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REPORTS AND DOCUMENTS No 62
IS PARLIAMENT OPEN TO WOMEN? AN APPRAISAL
Created in 1889, the Inter-Parliamentary Union
(IPU) is the international organization that
Headquarters:
Inter-Parliamentary Union IS PARLIAMENT OPEN TO WOMEN?
AN APPRAISAL
5 chemin du Pommier
brings together the representatives of parlia- Case postale 330
ments of sovereign States. The IPU is the focal CH-1218 Le Grand-Saconnex / Geneva
Switzerland
point for world-wide parliamentary dialogue Conference for Chairpersons and Members of
Telephone: +41 22 919 41 50
and works for peace and cooperation among
peoples with a view to strengthening repre-
Fax: +41 22 919 41 60 Parliamentary Bodies Dealing with Gender Equality
E-mail: postbox@mail.ipu.org
sentative institutions. http://www.ipu.org
Office of the Permanent Observer 28–29 September 2009
of the IPU to the United Nations:
Geneva
Inter-Parliamentary Union
220 East 42nd Street – Suite 3002
New York, N.Y. 10017
United States of America
Telephone: +1 212 557 58 80
Fax: +1 212 557 39 54
E-mail: ny-office@mail.ipu.org
Inter-Parliamentary Union Inter-Parliamentary Union
REPORTS AND DOCUMENTS No 62
IS PARLIAMENT OPEN TO WOMEN? AN APPRAISAL
Created in 1889, the Inter-Parliamentary Union
(IPU) is the international organization that
Headquarters:
Inter-Parliamentary Union IS PARLIAMENT OPEN TO WOMEN?
AN APPRAISAL
5 chemin du Pommier
brings together the representatives of parlia- Case postale 330
ments. The IPU is the focal point for world-wide CH-1218 Le Grand-Saconnex / Geneva
Switzerland
parliamentary dialogue and works for peace Conference for Chairpersons and Members of
Telephone: +41 22 919 41 50
and cooperation among peoples with a view
to strengthening representative institutions.
Fax: +41 22 919 41 60 Parliamentary Bodies Dealing with Gender Equality
E-mail: postbox@mail.ipu.org
http://www.ipu.org
Office of the Permanent Observer 28–29 September 2009
of the IPU to the United Nations:
Geneva
Inter-Parliamentary Union
220 East 42nd Street – Suite 3002
New York, N.Y. 10017
United States of America
Telephone: +1 212 557 58 80
Fax: +1 212 557 39 54
E-mail: ny-office@mail.ipu.org
Inter-Parliamentary Union Inter-Parliamentary Union
IS PARLIAMENT OPEN TO WOMEN?
AN APPRAISAL
Conference for Chairpersons and Members of
Parliamentary Bodies Dealing with Gender Equality
28–29 September 2009
Geneva
Inter-Parliamentary Union
© Inter-Parliamentary Union 2010 Inter-Parliamentary Union
5 Chemin du Pommier
ISBN 978-92-9142-439-9 (IPU) CH - 1218 Le Grand-Saconnex/Geneva
Switzerland
Produced with financial support from Irish Aid and
the Canadian International Development Agency Telephone: +41 22 919 41 50
(CIDA). Fax: +41 22 919 41 60
E-mail: postbox@mail.ipu.org
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mitted in any form or by any means, electronic, Design and layout: Rick Jones
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© IPU Photo/Giancarlo Fortunato
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ii Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal
Foreword
Ever since the first United Nations World Conference capacity to promote gender equality, the IPU holds
on Women, held in Mexico City thirty five years annual seminars for members of parliamentary bod-
ago, the international community has been striving ies that deal with gender equality matters. The 2009
for the elimination of discrimination against women conference, Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal,
and for women’s economic and political empower- held in Geneva from 28–29 September, brought to-
ment. In 1995, at the Fourth World Conference on gether around 80 parliamentarians from 38 countries.
Women, the Beijing Plan of Action called on States The conference appraised progress made in terms
to increase women’s participation in decision making of women’s parliamentary participation across the
and leadership and to ensure women’s full partici- world since the Beijing Conference. The objective of
pation in political life. In 2000, the United Nations, the meeting was to answer the question: is parliament
recognizing the central role of women in develop- open to women? As the readers of this report will
ment, included the empowerment of women as one discover, the answers to this ostensibly simple ques-
of the Millennium Development Goals. tion are multifaceted and diverse.
The world conferences on women have provided The IPU wishes to thank both the experts for their
political visibility to women’s rights worldwide, yet presentations and the participants for their enthusi-
there has not been a commensurate increase in the astic interventions. The Seminar would not have
representation of women in parliaments. In 1995 women been possible without the generous support of Irish
accounted for 15.9 percent of parliamentarians world- Aid and the Canadian International Development
wide; by 2009 they accounted for 18.5 percent, hardly Agency (CIDA).
a mark of great progress. We hope that this report will serve as an inspiration
The year 2010 represents a milestone since it is 15 to members of parliament in their efforts to integrate
years since the commitments and pledges were made gender equality into every aspect of parliamentary life.
in Beijing. Given that women’s access to and influ-
ence in parliament has been so frustratingly slow, can
we really be satisfied with the progress achieved?
