IQ and Ego-Resiliency: Conceptual and Empirical Connections and Separateness
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Copyright 1996 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.
1996, Vol. 70, No. 2, 349-361 OO22-3514/96/S3.OO
IQ and Ego-Resiliency: Conceptual and Empirical
Connections and Separateness
Jack Block and Adam M. Kremen
University of California, Berkeley
The constructs of intelligence and ego-resiliency are discussed. The personality implications of "pure
intelligence" and "pure ego-resilience" were identified. Intelligence (IQ) was indexed by the Wech-
sler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised and ego-resiliency by an inventory scale. Residual scores mea-
suring "pure intelligence" and "pure ego-resilience" were correlated with the items of the observer-
based California Q-sort, used to describe participants. Persons relatively high on ego-resilience tend
to be more competent and comfortable in the "fuzzier" interpersonal world; persons defined primar-
ily by raw IQ tend to be effective in the "clearer" world of structured work but tend also to be uneasy
with affect and less able to realize satisfying human connections. Gender differences exist in the
relations of ego-resilience and intelligence and in their adaptive relevance.
We all know highly intelligent individuals who do not func- (Sternberg, 1985a)—that provide the basis of intelligence. Fur-
tion well in the world in which they must live and who are psy- thermore, IQ is used as a summarizing index of what may be
chologically maladjusted. And we all have encountered individ- viewed as a latent "general" factor underlying the diverse mea-
uals not unusually endowed intellectually who nevertheless sures of intellectual ability that psychologists have used (Jensen,
have achieved ways of living that are personally satisfying, so- 1993). In the research we report, intelligence is represented by
cially constructive, and adaptationally creative. Such examples IQ scores.
suggest that the long-standing emphasis of psychologists on the We acknowledge that "although many of us act as though
all-importance of intelligence for life adaptation is wanting; our intelligence is what intelligence tests measure, few of us believe
psychological understandings require conceptual deepening. it" (Sternberg, 1985a, p. 43). Recent views of intelligence have
This article is an effort in that direction. much enlarged on this traditional but narrow conception of in-
telligence (e.g., Brown, 1978; Carroll, 1993; Sternberg, 1985a,
The Construct of Intelligence 1985b). We discuss these current conceptions later. For our im-
mediate conceptual and analytical purposes, it has been more
The study of human intelligence has been a preoccupation of appropriate to accept and work with the familiar and restricted
psychologists for over a century. As a consequence, the extant view of intelligence simply as an IQ score.
literature is beyond serious compass. Theoretical views abound,
and the attendant empiricism in its frequency and detail is over-
whelming. Histories of the intelligence concept may be con- The Construct of Ego-resiliency
sulted for perspective on the issues and approaches that have
been brought forward (see, e.g., Brody, 1992; Steinberg, 1985a, Individuals vary widely in their effectiveness of adaptation, in
1990). their ability to equilibrate and reequilibrate in response to their
It was Boring (1923) who offered the tautological view of in- ever-changing being and the ever-changing world. Within a sin-
telligence as what intelligence tests measure. Psychologists have gle life, too, it will be observed that at times a person is much
emphasized and continue to emphasize IQ tests because perfor- more resourceful and adaptively effective than at other times.
mance on such tests has been shown to have ubiquitous behav- Because of the recognition of such interindividual and intra-
ioral and outcome implications. Such tests are presumed to re- individual differences, a central conceptual preoccupation of
flect the relatively raw basic processing functions—"the pri- the field of personality over the years has been with how to most
mary mental abilities" (Thurstone, 1938) or "components" fruitfully theorize regarding the factors underlying human
adaptability.
There have been two basic approaches to the characterization
of adaptability. The first approach, pragmatically concerned
Jack Block and Adam M. Kremen, Department of Psychology, Uni- with societal requirements, has focused on the dimension of
versity of California, Berkeley. adjustment.
This research was supported by National Institute of Mental Health The term adjustment is a conceptually undemanding (even
Grant MH 16080.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
innocuous) layperson's way of saying that an individual is get-
Jack Block or Adam M. Kremen, Department of Psychology, Univer- ting along or not getting along in the world as it is. Such "adjust-
sity of California, Berkeley, California 94720-1650. Electronic mail ment" is not without societal importance, of course. Ultimately,
may be sent via the Internet to JBLOCK@violet.Berkeley.edu or to such adjustment must be taken into account when a person's
ADAMK@CMSA.Berkeley.edu. adaptability is considered. But the term seems also to imply a
349350 BLOCK AND KREMEN
conformance to conditions and values that, from an intrapsy- straint, the personality system is further disposed so as to gratify
chological rather than societal standpoint, may not mean psy- the individual and to enhance long-term viability (e.g., repro-
chological health. As Thoreau implied in his remark about lives ductive fitness). This evolution-derived, dual, but hierarchi-
led in quiet desperation, an "adjusted" person may not be a cally organized system is what the term "ego" means in the
happy person but rather a person who has settled for less. A present context.1 Phenomenologically, when the ego system is
related recognition is that a person may be adapted but not functioning well, and the external surround is passably secure,
adaptable. The individual may have sought and found or fortu- the individual is zestful about life, experiences a sense of coher-
itously encountered a niche in which to abide and perhaps hide, ence and self-esteem (incoherence and an absence of self-es-
one that suffices, one that keeps despairs and anxiety within tol- teem are subjective signs to the individual that the ego system is
erable bounds. This kind of static adaptation is not publicly not working decently), is affectively aware and responsive,2 and
troublesome, but it is not what we should mean by adaptability. therefore has developed and now can count on enduring inter-
So, being adjusted, being adapted, is not quite the way to think personal relatedness (Epstein, 1994).
conceptually about adaptability and psychological health. Examples of specific "ego-functioning" structures (orientations
The second approach has derived from recognition of the in- or premises implemented by behavioral routines or perceptu-
sufficiency of societal preoccupation with "adjustment" and the alizing schematas) include contextually warranted delay of grat-
atheoretical view of "mental health" as meaning simply and ification, rejection of contextually unwarranted nongratification,
solely the absence of "symptoms." In response, various con- inhibition of aggression (which might elicit dangerous
cepts have been brought forward as theoretically useful, more reactions), caution in unstructured situations, and playfully sen-
psychological abstractions to characterize human adaptability tient experiencing of the environment. They may also include
(e.g., ego strength, emotional stability, coping, competence, what Freud (1933) called "experimental action" (i.e., internal
self-efficacy, hardiness, self-regulation). More recently, a con- cognitive construction and manipulation of anticipated, alterna-
notatively cognitive terminology has been advanced: "response tively possible behaviors so as to foresee consequences whenever
modulation" (Patterson & Newman, 1993), "executive sys- feasible), "working models" of interpersonal relations oriented
tems," "decision and adaptive systems" (Kosslyn & Koenig, to effectively access love and prevent abandonment, and so on.
