acquired
to understand the behaviours in terms of the advantages as the result of being adopted. Some
mental and emotional turmoil that would result of the advantages include being able to traverse
as the individual attempts to develop a sense of both Aboriginal and ‘white’ worlds with ease, a
identity and self-concept. sense of personal efficacy in terms of education,
and career and economic success (Sinclair, nd).
In the final analysis, one might assume from these
discussions that, generally speaking, Aboriginal The question is, therefore, why are the
adults adopted as children would be terribly majority of adult adoptees in current research
maladjusted. It is true that in some instances reporting successful life outcomes despite the
adoptees have suffered horribly. It is also true reported problematics of Aboriginal transracial
that in other instances, they have not. Aboriginal adoption in the context of the Sixties Scoop?
adoption outcomes fill the entire spectrum from Sampling bias may be an obvious answer
deleterious outcomes that include homelessness, but even amongst these “success stories”,
addictions, incarceration, and suicide, to successful we see evidence of traumatic identity crises,
outcomes that include economic and academic psychological trauma, and behavioural
achievement, happiness and contentment. problems. Many adoptees suffered extreme
forms of abuse. Many marvel at their very
Adult Adoptees
survival.
A recent doctoral research project is finding
Obviously more research is needed. Resiliency
that many adult Aboriginal adoptees, some of
amongst Adoptees is an area that beckons inquiry.
whom experienced adoptions fraught with abuse
The influence of repatriation to birth culture
and trauma, have developed exceedingly strong
is another that needs exploration. It appears
and well-articulated identities (Sinclair, nd)
that many adoptees, at some point along their
while other studies indicate that many adoptees
journey, found a level of truth and certainty within
are content with their adoptive experiences
Aboriginal culture that provided a critical source
(Nuttgens, 2004; Swidrovich, 2004). The
of healing and renewal (Sinclair, nd; see also
preliminary findings of the study indicate that
Nuttens, 2004; Stolen Generations, nd). Perhaps
despite sometimes horrific stories of familial
by reconnecting with their birth culture, the
and social trauma, many adult Aboriginal
individual provided for themselves vital cultural
adoptees express contentment with their
mirrors necessary for self-validation; a cultural
current lives, have deep and meaningful insight
reframing from which to review and re-perceive
into the social and psychological dynamics
their experiences. From this perspective, many
of Aboriginal adoption, and are exceedingly
adoptees learned about their adoption experiences
socially capable. The majority of adoptees in
in the context of Canadian colonial history which,
this study (N=17) are employed in professional
for many, was a powerful catalyst for reframing
capacities, are well educated, lead stable lives,
© Raven Sinclair 75Identity lost and found: Lessons from the sixties scoop
their personal experiences (Sinclair, nd). In this stance that incorporates a cultural-racial
study, some of the participants were, for the identity matrix; rejecting the myth that cultural
first time, able to perceive their experiences as a and ethnic heritage can be instilled through
socio-political act rather than as a consequence books and pow wows; and constructing a bi or
of personal deficiency. Relieved from a burden multi-cultural family stance which, in effect,
of self-blame, many adoptees have integrated reconstitutes the cultural entity of the entire
a unique self-based identity that is, of course, adopting family identity.
relative to their own context and experiences and
Baden (2002) presents a racial-cultural identity
some adoptees have unique perspectives of their
matrix as a method of helping transracial
identities as multi-faceted and multi-cultural (see
adoptees assess their own cultural identity. In
Nuttgens, 2004; Stolen Generations, nd). Indeed,
a research study of cultural identity, Baden
there is no single group identity label or theory that
stated that the findings of her study indicate
can be applied to adoptees of the Sixties Scoop
that “heterogeneity exists among transracial
as a whole. Although there are some personality
adoptees and because a particular way or ways
and identity characteristics that many adoptees
of identifying was not associated with better
share as the result of the similarity of their
or worse psychological adjustment. Neither
experiences, each individual’s sense of identity is
the proponents or opponents can purport a
unique and derived from their own combination
“best way” to identify as a transracial adoptee”
of experiences and perspectives (Sinclair, nd;
(p.189). This is very interesting because this
Nuttgens, 2004). Each adoptee in the stated study,
model is a cultural-racial identity matrix. There
despite the losses and traumas experienced, found
is no identification dichotomy facing adoptees,
and created their own cultural and identity niche.
i.e. that the adoptee must choose either their
As we close the door on the “Sixties Scoop” and birth identity or their adoptive identity. There
struggle to not perpetuate the status quo in the are enough factors in a cultural-racial matrix
Millenium era of child welfare with Aboriginal from which to choose so that the individual will
populations, we must reflect on the lessons of the fit somewhere within the multi-dimensional
past. Despite the evidence of tremendous resilience continuum without being pathologized and
in the human spirit that has allowed many adoptees without having to alter their identification to fit
to survive and thrive, children will always deserve the model. Adoptees do have a cultural identity;
the highest level of protection and consideration. it is a unique mix of their birth heritage, the
As the result of the concerns raised in reviewing adoptive heritage, combined with their personal
the literature, and the stories shared by adoptees, experiences, choices, and understandings of
there are several recommendations for changes in the environment. An approach that honours the
policy and perspective of Aboriginal transracial multi-faceted nature of adoptee identity will
adoption in Canada. be a welcome shift. This approach is person-
focused rather than ideologically focused. In
Towards a Paradigm Shift in Aboriginal
terms of intervention, the model could help
Transracial Adoption Ideology
social workers to “start where the adoptee is at”
There are three recommendations (Sinclair, nd) in terms of their unique cultural identity.