The Inter-Parliamentary Union adheres to the prin-
ciple that democracy requires the inclusion of both
men and women in decision making. It therefore
works to promote a gender partnership by facilitating Anders B. Johnsson
women’s involvement in parliament and political Secretary General
life. As part of its efforts to strengthen parliament’s Inter-Parliamentary Union
Foreword iii
iv Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal
Contents
Summary of the Conference .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Opening Remarks
Mr. Anders B. Johnsson, Secretary General of the IPU .................................................................................................................................. 5
1. Challenges and Obstacles to Parliament: Current Trends
Overview and Debate ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Presentations
Women in Politics 15 Years after Beijing: Progress and Setbacks
Ms. Kareen Jabre, Manager, Gender Partnership Programme, IPU .............................................................................................. 11
The Challenges Faced by Women Running for Election
Ms. Linah J. Kilimo, Member of Parliament and Assistant Minister
for Cooperative Development and Marketing, Republic of Kenya ................................................................................................ 14
The Road to Parliament: A Memoir
Ms. Kay Hull, Member of Parliament, Australia ................................................................................................................................................ 16
2. Overcoming Barriers: Electoral Gender Quotas
Overview and Debate .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 20
Presentations
Is Parliament Open to Women? Quotas in Global Perspective
Dr. Drude Dahlerup, Professor of Political Science, Stockholm University, Sweden ............................................... 22
Women and Quotas in Uruguay
Ms. Daniela Payssé, Member of the House of Representatives, Uruguay .............................................................................. 26
3. Overcoming Barriers: Other Special Measures and Strategies
Overview and Debate ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Presentations
Campaign Finance for Women: Challenges, Incentives and Recommendations
Dr. Marcela Tovar Restrepo, Director of the Latin American
Studies Program, Queens College, City University of New York ..................................................................................................... 38
Contents v
Is Parliament Open to Women? Supporting Women’s Political Participation
Ms. Colleen Lowe Morna, Executive Director, Gender Links ............................................................................................................ 43
Assessing Women’s Political Party Programmes: Best Practices and Recommendations
Ms. Alyson Kozma, National Democratic Institute for International Affairs .................................................................... 47
4. Women in Parliament: Challenges Inside the House
Overview and Debate ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Presentations
Challenges Faced by Women in Parliament: An Overview
Ms. Kareen Jabre, Manager, Gender Partnership Programme, IPU ............................................................................................ 55
The Role of Women: Expectations and Challenges
Dr. Masouma AI-Mubarak, Member of the National Assembly, Kuwait ............................................................................... 57
Is Parliament Open to Women? The Experience of Burkina Faso
Ms. Irène Yameogo, Member of Parliament, National Assembly, Burkina Faso ............................................................ 60
5. Legislative and Policy Outputs: Facilitating a Gender Perspective
Overview and Debate .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 66
Presentations
The Role of Women Parliamentarians in Advocating for and Safeguarding Women’s Rights
Dr. Bahiya J. Aljishi, Member of the Shura Council, Kingdom of Bahrain ....................................................................... 68
Gender Mainstreaming in Parliament: Experience from Cyprus
Ms. Dina Akkelidou, Member of Parliament and Chairperson of the House
Standing Committee on Equal Opportunities for Men and Women, Cyprus ................................................................... 71
6. Gender Sensitive Parliaments
Overview and Debate .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 76
Presentations
Women in the House in Namibia
Ms. Margaret Mensah-Williams, Vice-President of the National Council, Namibia ............................................... 79
Gender Sensitive Parliaments
Ms. Julie Ballington, Programme Specialist, Gender Partnership Programme,
Inter-Parliamentary Union ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 81
Gender Sensitive Parliaments: The Swedish Experience
Ms. Hillevi Engström, Member of the Riksdag, Sweden ......................................................................................................................... 84
List of Participants ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 86
vi Is Parliament Open to Women? An AppraisalSummary of the Conference
The meeting brought together some 80 members of that women face in accessing parliaments need to be
parliament and parliamentary staff from 38 countries addressed in order to respond to them in the most
to discuss and assess progress made in terms of women’s concrete and effective way.
parliamentary participation. The meeting elected In the discussions about challenges faced by
Ms. L. Kilimo (Kenya) and Mr. M. Affey (Kenya) women, a key point raised was that regardless of
as its rapporteurs. They presented the following sum- region, level of development and cultural background,
mary remarks at the meetings closing session: women face similar challenges in running for par-
liament in all countries. It was also recognized that
The theme of women’s access to and participation in women running for election were usually held to
parliaments was timely in the run-up to the 15th anni- higher expectations from society and were often
versary of the Fourth World Conference on Women scrutinized far more closely than men seeking elec-
held in Beijing in 1995. Under the Beijing Platform tion. This pressure often results in women having to
for Action, States undertake to promote gender equal- work harder and more than men, which nevertheless
ity and to increase women’s participation in decision- ultimately serves them well in their careers.
making bodies. The seminar therefore appraised One of the overarching challenges highlighted
progress made in terms of women’s parliamentary was the prevailing cultural attitudes regarding the
participation across the world since the Beijing Con roles of women and men in society. These affect the
ference, took stock of special measures that have been nature and forms of women’s political participation
taken to open parliaments up to the participation of and impact their levels of success in seeking posi-
women and identified remaining challenges. tions of power. Cultural attitudes affect not only how
The objective of the meeting was to answer an women are perceived by the electorate, by also by
apparently simple question: is parliament open to political party leaders and the media. Some partici-
women? The seminar first began by considering the pants even noted that women were seen as intruders
question from a quantitative point of view. Despite in the field of politics. Others underscored that the
incremental progress over the past 15 years, the aver- electorate often overlooked the specific and valuable
age of 18 per cent women members of parliament contribution that women could bring to politics.