1992), "the Central Executive" (Baddeley, 1986), "attentional The various ego structures involved in impulse control are in-
and effortful control" (Posner & Rothbart, 1992), "meta-cog- terrelated. Following system organizational principles, these ego
nitive components" of intelligence (Brown, 1978; Sternberg, structures are invoked sequentially as the individual responds to
1985a), "action control" (Kuhl & Kraska, 1989), "social in- and acts upon the flux of experience, facing different contextual
telligence" (Cantor & Kihlstrom, 1987; Ford & Tisak, 1983; demands and different contextual opportunities. Developmen-
Keating, 1978), "emotional intelligence" (Salovey & Mayer, tally, these metamotivational dynamics mold an individual per-
1990), "constructive thinking" (Epstein & Meier, 1989), and sonality system.
"left brain interpreter" (Gazzaniga, 1989), among others. The interrelations and sequencing of ego structures may be
These concepts have been of diverse conjectural origin and effective or ineffective in maintaining the personality system of
have used different terminologies, but all have been proposed to the individual within the bounds of psychological viability. Psy-
encompass the quite remarkable phenomenon of human adapt- chological viability for the individual entails a tolerable anxiety
ability in more articulated, more theoretical ways that might level, a tolerable mesh with situational impingements, and a tol-
advance our understanding. One of these concepts, formulated erable level of impulse expression. The linkages of the ego struc-
more than 40 years ago (J. Block, 1950; J. H. Block, 1951) is tures that keep the personality system within tenable bounds or
the construct of ego-resiliency. (This may have been the first permit thefindingagain of psychologically tenable adaptational
conceptual usage of the term resiliency in psychology.)
If the infant starting out in life is to become adaptively at- 1
As an aside, we note and acknowledge that the word ego troubles
tuned to the surrounding psychosocial environment, impulse many psychologists because they view that term as implying a homun-
cannot be allowed free rein; the capacity to regulate or modu- culus, a little man sitting high up in his pineal office, directing the for-
late impulse must be developed by the child. By so doing, the tunes of his empire. From the scientific perspective of those concerned
potentially dangerous and potentially enticing world beyond the with the neural organization of the human brain, much to be preferred
child becomes less fearsome and more controllable. Adverse apparently are expressions such as the "left brain interpreter," offered
consequences are not triggered; pleasing consequences become recently by a well-known neuroscientist. The "left brain interpreter" is
defined as a neural system
more likely. Such impulse control develops over time through
the maturation and experientially derived construction of vari- "that allows the organism to generate hypotheses about the nature
ous personality structures (e.g., mechanisms, routines, sche- of its responses, and by doing so, not only presents the human. . .
mata, scripts, procedural rules, production systems), many of with a mechanism to both form and modify beliefs, but perhaps
also frees the human agent from the shackles of environmental
which involve a strong but by no means exclusive cognitive
stimuli." (Gazzaniga, 1989, p. 951)
component. In psychoanalytic terminology, these personality
structures serve to bring the individual, otherwise bent on max- It is acknowledged that this neural system is thus far unspecifiable.
We suggest that these two concepts—ego and left brain interpreter—
imizing the "pleasure principle," reluctantly under the gover-
represent equally homuncular efforts to embody the complexity of
nance of the preemptive "reality principle." The interrelated, adaptive human functioning. The term ego may be preferable because
sequentially organized set and system of personality structures of its historical precedence and neural neutrality.
is marshaled to give priority to avoidance of immediate threats 1
The ego system is affectively aware and responsive, but not to the
to the viability of the individual. Within that overriding con- point of immobilizing hyperawareness.IQ AND EGO-RESILIENCY 351
modes are what is meant by the construct ofego-resiliency. Note 1951;J.H.Block&J. Block, 1980; J.H. Block & Martin, 1955),
that by this definition, the hallmark of psychological health is the the definition of ego-resiliency is a particular, theory-dependent
complementary coupling of external affordances and constraints one that has sought to express some useful recognitions achieved
with the internal motivations and needs of the individual. by psyehodynamic theory and to generate explicit behavioral
The child's learning of impulse control per se, of behavioral predictions.3 As specifically conceptualized, ego-resiliency refers
inhibitions, of compliance with parental prescriptions, and of re- to the dynamic capacity of an individual to modify a character-
flexive, unthinking deference to internalized proscriptions is de- istic level of ego-control, in either direction, as a function of the
velopmentally advancing for the child when it occurs. However, demand characteristics of the environmental context, so as to
such inhibition or compliance does not necessarily represent an preserve or enhance system equilibration. Depending upon im-
adaptively desirable endpoint. Adaptability in the long-term re- pinging psychological presses, ego-resilience implies the ability to
quires more than the replacement of unbridled impulsivity, or change from and also return to the individual's characteristic
undercontrol, with categorical, pervasive, andrigidimpulse con- level of ego-control after the temporary, accommodation-requir-
trol. This would be overcontrol of impulse, restriction of the ing stressing influence is no longer acutely present (J. Block,
spontaneity that provides the basis for creativity and interper- 1982). The idea of "resilience" implies a generalized, character-
sonal connection. Instead, and ideally, dynamic and resourceful ological quality of an individual and does not simply apply to a
regulation and equilibration of impulses and inhibitions must be highly specific, one-time behavior.
achieved. It is this modulation of ego-control that we more for-
mally mean by the construct of ego-resiliency. It can be said that The Connection Between IQ and Ego-resiliency
the human goal is to be as undercontrolled as possible and as
overcontrolled as necessary. When one is more undercontrolled One of the questions raised in regard to ego-resiliency derives
than is adaptively effective or more overcontrolled than is adap- from its relation with "intelligence." Measures of ego-resiliency
tively required, one is not resilient and measures of IQ tend to correlate somewhat. More generally,
Because people differ reliably in their degree of dynamic re- it is well-known that what are designated somewhat vaguely as
sourcefulness in maintaining a personally sufficient adaptational executive functions (which we interpret as manifestations of
system, it follows that individuals toward one end of the ego-re- ego-resiliency) correlate with IQ (see, e.g., Lezak, 1983; Ly-
silience continuum may be called ego-resilient and individuals nam, Moffitt, & Stouthamer-Loeber, 1993; Moffitt, 1993).
toward the other end of the continuum may be called ego-brittle. Conceptually, some degree of connection between ego-resil-
Ego-brittleness, given the inevitable stream of oncoming and iency (hereafter, ER) and IQ can be expected to exist. This con-
somewhat unpredictable situations, places the individual at risk nection may, in part, be definitionally based, if the particular
for the experience of anxiety (and other negative affects). The construct of intelligence used is conceptualized very broadly.
presence of anxiety, as well as the strategies desperately invoked But indices of human adaptability will relate also to indices of
subsequently to head off the intrusion of anxiety, encumber flex- intelligence more narrowly defined (i.e., IQ) for the obvious
ible modification of ego-control. Both derivatives of ego-brittle- reason that adaptability is at least a partial indicator of a suffi-
ness act partly by impeding theflowof information between ego cient functioning of underlying intellective components, such
structures, necessary for adaptively responsive linkages. Also, as short-term memory, information, reaction time, et cetera.