for approaching Aboriginal transracial adoption
The second recommendation is to completely
issues. They include taking an ideological
do away with the myth that cultural and ethnic
76First Peoples Child & Family Review, Volume 3, Number 1, 2007
heritage can be instilled through books and Thai-American family”. The generally accepted,
weekend cultural activities. Repeatedly, the indeed unquestioned, perspective taken by
literature suggests that exposing the adoptee to social workers and prospective adoptive families
their culture through pow wows and books and has been that the child is to be integrated into
cultural camps, will alleviate their distress. In the adoptive family; the ‘minority’ is absorbed
fact, there is likely the risk that these acts only into the ‘majority’. Adoption ideology has never
contribute to conceptions of “otherness” and assumed that because the child of one ethnicity
difference, not only from the birth culture but will be entering into a family of another culture,
also from the adoptive family. Approaching that the whole family becomes a blend of all the
culture in this way will lead the individual to cultures involved. However, the implications
learn about the façade of the culture, not the of an adoptive family taking on a bicultural
culture as it actually exists. Adoptees who are identity as opposed to the child standing alone
now adults suggest that birth family, including in their “transraciality” might be significant.
extended birth family, and birth culture contact Such a paradigm shift might influence how an
during their formative years might have helped adoptive family conducts itself with respect
alleviate the sense of difference and the cultural to their adopted Aboriginal child including,
isolation that many of them experienced for example, where they live, their choice of
(Sinclair, nd). These notions lend support to schools, and their general family “culture”. At
exploring the benefits and drawbacks of open a policy level, such an ideological shift might
adoption for Aboriginal children. At the very influence adoptive parent/family screening
least, new directions must be taken in preparing strategies as well as general transracial adoption
adoptive families to meet the needs of their procedures, specifically in terms of adoptive
Aboriginal child. Indeed, in order for a child family preparation.
to learn about their culture, the people most
Conclusion
significant to them must also learn about the
culture. This leads to the third recommendation. According to the literature, although transracial
adoption results in positive and favourable
The third recommendation is the concept of
outcomes for both child and family, Aboriginal
constructing a ‘bicultural family” or “multi-
transracial adoption has been a notable
cultural” identity. This requires a paradigm shift
exception. The statistics indicating a high
in the perspective of adoption personnel and
breakdown rate are frightening for adoptive
potential adoptive families. This perspective
families who have a young Aboriginal adopted
may be essential to the well being of Aboriginal
infant or child because, if the statistics hold true,
transracial adoptees. In one study, the third
chances are very good that by the time that child
group in the three groups of families studied
reaches adolescence, the family will encounter
described themselves as “bicultural” as the
serious complications. The question of why
result of bringing an interracial child into
Aboriginal adoption results in poor outcomes
their home (McRoy, Zurcher, Lauderdale and
can be understood from the perspective of
Anderson, 1984). Rue & Rue (1984) articulated
several cotemporary theories of human and
the same concept. “When the Rue family
social development. Symbolic interaction, in
decided to adopt a child from Thailand, they
particular, provides several key concepts and
immediately conceived of themselves as a
© Raven Sinclair 77Identity lost and found: Lessons from the sixties scoop
perspectives to understanding the conflict and reframing their experiences within the context
turmoil that adoptees experience. The literature of Canadian colonial history. The adoptees,
helps one understand the tremendous challenges insightful of the transracial adoption experience,
for an Aboriginal child in North America to concur that changes must take place in the
develop a healthy identity and sense of self in adoption field and they are supportive of further
the current ideological and social context. The research in the area. The recommendations
denigration of Aboriginal culture and racism provided in this article are based upon the
abound in both subtle and blatant ways for small emerging body of research on Aboriginal
Aboriginal people. For Aboriginal adoptees, transracial adoption, combined with information
in particular, these experiences may be a harsh collected in stories, newspaper articles, and
contrast to their experience of a safe, privileged grey literature. How these recommendations
non-Aboriginal environment. For Aboriginal manifest in policy and practice will depend
adoptees, they must deal with the contradictions upon the quality of collaboration amongst
of being a member of the marginalized group, the stakeholders in transracial adoption. It is
despite having a socialization, identity, and role suggested that Adult adoptees will be the best
expectations of the dominant group. source of information to direct the future of
adoption research and policy.