remains well below the 30 per cent target established Cultural attitudes also impact on how women see
in the 1990s. It also recognized that the pace of progress themselves, affecting their confidence and resolve to
was too slow, and that with an average increase of pursue a political career. Discussions highlighted the
less than one percentage point per year, the 30 per importance of challenging stereotypes and mentalities
cent target would not be reached for another 15 years. by promoting different forms of education, including
From a numerical point of view, yes, parliament providing education for women and girls, imple-
is open to women. Compared with other spheres of menting civic and voter education programmes and
political decision-making – where for example 16 per promoting gender equality in the school curricula
cent of ministerial posts were held by women and and within the home.
just 4 per cent of Heads of State were women in Participants also discussed the challenges of bal-
2008 – parliaments are more open. However, progress ancing public and private responsibilities, which
needs to be stepped up and the many challenges was one of the main perceived deterrents identified
Summary of the Conference 1by women. Although it was noted that both women measures have been implemented. Electoral gender
and men have multiple commitments that are time- quotas, for instance, have become an increasingly used
consuming and can make it difficult to pursue a policy measure to promote women’s participation in
political career, the challenge of balancing family parliaments. Of the 25 countries to have reached 30
and public responsibilities was often felt hardest by per cent or more women members of parliament, 22
women. The support of the family was seen as crucial have applied quotas in some form or another. Quotas
for women with political ambitions. are a simple and effective answer to the complex
Political parties were identified as the main gate- historical problem of inequality in decision-making.
keepers to elected office, but often did not seem to Gender quotas can also be framed in a gender-neutral
be doing enough to promote and support the candi- way, thereby safeguarding the participation of both
datures of women. Political parties were largely seen women and men.
as operating as men’s clubs where women have yet For quotas to be effective, they have to work with
to make their way. They were criticized for often the electoral system in operation. Proportional rep-
overlooking the value of women candidates, and resentation systems, which are recognized as the most
opting for the safety of male incumbents rather favourable for supporting the election of women, are
than taking the perceived risk of supporting women also the easiest under which to implement candidate
aspirants. quotas. For quotas to be successful, they must have
Running for election is increasingly costly and strict enforcement mechanisms, which include place-
women are affected by a shortage of financing and ment mandates, financial sanctions and the rejec-
campaign support. Some participants highlighted
tion of lists that do not comply with the law. They
that societal roles often mean that women are not in
also need to be understood by the electorate. Quotas
charge of family resources and often do not have
are not a miracle solution but by levelling the play-
access to money to fund their campaigns. Discrimi-
ing field they can fast track women’s participation
natory laws in some countries limit and even forbid
in parliament. They can also facilitate more internal
women’s access to property and land ownership.
party democracy by formalizing and making recruit-
Combined with women’s lesser earning power, banks
ment rules more transparent.
often do not grant them loans, adding a further
In terms of other special measures, the seminar
challenge to women seeking office. These have an
also discussed other incentives to promote women,
even more pronounced impact on women running
such as political finance. Funding can be used as an
as independent candidates.
The media and the stereotypes it perpetrates incentive to encourage women’s participation, whether
constitute a challenge to those seeking election, both it is public, private or a combination of both. Finance
men and women. However, the mainstream media legislation can include incentives for political parties
was particularly prone to cultivating a negative and to earmark specific allocations to support women’s
stereotypical portrayal of women politicians, with a candidacies. Spending limits can also be implemented
tendency to put them down and not focus on their as a way to level the political playing field. The op-
political achievements. Participants recognized that tion of including a gender-sensitive finance component
it was necessary to learn to work with the media, in laws and policies on political participation was
and use it as effectively as possible, with a “don’t get also mentioned.
angry, get smart” approach. Political parties can do much more than imple-
Other factors that were highlighted as impacting ment quotas to promote women’s candidacies. Internal
on women’s political participation included the role party democracy leads to more inclusiveness and
of civil society movements, which can be an impor- can thereby favour women’s increased participation.
tant political support. Violence against women in Parties should be encouraged to implement specific
politics and in campaigning was also underscored as training programmes (such as communication or
an increasing challenge in some countries. leadership training) that specifically target women.
Having identified the main challenges, the par- Mentoring between women can also serve as an im-
ticipants then focused their attention on the possible portant way to cultivate new leaders. Political parties
responses. On an encouraging note, over the past dec- should work with women not only during elections,
ade solutions have emerged and a variety of special but also keep them engaged between elections.