overly predetermined response patterns—leading to automatic These recognitions warrant further empirical study. What is
invocation of overcontrol or a succumbing to undercontrol— the connection between ego-resiliency and intelligence as rep-
will, in the long run, bring about less successful adaptations to resented by IQ? And what are the unique contributions that
environmental contexts, resulting both in increased negative each offers to understanding behavior and adaptation?
affect (Tellegen, 1985) and to a less differentiated behavioral rep- To proceed with this question, it is necessary to fairly opera-
ertoire. In the absence of the preemptive influence of anxiety, tionally define the constructs. To operationally define the con-
however, the individual is released to engage in positive and vital struct of intelligence, we used a standard and widely accepted
exploration of the environment (J. Block, 1982; White, 1959). IQ measure. ER can be evaluated in a variety of ways—by lab-
Thus, ego-resilience is expected to predispose individuals not oratory test situations; by prolonged, well-based observations of
only to an absence of susceptibility to anxiety but also to a posi- individuals in their life contexts; and, most simply in adults, by
tive engagement with the world, as manifested by positive affect the use of a specifically constructed questionnaire scale. In the
(Tellegen, 1985) and openness to experience. The ego-brittle in- present study, we have used this last method.
dividual, in contrast, is expected to frequently experience anxie-
ties precipitated, inevitably, by existential uncertainties and 3
In recent years, the term resiliency, without the prefixing term ego,
difficulties. It follows further that, iffrequentlyexperienced, such has come into other, less formal, simply descriptive use. The term resil-
anxieties may lead to a chronic dysphoria. Thus, both positive ience, as now used so broadly by so many, is often nothing more than
affect and negative affect, although conceptually independent of contemporary jaigon for what an earlier generation of psychologists la-
each other, may be viewed as characterological consequences of beled ego strength. For others (e.g., Hauser, Vieyra, Jacobson, & Wert-
ego-resiliency or ego-brittleness. lieb, 1985; Masten, Best, & Garmezy, 1990; Milgram & Palti, 1993;
Rutter, 1990), the idea of resiliency refers to "invulnerable" individuals
The integrally related constructs of ego-control and ego-resil- or the observed phenomenon of "survivorship." Individuals character-
ience represent abstractions intended to encompass the observ- ized by seemingly successful adaptation, despite seemingly significant
able phenomena of motivational control and resourceful adapta- challenges or threats to adaptation, are said to be "resilient." This de-
tion as relatively enduring, structural aspects of personality. Note scriptive usage of the term resilience can readily be subsumed by the
that, as formulated (see, e.g., J. Block, 1950, 1965; J. H. Block, more conceptual construct of ego resiliency.352 BLOCK AND KREMEN
Given a widely used and generally well-regarded IQ index and Table 1
a self-report questionnaire scale established to index ER, anal- Items ofthe Ego-Resiliency Scale (ER89)
yses can focus on the behavioral implications of ER after par-
tialing the influence of IQ and, symmetrically, on the behavioral Item
implications of IQ after eliminating the influence of ER. 1. I am generous with my friends.
2. I quickly get over and recover from being startled.
Method 3. I enjoy dealing with new and unusual situations.
4. I usually succeed in making a favorable impression on people.
Participants 5. I enjoy trying new foods I have never tasted before.
6. I am regarded as a very energetic person.
Participants were individuals in the Block and Block Longitudinal 7. I like to take different paths to familiar places.
Study of Cognitive and Ego Development at the University of California 8. I am more curious than most people.
9. Most of the people I meet are likeable.
at Berkeley (see J. H. Block & J. Block, 1980, for a comprehensive de- 10. I usually think carefully about something before acting.
scription of the study during its early years; for later understandings of 11. I like to do new and different things.
the study, consult, e.g., J. Block, 1993; J. Block, J. H. Block, & Keyes, 12. My daily life is full of things that keep me interested.
1988; J. Block, Gjerde, & Block, 1991). Participants resided primarily 13. I would be willing to describe myself as a pretty "strong"
in urban areas and were heterogeneous with respect to social class and personality.
parents' educational level. At age 18, 106 participants were assessed; at 14. I get over my anger at someone reasonably quickly.
age 23, 104 participants were assessed. Of these, usable data for the
present analyses were available for 95 participants (49 women and 46 Note. ER89 items are responded to by participants using a 4-step con-
men). tinuum: 1 = does not apply at all; 2 = applies slightly, if at all; 3 =
applies somewhat; and 4 = applies very strongly. It is desirable to in-
termix the ER89 items with other inventory items being administered
Measuring IQ at the same time.
At age 18, participants were evaluated by means of the Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R; Wechsler, 1981). The sub-
scales of the WAIS-R were administered to a participant over several the attenuation effect, they become .67 and .51. It merits mention that,
assessment sessions held on different, proximate days. This temporal in our longitudinal study, the period from age 18 to age 23 seems to be
spreading of testing can be expected to provide a more dependable and an especially significant developmental time when individuals simulta-
representative index of the participant's IQ. neously articulate themselves and consolidate themselves psychologi-
The coefficient alpha reliabilities of WAIS-R Full IQ score was .83. cally. Across time periods of equivalent length but later in life, after
The correlations between the WAIS-R Full IQ scores with Wechsler IQ character has become more established, it can be expected that cross-
scores measured at ages 4 and 11, uncorrected for attenuation, were time ER89 correlations would be appreciably higher (see, e.g., J. Block,
very high for both sexes (for the girls, r^_is = .71, ru.is = .81; for the 1981; McCrae & Costa, 1990).
boys, r4_18 = .63, /•„_„ = .85. At age 18, the mean WAIS-R score for the For the purposes of the present analyses, the ER89 scale scores at ages
female sample was 111.2 (SD = 13.2); for the male sample, the mean 18 and 23 were standard scored within each sex and then averaged. The
IQ score was 115.9 (SD = 14.3). This difference approached statistical resulting averaged score can be expected to be more dependable than
significance (p = .09). either of its elements, as well as more adequately representing the long-
term structural nature of ER.
An Inventory Scale to Index Ego Resilience
Over a number of years, in various studies, inventory items reflect- Measuring Personality During Late Adolescence and
ing ego resilience and suitable for usage in nonpsychiatric contexts Young Adulthood: The California Adult Q-sort
have been sought and evaluated by the authors (e.g., J. Block, 1965).
Like most efforts at scale development, this conceptual effort has pro- Participants' personality characteristics were described at ages 18 and
ceeded in empirical ways and has involved conceptual decisions that 23 by using the standard vocabulary of the California Adult Q-sort
were not fully systematic. Therefore, the history of this sequence of (CAQ; J. Block, 1961/1978) The CAQ consists of 100 statements tap-
efforts cannot be fully or precisely described. As Eysenck and Eysenck ping a wide range of personality, cognitive, and social characteristics.