Although Aboriginal transracial adoption results
in both positive and negative outcomes, recent In closing, it is not the contention of this article
research appears to be indicating that many that Aboriginal transracial adoption should not
Aboriginal adult adoptees from the era of the take place. It would be naïve to place the blame
Sixties Scoop and beyond have developed for current child welfare involvement solely
strong and positive identities despite, or in spite on government and child welfare authorities.
of, the challenges of their experiences (Carriere, In the context of historical colonial policies of
2005; Sinclair, nd; Nuttgens, 2004; Swidrovich, assimilation that saw child welfare intervention
2004). Hence, it is apparent that some of the follow upon the heels of the residential school
long-term outcomes for Aboriginal transracial system, the extensive involvement of child
adoption contradict the statistics contained welfare authorities into Aboriginal lives is more
in the literature. Many adoptees do recount clearly understood. Aboriginal communities
difficult and traumatic adoption experiences and now recognize that the responsibility for child
the turmoil seems to manifest in the teenage welfare outcomes from this point forward rests
years and in young adulthood. As more research with Aboriginal communities who have fought
is completed, we are hearing stories from the long and hard to have control of child welfare.
other end of the spectrum. According to the In an ideal world, all Aboriginal children will
emerging research, we can conclude that in remain with their families of origin. Until
many instances transracial adoption can have that happens, Aboriginal communities, child
positive and successful long-term outcomes, and welfare agencies, and families will continue to
that Aboriginal cultures in Canada are sources of make decisions to place children for adoption
solace and healing for adoptees. Adoptees who transracially, because those decisions are
choose to reacculturate to their birth culture, sometimes made in the best interests of the
find needed belonging and cultural validation. child. However, we do not need to perpetuate
The act of repatriation often assists adoptees in the wrongs of the past. As we look forward from
78First Peoples Child & Family Review, Volume 3, Number 1, 2007
the Sixties Scoop and learn the lessons of that 8. Adams’ stories recount some experiences
era, the field of social work must be proactive, of children who are Fetal Alcohol affected.
It’s beyond the scope of this article to delve
adaptive, and creative. With core changes in
into FASD and its relationship to adoption
Aboriginal transracial adoption ideology, it is outcomes/success, but it is clear that FASD can
asserted that policies and practices will follow play a significant role in Adoptions.
suit, to the benefit of adoptive families and,
most importantly, Aboriginal children. Bio
Raven Sinclair is a member of Gordon’s First Nation
Endnotes of the Treaty #4 area of southern Saskatchewan.
She has a BA in Psychology from the University
1. The position paper asserts, “Unless a child of Saskatchewan, a Certificate and Bachelor’s
learns about the forces which shape him: the degree in Indian Social Work from the First
history of his people, their values and customs, Nations University of Canada, and an MSW from
their language, he will never really know himself the University of Toronto. She is currently a Ph.D.
or his potential as a human being.” See http:// Candidate in the Faculty of Social Work at the
www.afn.ca/article.asp?id=830. University of Calgary. Raven’s interests include
Indigenous knowledge and research methodologies,
2. The report refers to W. Christian’s statement
the synthesis of traditional and contemporary
that 150 children were removed from his band
healing theories and modalities, Aboriginal cultural
of 300 over a period of 25 years. In 1995, the
identity issues, colonial theory, and concepts in
author was privy to viewing the A-list, (a record
decolonization. Raven is a the Assistant Director of
of status children adopted) for one band in
the Indigenous Peoples’ Health Research Centre
Manitoba where over a period of several years,
and an Assistant Professor of Social Work with
almost every child had been apprehended and
the Faculty of Social Work, University of Regina,
adopted.
Saskatoon Centre.
3. It is important to note that not all residential
schools perpetrated abuse and trauma. For References
more information, see either Miller (1996) or
Milloy (1999).
Adams, M. (2002). Our son a stranger: Adoption
breakdown and its effects on parents.
4. For a comprehensive look at Aboriginal Child Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
Welfare literature, see Bennett, Blackstock,
& De La Ronde’s (2005) literature review and Baden, A. (2002). The psychological adjustment
annotated bibliography http://www.fncfcs.com/ of transracial adoptees: An application of
docs/AboriginalCWLitReview_2ndEd.pdf. the cultural-racial identity model. Journal of
5. For more information on the MEPA-IAP, see Social Distress and the Homeless, Vol. 11(2).
http://www.ssw.umich.edu/tpcws/articles/legal_ April 2002. 167-191.
MEPA.pdf.
Bagley, C. (1993). Transracial Adoption in Britain:
6. For a summary of the case, see http://www. A follow-up study, with policy consideration.
lawsociety.sk.ca/judgments/2004/QB2004/ Child Welfare, 72 (3), May-June 1993, 285-
2004skqb503.pdf and for a discussion of the
implications, see http://www.adoption.ca/news/
299.
050105sk.htm. Bagley, C., Young, L., & Scully, A. (1993).
7. In my casework in Aboriginal adoption International and Transracial Adoptions: A
repatriation, a disproportion number of inquiries mental health perspective. Newcastle upon
came from adults incarcerated in prisons in the U.S. Tyne: Althenaeum Press Ltd.
© Raven Sinclair 79You can also read