2 Is Parliament Open to Women? An AppraisalAnother potential entry point for enhancing In addition, the importance of engaging and
women’s participation in national politics is experi- collaborating with men as partners for change was
ence gained in local government. Local government noted and participants called for greater efforts to be
may serve as a launching pad for women to become made to involve men in gender equality work.
national leaders and a stepping stone for accessing Parliamentarians have a crucial role to play in
national parliament. Furthermore, measures adopt- the promotion of gender equality and in overseeing
ed to encourage the higher participation of women the implementation of policies and programmes to
at the local level can open the way to implementing ensure that they meet the standards and goals set.
such measures at the national level. It was recognized Much of the detailed policy work and oversight is
that this is an area that requires further research. done in parliamentary committees and it is here
The question of whether parliaments are open to that gender equality strategies need to be imple-
women was then considered from a second point of mented. Specialized parliamentary committees on
view, moving beyond the question of numbers. The gender equality are an important mechanism for
participants assessed the extent to which parliaments gender mainstreaming. To be effective in their work,
are including the contributions of women and how they require sufficient funding and support. However,
parliaments are addressing gender equality issues. in some parliaments, monitoring and implementa-
Participants noted that when women take up tion is not done in specialized gender committees,
their seats in parliament, they usually enter a male but through mainstreaming gender equality in the
domain with a potential set of new challenges. Parlia- existing committee structures. There is, however,
ment’s rules and procedures were typically estab-
no single model – it varies from country to country
lished by men, and “men’s clubs” still in operation
depending on parliamentary practice. A particular
in some parliaments by nature exclude women. It
challenge was ensuring that mainstream committees
was underscored that women need to learn and use
are also accountable for gender equality issues, and
these rules, but it may also be important to revise
that they do not be become systematically relegated
and rewrite the rules of parliament for the benefit not
to specialized gender committees.
only women, but also for men.
The achievement of gender mainstreaming also
Given the low numbers of women members in
depends on coordination with other committees in
most countries, parliaments were by and large viewed
parliament. The example was cited of convening com-
as enduring male bastions. Participants noted that
mon sittings with other parliamentary committees
the critical mass of women, of at least 30 per cent,
was important for several reasons. In parliaments to debate the contents of a bill and ensure the inclu-
with low numbers of women members, there some- sion of a gender perspective. Other gender main-
times are not enough women to take part in all par- streaming mechanisms could include alternating
liamentary committees, or women have to spread positions of power in the parliament between women
themselves thinly taking on several committee assign- and men, such as ensuring that committees Chairs
ments. A critical mass of women members is also and Vice-Chairs are of either sex. Including the
needed to begin to change political priorities and place Chair of the gender equality committee as a mem-
women’s concerns on the parliamentary agenda. ber of the bureau of parliament was also suggested.
Women must display solidarity and support The third aspect it examined was related to the
each other. Participants highlighted the advantages institution of parliament itself. How gender-sensitive
and benefits of acting together and uniting for are these institutions? The participants began by de-
change, even across party lines. The importance of fining the notion of gender-sensitive parliaments.
cross-party caucuses of women parliamentarians was A gender-sensitive parliament responds to the needs
underscored as carving out a space for women to and interests of both men and women in its struc-
cooperate closely and define common priorities in tures, operations, methods and in its work as a nation’s
pursuing gender equality. Establishing a clear mandate primary legislative institution. When looking at gender-
and defining rules for the operation and structure sensitive parliaments we need to consider two com-
of women’s caucuses is vital for them to function ponents: (1) gender mainstreaming, as in parliament’s
effectively and contribute substantively to the work ability to mainstream gender in policy development
of parliament. and the work of parliament, and (2) parliamentary
Summary of the Conference 3working arrangements, including parliament’s opera- The meeting also highlighted the importance of
tional and institutional culture. partnerships in order for parliament to fully contrib-
Participants heard about a very interesting initi- ute to national efforts to promote gender equality.
ative at the Swedish Parliament, where an internal Parliamentarians can be isolated and need to develop
process to assess the gender sensitivity of the Parliament cooperation with government and civil society. There
was instigated. The results of the assessment high- is a need to work closely with national women’s
lighted that women faced several challenges in parlia- machineries and women’s ministries, as they have com-
ment: they usually struggled to reach high positions plementary roles to play. Cooperation with ombuds
within the parliament; they viewed themselves and persons and the judiciary was also highlighted.
their work as being invisible; they were often subject Finally, the importance of disseminating the
to ridicule and belittling, and they often did not have findings of the seminar to all members of parliament
access to full information about parliamentary work. was noted, and delegates agreed to report back to
This resulted in a document with “15 proposals for their parliaments to ensure that members are aware
gender equality in Parliament”. A gender equality plan of the meeting and its summary and recommenda-
must be adopted for each parliamentary session, which tions. It was also noted that it is important to share
requires reporting and follow-up, falling under the country experiences, especially in countries under-
responsibility of the Secretary General of Parliament. going constitutional and political reform.