(1976) have remarked in an equivalent context, "Our reasons for ac- The method has demonstrated its usefulness in numerous and diverse
cepting or rejecting items were so complex that it would be difficult to research contexts (e.g., J. Block, J. H. Block, & Harrington, 1974; J.
objectify them . . . the only possible check on the value of our work Block etal., 1988,1991; J. Block & Robins, 1993).
must be the validation of thefinalproduct" (p. 47). The present study At both ages 18 and 23, participants were assessed not only on a vari-
uses the latest version of an ego-resiliency scale (ER89) and is based ety of experimental measures but also in in-depth, clinical interviews.
on several samples entirely different from the present one. It consists When participants were 18 years old, each was described, using the
of 14 items, each responded to on a 4-point scale. Table 1 presents CAQ, by four examiners and two interviewers. When participants were
the items constituting the ER89 scale. The ER89 items, interspersed 23 years old, they were each again described, using the CAQ, by a
among many other inventory items, were administered to participants different set of three examiners and three interviewers.
at both ages 18 and 23. Judges described each participant by arranging the items into a
Within the entire sample, the coefficient alpha reliability of ER89 was forced, quasinormal distribution for each individual by sorting the
.76 at both ages 18 and 23. For a brief inventory scale, these reliabilities items, using nine categories, from not at all characteristic or salient to
are relatively high. Across the 5 years between the two assessments, the highly characteristic or salient. The Q-descriptions, obtained indepen-
correlation of the ER89 scores was .51 for the female sample and .39 for dently of each other, were then averaged to create a pooled judgment for
the male sample, uncorrected for attenuation. These cross-time corre- each participant. The CAQ assessments at ages 18 and 23 were strictly
lations are, of course, statistically highly significant; when adjusted for independent of each other. The mean internal consistencyreliabilityofIQ AND EGO-RESILIENCY 353
the 100 Q-items, based on correlations among observers, averaged .59 collaborative, and satisfying relationships with others. We may
and .70, at ages 18 and 23, respectively. characterize this young woman as an unresilient overcontroller.
The statistically significant personality correlates of "pure
Statistical Analysis IQ" for the sample of young women are reported in Table 3.
Pure IQ correlates, as it conceptually should, with a variety of
When two variables correlate and one desires, for conceptual reasons, CAQ intellective variables: intellectual capacity, the valuing of
to disentangle them, the technique of partial correlation can be used.
Thus, height and weight correlate and yet are clearly and usefully sepa-
intellectual matters, verbal fluency, a wide range of interests,
rate concepts. By statistical analysis, indices of what may be called and esthetic reactivity. However, "pure IQ" in these young
"pure height" and "pure weight" can be developed. One thenfindsthat, women also relates to introspectiveness, a tendency to compli-
in men, "pure height" tends to relate to or predict playing the position cate simple situations, underlying anxiety, and a tendency to
of center in basketball better, and "pure weight" better predicts or re- ruminate and feel guilty. Overall, we may characterize these
lates to playing the position of nose guard in football. In the present young women as unhappily intellective. The young women at
context, residualized measures of "pure ER" and "pure IQ" were cre- the other end of this continuum, relatively low on "pure IQ,"
ated. The residualized measure of ER, which controls or cancels the tend to be assertive, oriented toward sexuality, self-indulgent,
effect of IQ, was then correlated with independently evaluated person- unbothered by or not cognizant of complexities. They seem to
ality variables. Symmetrically, IQ was correlated with personality vari- be relatively shallow, action-oriented young women with some
ables after controlling for or canceling the effect of ER. Thus, it became
tendencies toward undercontrol. Neither the high nor the low
feasible to identify the differential personality correlates of these two,
now essentially disentangled (or "pure") constructs.4 "pure IQ" women are clearly characterizable in terms of ER.
Note that, in the following analyses, there is complete independence
of the data domains being connected. Ego-resiliency is indexed by a Differential Personality Correlates of "Pure ER " and
questionnaire (self-report data), IQ is indexed by the WAIS-R (test-
based data), and the personality and behavioral information is repre-
"Pure IQ" in the Sample of Young Men
sented by the CAQ items (observer-based data). Also, all of the analyses Table 4 reports the statistically significant personality CAQ
are conducted for the sexes separately. Thus, replication is provided and correlates of "pure ER" for the sample of young men at age 23.
gender similarities and differences may be noted.
Again, the CAQ item correlates indicate that "pure ER" relates
to social poise, gregariousness, cheerfulness, and an absence of
Results rumination and fearfulness. The ER young man is especially
characterized by a capacity for committment, responsibility,
Relation Between the Ego-Resiliency Index and WAISIQ ethical behavior, and sympathetic caring in his relationships
The correlations between the composite ER scale index and with others. He displays a rich and appropriate emotionality.
IQ, as measured at age 18, were .10 (ns) in the female sample Like the ER young woman, the ER young man is comfortable
and .31 (p < .05) in the male sample. The correlation for the with self and with the world he lives in. In contrast, the low ER
sample of girls was somewhat lower than anticipated, given pre- young man is extrapunitive, manifests hostility, feels cheated in
viousfindingsat earlier ages in this sample. We conjecture that life, is rebellious, is irritable, and hasfluctuatingmoods. Over-
this lowering devolves from and is a further reflection of another all, his dealings with others and with the larger society are
finding of this longitudinal study—that girls during their ado- chronically frictional.
lescence and young adulthood manifest more psychological re- The statistically significant personality correlates of "pure IQ"
structuring of their adaptive modes than do boys, who continue for the sample of young men are reported in Table 5. Again, "pure
into these years with much the same personalities established IQ" is characterized as it should be by a set of intellective variables:
earlier (J. Block, 1993). intellectual capacity, the valuing of intellectual matters, a wide
range of interests, ambitiousness, productivity, and an objective
Differential Personality Correlates of "Pure ER " and style. The young men characterized by high "pure IQ" are de-
"Pure IQ" in the Sample of Young Women pendable, doggedly persistent, predictable individuals who are not
troubled by self-concerns. At the same time, they also tend to be
Table 2 reports the statistically significant personality CAQ critical, fastidious, avoidant of or uneasy with sexuality, and emo-
correlates of "pure ER" for the sample of young women at age
23. Interpreting the obtained relations, "pure ER" seems to re-
4
late to social poise and assertiveness and an absence of self-con- Partial correlations may not fully reduce the influence of a variable
cern, rumination, and fearfulness. The ER young woman tends being controlled if the control variable is unreliable or lacks validity
to manifest gregariousness, cheerfulness, and playfulness; has a (Cliff, 1987). However, in the present instance, both control variables
sense of meaning in life and a rich but appropriate emotional- are relatively reliably measured. By tautological definition, the IQ score
ity; and shows adaptiveness when under stress.5 She is comfort- used is a valid index of IQ; on conceptual grounds and on the basis of
able with herself and with other people and does not overmodu- the network of empirical relationships that surround it, the ER89 scale
may be considered to be usefully valid. However, to the extent that mea-
late her control structures. Accordingly, she is spontaneous and sure unreliability and invalidity are still present, the relations to be re-
has ready access to sensuous experiences. We may summarily ported have been attenuated.
characterize this young woman as a resilient undercontroller. 'Note that the item "expresses hostile feelings directly" in this
The young woman low on ER is characterized by a brittle over- context does not mean that "pure ER" correlates with having a high
control, a preoccupation with issues of self-adequacy, a chronic level of hostility. Rather, it means that when hostility happens to be
sense of vulnerability, and an inability to engage in trusting, present, that hostility is expressed directly rather than indirectly.354 BLOCK AND KREMEN
Table 2 different from the correlation with "pure IQ." Table 6 presents
CAQ Correlates ofEgo Resilience Controlling these very different correlations for the sample of young women.
for Intelligence in Women Relatively, "pure ER" is characterized by assertiveness, direct ex-
pression of feelings, positive self-regard, social poise and presence,
CAQ item sr playfulness, an ability to establish interpersonal relationships, and
92. Has social poise and presence. .52** an absence of self-concern, ruminativeness, and fearfumess. Rela-
57. Is an interesting, arresting person. .51** tively, "pure IQ" is characterized by a set of intellective variables
4. Is a talkative individual. .50** but also by internal preoccupations, the indirect expression of an-
15. Skilled in social techniques of imaginative play. .49** gry feelings, an absence of interest in members of the opposite sex
52. Behaves in an assertive fashion. .46** and an uneasiness with sensuous experiences, avoidance of self-
88. Is personally charming. .46**
18. Initiates humor. .44** indulgence, and submissiveness.
43. Is facially and/or gesturally expressive. .44** For the sample of young men (see Table 7), the very different
84. Is cheerful. .43** CAQ correlations indicate that "pure ER" is characterized by the
99. Is self-dramatizing; histrionic. .41** direct expression of feelings, gregariousness, cheerfulness, protec-
20. Has a rapid personal tempo; behaves and acts quickly. .39**
35. Has warmth; capacity for close relationships. .37* tiveness, a capacity for warmth and intimacy, and a relative ab-
58. Enjoys sensuous experiences. .37** sence of distrust of others and of interpersonal hostility. "Pure IQ"
56. Responds to humor. .36* in the young men is characterized by the expectable set of intellec-
67. Is self-indulgent. .36* tive variables but also by condescending behavior, being uncon-
98. Is verbally fluent. .36* cerned about self-adequacy, unexpressiveness, and interpersonal
74. Unaware of self-concern, satisfied with self. .34*
54. Emphasizes being with others; gregarious. .33* detachment and coldness.
96. Values own independence and autonomy. .33*
94. Expresses hostile feelings directly. .30* Gender Differences in the Correlates of "Pure ER" and
31. Regards self as physically attractive. .29*
22. Feels a lack of personal meaning in life. -.60** "PurelQ"
72. Concerned with own personal adequacy. -.56**
30. Gives up and withdraws from frustration, adversity. -.55** There are similarities between the sexes in the CAQ correlates
40. Is vulnerable to real or fancied threat; fearful. —.51** of "pure ER" and "pure IQ." A simple way of quantifying the
48. Keeps people at a distance, avoids relationships. -.46** degree of these similarities is to correlate the vector of 100 CAQ
25. Tends toward overcontrol of needs and impulses. —.44** "pure ER" (or "pure IQ") partialed correlates of the young
55. Is self-defeating. -.44**
78. Feels cheated and victimized by life. -.43** women with the vector of 100 CAQ ER (or pure IQ) partialed
45. Brittle ego defense; maladaptive under stress. —.42**
68. Is basically anxious. -.40**
9. Is uncomfortable with uncertainty and complexities. -.39**
36. Is subtly negativistic; undermines and obstructs. —.39** Table 3
79. Tends to ruminate and have preoccupying thoughts. -.39** CAQ Correlates ofIntelligence Controlling
47. Has a readiness to feel guilt. -.38** for Ego-Resilience in Women
97. Is emotionally bland. -.37**
69. Is sensitive to demands. —.35* CAQ item
14. Genuinely submissive; accepts domination sr
comfortably. —.34* 8. Appears to have high intellectual capacity. .61**
23. Extrapunitive; tends to transfer or project blame. —.32* 51. Genuinely values intellectual and cognitive matters. .57**
38. Has hostility towards others. -.31* 3. Has a wide range of interests. .52**
49. Is basically distrustful. -.29* 66. Enjoys aesthetic impressions; aesthetically reactive. .52**
85. Emphasizes communication through nonverbal 16. Is introspective. .49**
behavior. -.29* .46**
87. Complicates simple situations.
98. Is verbally fluent. .45**
Note. N = 49. CAQ = California Q-sort. sr = semipartial correlation. 90. Concerned with philosophical problems. .39**
*pIQ AND EGO-RESILIENCY 355
Table 4 ative to the "pure ER" man, values her independence, is self-
CAQ Correlates ofEgo Resilience Controlling indulgent, colorful, interpersonally skilled, relatively less over-
for Intelligence in Men controlled, and not submissive. In contrast, the "pure ER"
man, relative to the "pure ER" woman, is characterized by eth-
CAQ item sr ical and responsible behavior to others, by conservatism, by pre-
2. Is a genuinely dependable and responsible person. .60** dictability and internal consistency, and by an acceptance of the
77. Appears straightforward, candid. .55** limits provided by society.
11. Is protective of those close to him or her. .53** The significantly differing gender CAQ correlates of "pure
35. Has warmth; capacity for close relationships. .53** IQ" also are presented in Table 9. Although the number of
17. Behaves in a sympathetic or considerate manner. .52**
26. Is productive; gets things done. .50** differences is relatively small, their content is psychologically
70. Behaves in an ethically consistent manner. .50** coherent. In allfiveinstances, the young men are relatively more
75. Clear-cut, internally consistent personality. .47** unemotional, unintrospective, personally secure, emphasizing
84. Is cheerful. .47** of calm and critical rationality.
54. Emphasizes being with others; gregarious. .46** As a way of summarizing the core of our many gender-related
5. Behaves in a giving way with others. .45**
29. Is turned to for advice and reassurance. .45** findings, it is useful to invoke a prototype approach (J. Block,
74. Unaware of self-concern, satisfied with self. .43** 1957, 1961/1978). Each of the 100 CAQ items has a value indi-
7. Favors conservative values in a variety of areas. .42** cating its conceptual salience in defining ego control. These values