4 Is Parliament Open to Women? An AppraisalOpening Remarks
Anders B. Johnsson
Secretary General of the Inter-Parliamentary Union
The year 2010 will be yet another milestone. It is 15 life also finds expression in the 1979 Convention on
years since the Beijing Conference on Women and the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
the Platform for Action and 35 years since the first against Women, which has received near universal
women’s conference in Mexico. The conferences on endorsement.
women have had the merit of providing political In 2000, the United Nations recognized the cen-
visibility to women’s rights worldwide. Thirty five tral role of women in development in the Millennium
years later, however, can we be satisfied with the level Development Goals, which include the empower-
of change? In 1975, the issue of women in decision- ment of women as one of the measurable goals. The
making positions was barely discussed – if at all. At proportion of seats held by women in parliament is
the time, it was not an issue and there were cer- one of the key indicators in measuring progress in
tainly no data to present on the situation. This this regard. In 2009, women accounted for 18.6 per-
prompted the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) to cent of the members of parliament. But this is pro-
begin work on women in politics and women in par- portion is far from enough. We should not accept a
liaments, starting with research and the collection pace of progress of less than one percentage point
of data to take stock of the situation. per year. At that rate parity will be achieved only in
Since that first conference in Mexico there has 2030. We cannot wait that long. Democracy cannot
been an increased focus on women’s representation be entrenched or sustained without the participation
in, and impact on, decision-making structures. At of women.
least initially, however, this focus did not lead to Eighteen percent remains short of the 30 percent
any substantial increase in the representation of target that governments set themselves in the Beijing
women in parliaments. In 1975 women accounted Plan of Action. It is, however, still a fair proportion
for 10.9 percent of parliamentarians worldwide: 10 compared to other decision-making positions. Only
years later it was 11.9 percent. Maybe because of nine percent of mayors in the world are women and
this, the 1985 Nairobi conference saw the beginning women are still largely absent from the highest levels
of more sustained action towards equality in decision- of government. Only 16 percent of ministerial posi-
making structures as governments and parliaments tions were held by women in 2008 and only 4.5 per-
pledged to promote gender equality in all areas of cent of the Heads of State were women.
political life. Parliaments are therefore more open to women
The commitments and pledges of states to promote than other areas of decision making. More impor-
gender equality were consolidated in the Beijing Plan tantly, parliaments are the obvious place to require
of Action, which was adopted at the Fourth World and benefit from the balanced participation of men
Conference on Women in 1995. States were called on and women. This prompts the apparently simple
to increase women’s capacity to participate in decision question: is Parliament open to women? A first way
making and leadership, and to take concrete steps to consider the question is to focus on percentages
to implement special measures to ensure women’s and figures. In this case, it is fair to say today that,
access to and full participation in power structures yes, parliaments are open to women. Only nine
such as parliaments. The commitment to ensuring the single/lower houses are exclusively composed of men,
equal participation of women and men in political but in over 40, less than 10 percent of members are
Opening Remarks 5women. Parliaments are no longer an exclusively male in parliament? Do parliamentary committees deal-
domain but they are far from being gender balanced. ing with gender issues benefit from strong support
Women’s political participation remains hampered in parliament? Are they effective gender-mainstreaming
by multiple factors. Women’s campaigns often suffer mechanisms? One issue given even less consideration
because of a shortage of financing, cultural barriers is that of parliaments as workplaces. Places of power,
and conflicting demands on the time of women can- such as parliaments, contain inherent male biases that
didates due to their domestic and social responsi- have to be identified, challenged and reconstructed.
bilities. Political parties are often men’s clubs where Parliaments themselves have to implement family-
women still have to make their way. Media coverage friendly and gender-sensitive measures. The level
tends to portray women using stereotypes that can of gender sensitivity should also become a measure
prevent women from obtaining and maintaining of good institutional performance. This is an area
positions of power. that has to be further explored and where creative
In recent years, some solutions have been found solutions must be found. Parliament is the right place
to these problems. Political will at the top is more to start and will lead the way to change in other
visibly supportive of women’s political participation workplaces.
and concrete initiatives have been taken to address The question of women’s equal political partici-
challenges. Quotas and other temporary special mea- pation is not just a question of women’s rights. It is
sures, for instance, are proven means for supporting at the core of democratic governance and progress.
women’s engagement in politics. Eighteen of the 24 In 1997, the IPU consolidated its views and the ex-
parliaments that boast 30 percent or more women perience of women’s political participation in the
in their lower houses applied quotas in some form. Universal Declaration of Democracy, article 4 of which
There are other mechanisms as well. This meeting explicitly endorses the link between democracy and
will discuss some creative solutions. ‘a genuine partnership between men and women in
A second way of responding to the question re- the management of public affairs’. This principle has
quires us to go beyond the numbers. Openness is not informed the work of the IPU for the past decade.
only a question of access. It is also important to assess As an organization, the IPU has tried to promote
the degree to which women have real as opposed to women’s participation within its own structures.
symbolic opportunities to contribute to the work of This has resulted in the adoption of special measures
parliament. Can women provide effective input to within IPU governing bodies, a revision of its rules
policy development and setting political priorities? and ways of functioning to facilitate a more gender-
This question must be examined more closely, and it balanced participation and the mainstreaming of
is arguable that we have spent less time and effort and gender issues in its work. Gender equality is one of
developed fewer solutions on this point. Historically, the organization’s priorities. The IPU continues to
women have been sidelined from the structures of closely monitor its ways of working. It is a constant
governance that determine political and legislative battle which requires the contribution of all. In
priorities. Here again, challenges remain. When women seeking solutions, whether within the IPU or within
enter parliament, they enter a world that historically parliaments, men have probably not been engaged
has been governed by men’s rules and perspectives. enough. The keyword is partnership and we still have
To make women’s voices heard in parliament requires a long way to go.
existing practices to be challenged, rules to be changed The small, albeit important, presence of men at
and the building of a space of their own. the conference demonstrated that women’s political
A third dimension to be considered is to exam- participation is still perceived largely as a women’s
ine the institution of parliament itself. How gender- issue. The conference will provide for fruitful debate
sensitive are parliaments? How do men promote which will result in the identification of new ideas
gender equality issues? Is there a common platform and initiatives to support women in parliament. There
for gender equality in parliament? Are there mecha- are no miracle solutions but joining forces will lead
nisms that facilitate the mainstreaming of gender issues the way to progress.