28. Tends to arouse liking and acceptance. .40** were derived by having psychologists arrange the items so as to
56. Responds to humor. .40**
95. Tends to proffer advice. .38* portray their understanding of the prototypical overcontroller. The
92. Has social poise and presence. .34*
3. Has a wide range of interests. .33*
4. Is a talkative individual. .33*
33. Calm, relaxed in manner. .32* Table 5
6. Is fastidious (perfectionist). .31* CAQ Correlates ofIntelligence Controllingfor Ego
14. Genuinely submissive; accepts domination comfortably. .31*
.31* Resilience in Men
47. Has a readiness to feel guilt.
71. Has high aspiration level for self. .31*
-.58** CAQ item sr
49. Is basically distrustful.
55. Is self-defeating. .56**
-.56** 8. Appears to have high intellectual capacity. .72**
65. Characteristically pushes limits.
22. Feels a lack of personal meaning in life. -.53** 90. Concerned with philosophical problems. .64**
37. Is guileful and deceitful; manipulative. -.53** 51. Genuinely values intellectual and cognitive
50. Unpredictable and changeable behavior, attitudes. -.51** matters. .61**
.51** 24. Prides self on being "objective," rational. .57**
62. Tends to be rebellious and nonconforming.
78. Feels cheated and victimized by life. -.50** 3. Has a wide range of interests. .55**
38. Has hostility toward others. -.48** 1. Is critical, skeptical, not easily impressed. .54**
45. Brittle ego defense; maladaptive under stress. -.47** 25. Tends toward over-control of needs and impulses. .50**
79. Tends to ruminate and have preoccupying thoughts. -.46** 26. Is productive; gets things done. .48**
23. Extrapunitive; tends to transfer or project blame. -.45** 98. Is verbally fluent. .46**
30. Gives up and withdraws from frustration, adversity. -.42** 6. Is fastidious (perfectionist). .42**
-.41** 71. Has high aspiration level for self. .42**
36. Is subtly negativistic; undermines and obstructs.
42. Delays or avoids action. -.41** 33. Calm, relaxed in manner. .36*
-.41** 2. Is a genuinely dependable and responsible person. .34*
82. Has fluctuating moods.
46. Engages in personal fantasy and daydreams. .38* 97. Is emotionally bland. .33*
.38** 83. Able to see to the heart of important problems. .32*
69. Is sensitive to demands.
96. Values own independence and autonomy. -.38** 74. Unaware of self-concern, satisfied with self. .30*
-.37* 53. Unable to delay gratification. -.57**
48. Keeps people at a distance, avoids relationships.
-.36* 67. Is self-indulgent. -.48**
34. Overreactive to minor frustrations, irritable.
68. Is basically anxious. -.33* 50. Unpredictable and changeable behavior, attitudes. -.41**
-.32* 55. Is self-defeating. -.36*
44. Evaluates the motivation of others.
85. Emphasizes communication through nonverbal 65. Characteristically pushes limits. -.35*
73. Perceives many contexts in sexual terms. -.35*
behavior. -.32*
85. Emphasizes communication through nonverbal
39. Thinks and associates ideas in unusual ways. -.30*
behavior. -.35*
59. Concerned with body and adequacy of its
Note. N = 46. CAQ = California Q-sort. sr = semipartial correlation.
*p356 BLOCK AND KREMEN
Table 6 "pure ER" correlated .25 (ns) with overcontrol, whereas "pure
Significantly Different CAQ Correlates of "Pure ER " and IQ" correlated .46 (p < .002). The difference between the sexes in
"Pure IQ" in Women regard to their correlations of pure ER with the prototype-based
index of ego control is itself highly significant (p < .001). Thus,
CAQ item Z score ER IQ relative undercontrol seems to characterize the resilient young
52. Behaves in an assertive fashion. 3.95 .44 -.34 women, whereas relative overcontrol tends to characterize the
92. Has social poise and presence. 3.51 .52 -.16 "pure-IQ" young men.
58. Enjoys sensuous experiences. 3.11 .36 -.26
4. Is a talkative individual. 3.03 .50 -.08
54. Emphasizes being with others; gregarious. 3.00 .32 -.29 Discussion
67. Is self-indulgent. 2.88 .35 -.23
53. Unable to delay gratification. The results of this study indicate that deep differences exist
2.84 .22 -.35
29. Is turned to for advice and reassurance. 2.78 .20 -.36 in the personality and adaptive implications of ego-resiliency
15. Is skilled in social techniques of and IQ when measures essentially "purified" of the overlap be-
imaginative play. 2.72 .49 -.03 tween the two constructs are used. Certainly, the differences be-
95. Tends to proffer advice. 2.69 .23 -.32 tween "pure ER" and "pure IQ" require additional, more re-
84. Is cheerful. 2.60 .43 -.08
96. Values own independence and autonomy. 2.59 .32 -.20 fined efforts at understanding. Even now, however, the findings
18. Initiates humor. 2.58 .44 -.07 testify to the characterological consequentiality, in both sexes,
74. Unaware of self-concern, satisfied with self. 2.54 .34 -.18 of both ego-resiliency and IQ. Although in the natural world,
80. Interested in members of the opposite sex. 2.49 .14 -.36 ego-resiliency and IQ by their respective natures must depend
56. Responds to humor. 2.39 .36 -.12 on or reinforce each other, the somewhat artificial way of en-
94. Expresses hostile feelings directly. 2.31 .30 -.18
99. Is self-dramatizing; histrionic. 2.30 .41 -.05
20. Has a rapid personal tempo; behaves and
acts quickly. 2.27 .39 -.06
43. Is facially and/or gesturally expressive. 2.23 .44 .00 Table 7
91. Is power oriented. 2.05 .15 -.27 Significantly Different CAQ Correlates of "Pure ER" and
68. Is basically anxious. -3.66 .38 .35 "Pure IQ" in Men
8. Appears to have high intellectual capacity. -3.40 -.01 .60
25. Tends toward overcontrol of needs and CAQ item
impulses. Z score ER IQ
-3.35 -.43 .24
22. Feels a lack of personal meaning in life. -3.31 .60 .00
54. Emphasizes being with others;
79. Tends to ruminate and have pre-occupying
thoughts. gregarious. 3.47 .46 -.25
-3.31 -.38 .28 56. Responds to humor. 3.28 .39 -.29
40. Is vulnerable to real or fancied threat;
fearful. 11. Is protective of those close to him. 3.20 .53 -.10
3.26 -.51 .12 17. Behaves in a sympathetic or considerate
47. Has a readiness to feel guilt. 3.18 -.37 .27
87. Particularizes situations. manner. 3.00 .52 -.07
3.10 -.15 .46 35. Has warmth; capacity for close
51. Genuinely values intellectual and cognitive
matters. -3.02 .01 .57 relationships. 2.79 .52 -.02
72. Concerned with own personal adequacy. -2.77 -.55 -.05 4. Is a talkative individual. 2.70 .33 -.23
48. Keeps people at a distance, avoids 95. Tends to proffer advice. 2.70 .37 -.19
relationships. 43. Is facially and/or gesturally expressive. 2.32 .25 -.24
-2.74 -.46 .07 59. Concerned with body and adequacy of its
45. Brittle ego-defense; maladaptive under
stress. functioning. 2.27 .13 -.34
-2.28 -.42 .03 18. Initiates humor.