6 Is Parliament Open to Women? An AppraisalCHALLENGES AND OBSTACLES TO
PARLIAMENT: CURRENT TRENDS
1
Challenges and Obstacles to Parliament: Current Trends 7Overview and Debate
Overview of the Session women increasing by a global average of less than
This session examined the obstacles that women face one percentage point per year since 1995. Although
entering parliaments, including socio-cultural bar- the percentage of women in parliaments has been
riers, such as gender stereotypes and structural bar- increasing across all regions, there are still major
riers, such as political parties and electoral systems. disparities. One-quarter of all parliamentary cham-
The session addressed the following questions: bers have less than 10 percent women members, and
nine parliaments still have no women at all.
• What are the primary socio-cultural challenges, In terms of ministerial portfolios, women were
such as dual burden and stereotyping? again under-represented: in 2008, women held only
• What are the main structural barriers, such as elec- 16 percent of all posts, the vast majority of which
toral systems and influence of money in politics? were ‘soft’ portfolios such as social affairs or educa-
• What role do political parties play as gatekeepers tion. The numbers were also very low for the top
to politics? executive position, where only 4.7 percent of heads
of state were women in 2008.
The panelists for this session were Ms. Kareen Of the 25 parliamentary chambers that had reached
Jabre, Manager, Gender Partnership Programme, IPU; the 30 percent threshold in 2009, 75 percent had
Ms. Linah Kilimo, Assistant Minister for Coopera- adopted special measures to promote women’s par-
tive Development and Marketing and Member of ticipation. This statistic demonstrated the importance
Parliament, Kenya; and Ms. Kay Hull, Member of the of parliamentary initiatives and suggested that par-
House of Representatives, Parliament of Australia. liamentarians should be more proactive in adopting
Ms. Jabre provided statistics detailing the progress measures to overcome factors preventing women’s
towards gender parity that has been made in national participation in politics.
parliaments since 1945. She also outlined some of Ms. Jabre outlined the main challenges women
the main factors impeding women’s participation in faced at the various stages of the candidate recruit-
politics. Ms. Kilimo discussed the current situation ment and electoral process. As aspiring women passed
of women in politics in Kenya. Ms. Hull then drew through the steps necessary to become a candidate
on her personal experience of campaigning to de- and then elected as a member of parliament, their
scribe some of the challenges that women face when progress was often impeded by challenges posed by
standing for election to parliament and provide advice their social-cultural environment, the need to recon-
on how they may be overcome. cile the demands between a political career and
Ms. Jabre showcased statistics that illustrated that family life, and difficulties in gaining financial and
between 1945 and 2009, there was a six-fold increase moral support. The way in which a political party
in the proportion of women parliamentarians in lower functioned, a country’s electoral system and how
houses, and a nine-fold increase in upper houses. transparent the selection process is, were other fac-
The world average for women in both houses of par- tors that affected a woman’s chances of becoming a
liament was 18.6 percent in 2009. The data indicates candidate and being elected.
that there has been a slow pace of progress towards Ms. Kilimo noted that women in Kenya face
parity across all continents, with the percentage of many of the challenges already outlined, including
8 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisallack of support from family members, domestic obli- learn how to adjust an approach if is not working.
gations and patriarchal social-cultural attitudes which For example, if the media acts as a barrier by propa-
were critical of women seeking a career in politics. gating damaging stories, negative stereotypes, or
For many women, their chance of participating in misinformation, other campaigning techniques (such
politics was curtailed from a young age as they often as door knocking and organizing forums) should be
had less access to education as compared to males. relied upon instead. Once elected, it was important
Girls were often taken out of school by their parents to maintain courage in parliamentary work. Some-
in order to be married and that put them at a signifi- times it would be necessary to vote across party
cant disadvantage later in their lives. lines, and in those cases women should not accept
Political parties were, furthermore, closed orga- being intimidated by their colleagues into voting
nizations and the ‘old boys club’ mentality that still against their better judgment. Time was another
persisted represented a major challenge for women key factor. Political campaigns required financial
aspirants and candidates. Important decisions regard- resources, a significant amount of time, and the
ing nominations were often made during exclusively support from friends and family. Lastly, it was nec-
male social meetings. Many women consequently essary to achieve a balance between family life and
felt discriminated against within their own parties. political life.
It was also common for women candidates to be
intimidated by their male counter-parts and several
women had, during previous campaigns, given up
their political ambitions because of negative stereo-
Plenary Debate
typing in the media, physical abuse and destruction Participants noted that the biggest obstacle facing
of their property. the majority of women aspirants and candidates
The Kenyan society was still largely influenced was still how to finance their campaign. This was
by patriarchal values. Candidates were usually especially true for women in countries where laws
chosen by exclusively male leaderships who were re- relating to family, property and inheritances pre-
luctant to support women candidates. Campaigns were, vented them from having their own funds or having
moreover, prohibitively expensive. Since men control collateral with which they may take out a loan. In
wealth in most families and it was difficult for women general, candidates did not know how to effectively
to obtain loans, female candidates were frequently run and fund a political campaign. Participants
bound by the permission or support of their husbands suggested that successful men and women could be
for funding. invited to workshops to teach aspirants how to man-
Ms. Hull was the first woman from the National age their campaigns.