14. Genuinely submissive; accepts domination 2.21 .29 -.17
comfortably. -2.18 75. Clear-cut, internally consistent
.34 .10 personality. 2.21
90. Concerned with philosophical problems. -2.16 .04 .39 .46 .02
30. Gives up and withdraws from frustration, 84. Is cheerful. 2.14 .46 .04
adversity. -2.00 -.53 .17 5. Behaves in a giving way with others. 2.13 .45 .02
28. Tends to arouse liking and acceptance. 2.03 .40 -.02
Note. N = 49. CAQ = California Q-sort. ER = ego resiliency. 29. Is turned to for advice and reassurance. 2.03 .44 .04
p < .05. for all comparisons. 1. Is critical, skeptical, not easily impressed. 4.00 -.25 .54
8. Appears to have high intellectual
capacity. 3.68 .06 .69
90. Concerned with philosophical problems. 3.04 .06 .62
9. Is basically distrustful. 2.95 -.57 .00
composite of these prototypes proved to be highly reproducible 79. Tends to ruminate and have pre-
(coefficient alpha of .90). In the present study, the congruence of occupying thoughts. 2.80 -.46 .10
the prototype with each participant's observer-based age-23 CAQ 69. Is sensitive to demands. 2.39 -.38 .12
was calculated. A congruence score, when high, indicates the per- 44. Evaluates the motivation of others. 2.25 -.32 .15
51. Genuinely values intellectual and
son is relatively overcontrolled; when low, it indicates the person is cognitive matters. 2.25 .17 .57
relatively undercontrolled. These ego-control congruence scores 96. Values own independence and
were correlated with both "pure ER" and "pure IQ," separately autonomy. 2.14 -.38 .06
by sex. For the young women, "pure ER" correlated -.47 (p < 38. Has hostility towards others. 2.00 -.47 -.07
.001) with overcontrol, whereas "pure IQ" correlated .14 (ns) 37. Is guileful and deceitful; manipulative. 1.96 -.51 -.13
with overcontrol; the difference between these two correlations is Note. N = 46. CAQ = California Q-sort. ER = ego resiliency.
highly significant (p < .001). In contrast, for the young men, p < .05 for all comparisons.IQ AND EGO-RESILIENCY 357
Table 8 admirably productive and effective in the "clearer" world of
Sex Differences in CAQ Correlates of "Pure ER" work, but tends also to be uneasy with affect and less able to
realize satisfying human connections.
CAQ item Z score Women Men In regard to the ER89 scale used to index ER, it appears that
96. Values own independence and the scale elicited, in both sexes, a set of observer-based CAQ
autonomy. 3.45 .32 -.38 findings that, by their conceptual coherence, reciprocally sup-
62. Tends to be rebellious and non- port its construct validity.6 Other research further testifies to
conforming. 2.72 .08 -.46 the encompassing possibilities afforded by the ER89 scale (e.g.,
67. Is self-indulgent. 2.72 .35 -.21
50. Unpredictable and changeable behavior, Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Joireman, Teta, & Kraft, 1993). Con-
attitudes. 2.61 .08 -.44 sideration of the item content of the scale suggests that the indi-
99. Is self-dramatizing; histrionic. 2.59 .41 -.11 vidual scoring high has energy and zest about life, is curious and
65. Characteristically pushes limits. 2.56 .00 -.50 open to new experience, recovers readily from stressful experi-
57. Is an interesting, arresting person. 2.33 .48 .03 ences, does not hold grudges, is likable to self and to others, and
73. Perceives many contexts in sexual
terms. 2.13 .28 -.17 likes other people and is generous with them. In short, the scale
53. Unable to delay gratification. 2.06 .22 -.21 describes a personally secure and vital individual who savors
20. Has a rapid personal tempo; behaves being. Although incremental ER89 scale refinements may be
and acts quickly. 2.01 .39 -.01 expected, further usage of the scale in its present form would
15. Is skilled in social techniques of seem to be appropriate.
imaginative play. 1.99 .49 .11
47. Has a readiness to feel guilt. -3.30 -.37 .31 Notwithstanding the important gender similarities character-
14. Genuinely submissive; accepts izing the implications of "pure ER" and "pure IQ," important
domination comfortably. -3.18 -.34 .31 gender differences also were found. We suggest that the differ-
7. Favors conservative values in a variety ential implications of "pure ER" for the sexes may be un-
of areas. -3.05 -.21 .41
25. Tends toward over-control of needs and derstood in terms of the different sex roles prescribed by societal
impulses. -2.81 -.43 .14 institutions, customs, and normative scripts. The different so-
70. Behaves in an ethically consistent cialization pressures experienced by girls, as opposed to boys,
manner. -2.76 -.09 .46 are known to affect the forms, styles, and repertoire of ways in
2. Is a genuinely dependable and
responsible person. -2.67 .04 .54
which the interpersonal world is negotiated (J. H. Block, 1983).
11. Is protective of those close to him or her. -2.45 .07 .53 In particular, it has been noted that often, and in some subcul-
17. Behaves in a sympathetic or considerate tures even normatively, girls tend to be oversocialized to control
manner. -2.42 .06 .52 impulse, with the goal of reinforcing caution and compliance.
5. Behaves in a giving way with others. -2.37 -.02 .45 In the present study, "pure ER" was associated with a moving
6. Is fastidious (perfectionist). -2.05 -.15 .27
75. Clear-cut, internally consistent away from overcontrol in the young women. We suggest that the
personality. -2.00 .07 .46 relative undercontrol of the ER young woman may function to
alleviate pervasive, often unacknowledged societal pressures to
Note. Nwomen = 49; iVmen = 46. CAQ = California Q-sort. overly inhibit impulse. Such pressures often may lead to con-
p < .05 for all comparisons. striction of affect, to indecisiveness, to passivity, and to the un-
happy pattern of symptoms conventionally labeled as intemal-
ization disorders. In contrast, in successfully achieving impulse
forcing their distinctiveness used here provides some important expression within the given societal parameters, the ER young
recognitions regarding their unique implications: The ER per- woman has become a spontaneous, poised, autonomous indi-
son tends to be more oriented toward, competent, and comfort- vidual, gratifying to self and to others.