Party in New South Wales to be elected into the Cultural stereotyping of women remained a
Australian Parliament. She described her path into problem in all regions. In many countries, the notion
parliament as one requiring perseverance and rapid of a female political leader still met with resistance.
learning to overcome the challenges she faced as a Participants suggested that women could minimize
woman candidate. Some of the challenges included the effects of these cultural stereotypes by becoming
a ‘boys club’ mentality within her party, where more aware of their individual strengths and rights.
norms and rules of behavior seemed to apply to men Women should be encouraged to share their experi-
but not to women; lack of support of women’s ences and advice with each other and with the elec-
groups to assist lobbying for women candidates and torate to inform them of the valuable contribution
a ruthless media. In order to overcome these chal- they could bring to politics. Developing role models
lenges, she noted that it was essential to develop key could help aspirants build confidence. There have
skills in such areas as mediation, conflict resolution, also been some examples of civil society organiza-
negotiation and marketing. tions that have lobbied successfully for more support
It was important for candidates to be strategic in for women candidates, particularly in securing fund-
their campaigning and to know how – and to ing and encouraging parliaments to adopt gender-
whom – they should promote themselves. Standing sensitive quotas. Solidarity between women at all
for election takes courage. It requires an ability to stages of the political process, from aspirants and par-
focus on the positive aspects of a campaign and liamentarians, was crucial.
Challenges and Obstacles to Parliament: Current Trends 9Women candidates must make sure that they Participants highlighted that religious or custom-
did not marginalize the male electorate. In order to ary laws that discriminated against women must be
be successful, women candidates should gain the reformed, and discrimination perpetuated through
respect of their male colleagues and the male mem- religion or custom must be addressed through edu-
bers of the population. Political parties remained the cation programmes.
gatekeepers to elected office, and it was therefore Participants also noted that there were structural
important for women candidates to strike a balance factors, such as electoral systems, which hindered
between having confidence in themselves and their women’s electoral success. Parliamentarians may give
identity, and being able to transcend the gender di- consideration to adopting legislation and undertak-
vide to focus on factors that unite the party and the ing electoral reforms to enforce principles of equality,
electorate. such as through the adoption of electoral quotas.
Education was a key component for developing Some countries had, however, found that, on their
policies to combat discrimination and gender in- own, quotas were not sufficient. Laws on quotas should
equality. Education was crucial for both men and therefore be accompanied by enforcement mecha-
women in that it teaches them of their respective, and nisms to ensure compliance. In Brazil and Burkina
equal, rights and duties. It was suggested that re- Faso, for example, parties were subject to financial
forms of the educational system should be a central penalties and sanctions if they failed to comply with
part of policies targeting discriminative practices. the quota requirements.
10 Is Parliament Open to Women? An AppraisalWomen in Politics 15 Years after Beijing:
Progress and Setbacks
Kareen Jabre
Manager, Gender Partnership Programme, IPU
This intervention aims at providing some statistics was the Bahamas. It had a 60 percent presence of
and data on women in parliament and in politics women in parliament in 2009.
since 1945 and in particular since the Fourth World There are also poor performers. In a quarter of all
Conference on Women held in Beijing. It presents parliamentary chambers in 2009 women made up
trends of progress and setbacks and discusses some of less that 10 percent of members. These are the ones
the main challenges that women face when running that bring the world average down. Nine lower
for election, based on research carried out by the Inter- houses of parliament had no women members in
Parliamentary Union (IPU) and other organizations. 2009. The vast majority of these are in the Pacific
There has been significant progress since 1945 on Islands states, and some are in the Arab states.
increasing the proportion of women in parliament, A closer examination of the 25 countries that have
from around 3 percent of women in parliament, on 30 percent or more women in their lower or single
average, across both upper and lower houses to18.6 houses of parliament brings light to several common
percent in 2009. This represents a six-fold increase – a characteristics. First, it is interesting to note that just
relatively slow rate of progress. over half of these countries are developing coun-
It is significant that there is an unequal division tries. While this was not the case a few years ago,
within the regions of the world. The Nordic countries more and more developing countries are taking the
have an average proportion of 42 percent women in lead in promoting women’s political participation.
their parliaments, and this percentage has been in- The Nordic states, which historically have been in
creasing year on year. Two regions of the world are the top five or six in terms of the highest percentage
above the world average: the Latin American coun- of women in parliament, no longer have the monop-
tries and the European countries, with 22 percent oly in terms of top positions. Rwanda is followed by
and 21 percent, respectively. Two other regions have Sweden, but then there is South Africa and other
reached the world average of 18.6 percent across both African countries. A second interesting factor is that
houses – Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. The remain- six of the 25 countries are post-conflict countries.