able in the "fuzzier" interpersonal world, in which life is largely For boys, socialization serves the goal of developing struc-
led; the person denned too exclusively by raw IQ tends to be tures that function to modulate aggression, an important func-
tion of ego-resilience. It will be noted that a number of the CAQ
items uniquely associated with "pure ER" depict the capacity
of these young men to engage in close, warm, and intimate re-
Table 9 lationships and to exhibit responsible and ethical behavior to-
Sex Differences in CAQ Correlates of "Pure IQ" ward others. These young men have learned to mitigate and
CAQ item Z score Women Men modulate the antisocial, hostile, and interpersonally destructive
behaviors associated with ego-brittleness. In young women, the
1. Is critical, skeptical, not easily interpersonal achievement of controlled and reduced aggres-
impressed. -2.30 0.12 0.54
24. Prides self on being "objective,"
rational. -2.06 0.15 0.53 6
It is relevant to note the correlation between ER scale scores (based
33. Calm, relaxed in manner. -2.75 -0.24 0.33 on self-report) and ER CAQ prototype scores (based on observer data).
74. Unaware of self-concern, satisfied
For the young women, the correlation between these two kinds of scores
with self. -2.09 -0.18 0.26
97. Is emotionally bland. -1.98 -0.08 0.33 is .50 (.69 when adjusted for attenuation); for the young men, the cor-
relation is .61 (.84 when adjusted for attenuation). Thus, these two
Note. Women, N = 49;JMen, N = 46. CAQ = California Q-sort. method-different ways of operationally denning ego-resilience display
p < .05 for all comparisons; appreciable construct convergence.358 BLOCK AND KREMEN
siveness is not as highly associated with ego-resiliency because tective (albeit not optimizing) factor for men in the absence of
of their generally lower characteristic levels of aggressiveness. ego-resilience, whereas it is not so closely linked to private ad-
As noted above, there are meager differences between the aptation in young women. Intelligence may serve to support or
sexes in their respective CAQ-item correlations with "pure IQ." complement a sense of self in men, which is already defined in
We suggest that the relative absence of gender differences in IQ terms of agency, by enabling increased agentic mastery of the
correlates may be due to intrinsic limitations on the ways in world. That is, for men, intelligence represents a means through
which, developmentally, intelligence can be manifested or which they can implement the agentic, masculine roles pre-
shaped. In Piagetian terms, movement toward intelligence is scribed by sex-linked socialization patterns, and, therefore,
linked to increasingly veridical perceptions and logical recogni- when intelligence is present, it serves to shore up self-esteem.
tions regarding the physical world. These perceptions and rec- However, intelligence, as measured by IQ tests, is less of a pre-
ognitions are achieved and articulated regarding a world that requisite for competence in the interpersonal world, the arena of
provides consistent and predictable feedback. Such adaptations competence which is especially valued in feminine, communal
to an inexorable physical world thus offer less opportunity for models of self. Thus, high intelligence may have less affirmative
modification by gender role influences. In the interpersonal significance for a sense of self in young women than does, for a
world, however, feedback and reinforcement are often inconsis- prime example, physical and social attractiveness. When begin-
tent and admit of varying meaning-making constructions. In ning to orient themselves toward interpersonal connection,
such a fuzzy world, more varied (and gender-role influenced) thoughtful girls will be anguished by the societal insinuation
pathways to adaptation may be found (J. Block, 1982). that brainy girls are likely to be less desirable. Accordingly, self-
Despite these strong correspondences between the sexes in uncertainties evolve and their self-esteem may suffer (J. Block
the personality implications of "pure IQ," there still remain a & Robins, 1993). In this connection, it merits mention that
few gender differences. These may be regarded, tentatively, as IQ and depression are positively linked in young women and
differences in flavor or quality in the adaptive significance of negatively related in young men (J. Block etal., 1991).
intelligence for the two sexes. In particular, "pure IQ" was asso- For larger theoretical reasons, we may return now to consider
ciated with overcontrol in men but not in women. Along with views of intelligence that go well beyond narrowly defining it in
intellective abilities and productivity, the personality items terms of IQ. For an attractive and influential example, Stern-
linked to "pure IQ" in the sample of young men denoted ten- berg (1985b) has defined intelligence as "consisting] of those
dencies to be critical, sometimes condescending, unemotional, mental functions purposively employed for purposes of adapta-
and overly constricted. The high-IQ young men, in the relative tion to and shaping and selection of real-world environments"
absence of ER, seem to have internalized a sense of self as com- (p. 1111). Steinberg's aspiration for an all-encompassing the-
petent and superior to most others; they have developed a highly ory of intelligence with practical implications and real-life va-
agentic view of themselves, perhaps through their successful lidity has led him, with others (e.g., Cantor & Kihlstrom, 1987;
mastery of the physical world. These achievements may have Ford & Tisak, 1983; Keating, 1978) to expand the conceptual
been realized at some personal (and unacknowledged) cost of domain of intelligence to include and even emphasize the idea
achieving interpersonal intimacy. In particular, in the absence of social competence or "social intelligence."
of ego-resiliency, the intelligent man may overly rely on intellec- These enlarged views seem to us to have introduced many
tive strengths that may foreclose his spontaneity and emotional new considerations. Central among them is the explicit intro-
openness. duction of an "executive" or of "executive processes" directing
In contrast, in the high-IQ young women, it is not apparent and sequencing more elementary perceptual, knowledge, and
that their intelligence has contributed to a sense of self as highly action processes. Carroll (1976) has observed that "the as-
competent, agentic, and masterful. Rather, beyond the usual sumption of an executive process [for intelligent behavior]. . .
items depicting intellective abilities and an intellectual orienta- seems an intuitive necessity if one is going to get the system
tion, the high-IQ young woman is characterized by a tendency in operation" (p. 31). Sternberg (1985b) found it helpful to
toward anxiety, rumination, guilt, and introspectiveness. characterize "[intelligence as mental self-government" (p.
The low-IQ young man seems vulnerable to self-doubt and is 1117). Campione and Brown (1978) noted that "intelligence
pervaded by a sense of being unable to overcome the obstacles differences are attributable to variations in the efficiency of the
in his world. The low-IQ young woman, compared with the low- executive, or in the quality of control that executive exerts" (p.
IQ young man, is less preoccupied by feelings of inadequacy 297). Many thinkers—on intelligence and on cognition more
and is less sensitive to the adverse life consequences of her own generally—when viewing the complexity and organization of
undercontrol. It may be conjectured that, in this society, IQ per behavior have found it theoretically required to posit or pre-
se is not as crucial to female adult-life options or to self-esteem sume some such wide-ranging, albeit difficult to specify, system-
as it is to male adult-life options and self-esteem. The less intel- regulatory executive principle (e.g., the "Central Executive" of
ligent young woman can still develop social competencies and Baddeley, 1986).
other bases for attraction and affirmation that permit her to feel However, as Dennett (1981) has observed,
comfortable with self. For young men, however, striving for suc-
cess and respect is paramount and intelligence is often crucially
Any time a theory builder proposes to call any event, state, struc-
required. Low-IQ men are likely to falter in this race, know they ture, etc., in any system (say the brain of an organism) a signal or
have faltered, and come to believe their world is uncontrollable message or command or otherwise endows it with content, he. . .
and unresponsive. implicitly posits along with his signals, messages, or commands
These results suggest that IQ may serve as a personally pro- something that can serve as a signal-reader, a message-under-You can also read