ing two regions, the Pacific and the Arab states, have Some post-conflict countries have taken the oppor-
made progress in recent years but are far from the tunities presented by reconstruction to address the
world average. challenges that women have faced in the past and to
There have been some significant achievements try to remedy them while building a new and fairer
in recent years. In 2009, 15 percent of parliamentary society. Last but not least, 75 percent of those 25
chambers worldwide had 30 percent or more women countries have adopted measures to promote women’s
members. This is a first and represents important political participation, be they legislative measures
progress. The lower house in Rwanda became the or voluntary political party measures.
first to elect a majority of women parliamentarians The situation of women in government is rela-
in September 2008, putting Rwanda at the top of tively similar to that of women in Parliament. The
the list with women making up 56.3 percent of par- IPU and the United Nations Division for the Advance-
liamentarians. Rwanda also elected a woman Speaker ment of Women produced a map in 2008 presenting
for the first time in its history. The first upper cham- data on women in the executive and women in par-
ber to appoint a majority of women in parliament liament. Based on the figures collected for the map,
Challenges and Obstacles to Parliament: Current Trends 1116 percent of ministerial portfolios worldwide were Union of Local Authorities says that there are more
held by women. This was up from 15 percent in 2005. women elected to local councils than to national
In Finland, Norway and Granada, women held more parliaments. However, the lack of comprehensive
than 50 percent of ministerial posts – up from two and comparable data makes it difficult to identify
countries in 2005. Twenty-two countries had cabi- trends and progress.
nets with 30 percent or more women ministers in From a more qualitative point of view, many
2008, compared to 16 countries in 2005. Only 13 challenges have been identified that affect women’s
countries had no women ministers at all, and this is political participation levels. The diagram shows three
down from 19 countries in 2005. In sum, this again areas which each have different elements that im-
amounts to slow progress but progress nonetheless. pact on women’s political participation: first, their
The ministerial portfolios held by women are environments – where women are, the level of eco-
mostly what are called “soft portfolios”. This is a nomic development, the societal culture, the electoral
confirmed trend over a number of years. Women have system; second, the recruitment structure – how
a greater chance of being ministers of women’s affairs, candidates are recruited for election, the party rules
social affairs, education, and so on, than foreign affairs and the party norms; and, third, the recruitment
ministers, finance ministers or budget holders. As for process – the different steps from eligibility to aspi-
women as heads of state or government and leaders rant, and then from aspirant to candidate and from
of parliaments, the numbers are extremely low: 4.7 candidate to member of parliament. These are the
percent, 4.2 percent and 10.7 percent, respectively. different steps that need to be analysed, and for each
It becomes difficult for women to make it higher up of these steps there is a need to identify the challenges
in terms of the level of responsibility at the top of that women face.
the State.
Local government is an area where it is more dif- • Step one: from being eligible to run to aspiring
ficult to find research and data worldwide on the to run. What challenges have been identified by
presence of women. Around nine percent of the research? The one that is raised most often is the
mayors in the world are women. The International system of values and practices in politics, or the
Figure 1: The Recruitment Process: From Aspirants to Candidates1
RECRUITMENT ENVIRONMENT
Level of Economic Development
Societal Culture
Electoral System
RECRUITMENT STRUCTURES
Party Rules
Party Norms
RECRUITMENT PROCESS
Ambition
Eligibles Aspirants Candidates MPs
Resources Party Gatekeepers Voters
12 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisalsocial and cultural environment. Another com- major deterrents were for them in terms of running
mon problem is reconciling politics and family for election. Their priorities were very different. For
responsibilities. Getting financial support is also women, the major deterrents identified were domes-
key, as is support from women’s organizations tic responsibilities and how to manage private and
and building confidence. Security has also been public life, followed by cultural attitudes regarding
raised as an issue, as politics can be seen as violent the role of women in society. For the men, the two
and somewhat dangerous. main challenges identified included the lack of sup-
• Step two: from aspirant to candidate. If you want port of the electorate and access to finance. Questions
to run, how do you become a candidate and what of the family and how to balance private and public
are the elements that affect a woman’s selection? life were not raised as issues by the men.
The role of political parties is certainly key. The In conclusion, there is much to be optimistic about
electoral system, whether it is a proportional or a but trends seem to highlight that, if new measures
first-past-the-post system, the level of visibility are not taken to promote women in politics, we
that a woman has in her own party and the ex- might face stagnation or even reversals of progress.
ternal support that she has all influence whether There is a need to remain vigilant, and a need to
a woman will be selected as a candidate, as well as monitor these challenges regularly and take initia-
the selection process for candidates in political tives to move them forward. There is no single solu-
parties – and how transparent it is. tion, but a mixture of elements will allow for change
• Step three: how to go from becoming a candidate and progress.
to being elected to parliament. Elements that im-
pact on a woman’s election include the electoral
system, the level of party campaign support she
receives, the available funding, the cultural envi- Endnotes
ronment and the level of political will. 1 Adapted from J. Ballington and R. Matland, “Political Par-
ties and Special Measures: Enhancing Women’s Participation
Finally, what are the perceived deterrents to in Electoral Processes,” Presented at UN Expert Meeting:
women entering parliament? In 2008, the IPU carried Enhancing Women’s Participation in Electoral Processes in Post-
out a survey of men and women parliamentarians conflict Countries, OSAGI & Department of Political Affairs
entitled Equality in politics. It asked them what the Expert Group Meeting, January 2004, New York.
Challenges and Obstacles to Parliament: Current Trends 13You can also read
