Leveraging the Canadian Space Sector to Improve Arctic Infrastructure and Communications: RADARSAT and Telesat
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July 19, 2021 Leveraging the Canadian Space Sector to Improve Arctic Infrastructure and Communications: RADARSAT and Telesat Emily Standfield NAADSN Graduate Fellow Jill Barclay NAADSN Policy and Research Coordinator Purpose The purpose of this policy primer is to inform stakeholders and policymakers on the potential of public-private partnerships in outer space to solve Canadian defence, security, and public goods issues in the Arctic. By considering a successful public-private partnership in space—the RADARSAT Missions—it is possible to compare how the same approach might be used to rectify connectivity challenges in the Arctic. Introduction The history of commercial space activities can be traced back to 1962, when the United States launched Telestar 1 to deliver trans-Atlantic audio and video capabilities. Over the course of the following decade, more private broadcasting satellites, remote sensing satellites, and other systems were launched by private, commercially developed launch systems.1 At that time, there were two primary actors involved in the space race: the U.S. and the Soviet Union (now Russia). Today, more countries are participating in space endeavours and commercial actors have become significant stakeholders in outer space. Canada has had a long and robust history of space activity. With the launch of Alouette I in 1965, Canada became the first nation after the U.S. and Russia to design and build its own artificial Earth satellite.2 With Canada’s partnership in the International Space Station (ISS), the development of the first and second Canadarm, and the nation’s long-standing collaboration with NASA, Canada has remained a significant actor in space. Likewise, the commercial actors within its borders—MDA Ltd., Telesat, GHGSat, and NorthStar, to name a few—have made significant gains in Earth observation, robotics, and remote sensing.
Canada has previously taken advantage of private space actors to solve national security and public good
needs. There is no better example of this than in the Arctic. The launch of RADARSAT-1 in 1995 began a long
and fruitful public-private partnership between the Canadian government and commercial actors that
provides an invaluable tool for monitoring and protecting Canadian Arctic interests. This policy primer will
summarize the challenges of Arctic remote sensing and communications infrastructure before outlining public-
private partnerships that are working to solve these issues: the RADARSAT Missions and Telesat. The
RADARSAT Missions serve as an example of a successful public-private partnership to improve remote sensing
in the Arctic. Telesat, a Canadian satellite-based communications company, has announced that it will offer
high-speed internet connectivity to the most remote communities in Canada by 2023. While Canada has made
efforts to assist in Telesat’s success, there are marked differences between the support given to RADARSAT
and Telesat. The two public-private partnerships in the Canadian space sector—and their possible drawbacks
and benefits—will be highlighted and discussed.
Space Satellite Solutions to Challenges in the Arctic
Satellite technology is playing an important role in facilitating transportation and other economic
activities in the North, as well as maintaining safety and security. The October 6, 2011 loss of satellite
services and the resulting disruption to communications and air travel demonstrated just how reliant
Northerners have become on this technology. The Canadian Space Agency’s submission to the Review
outlined how space-based satellite technology currently supports transportation in the North through
communications, weather reporting, navigation, surveillance, and search and rescue activities.3
The Arctic remains of particular focus for the Canadian government. In Canada’s 2017 defence policy, Strong,
Secure, Engaged (SSE), the Arctic is highlighted as an “important international crossroads where issues of
climate change, international trade, and global security meet.”4 Indeed, melting sea ice and advancements in
technology are said to bring “increased safety and security demands related to search and rescue and natural
or man-made disasters to which Canada must be ready to respond.”5 Further, SSE recognizes this and commits
to investing in space capabilities, including space situational awareness, Earth observation, and satellite
communications that achieve global coverage, including in the Arctic.6 Space is going to be essential in solving
security and safety issues in the Arctic. Two areas of high importance to combatting challenges in the Arctic
are remote sensing and communications infrastructure.
Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is the process of acquiring information about an object or phenomenon without making
physical contact with it. Space operators can observe and gather data on Earth and other planets using remote
sensors attached to satellites and other aircrafts that detect emitted or reflected energy. 7 Improvements in
remote sensing have made shipping routes in the Arctic safer and easier to navigate, search and rescue
operations more successful, and infrastructure planning more informed.
2Shipping
With longer shipping seasons and the increasingly accessible Northwest Passage (NWP), the demand on
remote sensing services has and will continue to increase as marine transport in the Arctic becomes more
frequent.8 Coupled with existing technologies, the expansion of satellite coverage in the Arctic will improve
the monitoring and protection of the Canadian North. RADARSAT’s Automatic Identification System (AIS) has
provided invaluable tracking capabilities for ships transiting in and through the Arctic. The more data that is
available via satellite, the more comprehensive the picture of marine traffic in the Arctic will be, thus making
transit routes even safer still. As stated by the Canadian Space Agency, satellites offer the ability to:
• ensure that activities conducted, even in isolated areas, comply with Canadian laws and respect the
environment;
• manage marine traffic effectively to minimize impacts on the environment and the land; and
• prevent or intercept any illegal activities along Canadian coasts.9
Search and Rescue
The increased accessibility of the Arctic has simultaneously increased human activity in the region. As human
activity surges, so too does the need and demand for search and rescue (SAR). Satellite data is vital in
improving search and rescue (SAR) capabilities and response times in Canada’s remote and isolated Arctic
communities. Improvements in telecommunications capacity via satellite, combined with remote sensing
capabilities, will support the collection and distribution of land and sea geographic information, including
better information on sea ice and icebergs, which is used to inform SAR operators and support their
operations.10 Satellites are used to track ice changes, better understand climate change, ensure that sea
routes and ice roads are safe to use, and support marine traffic navigation. 11
Infrastructure Planning
Satellites can help overcome the overarching challenge of remoteness when building infrastructure in
Northern communities. As permafrost melts, the ground upon which critical infrastructure, like airports and
runways, highways, and other buildings, is built will shift and change. The future building of infrastructure in
the Arctic will require valuable knowledge of ice thickness, permafrost, and climate change, which satellite
radars can and do provide. 12
In response to the infrastructure deficit in the Canadian North, the Government of Canada has shown a
renewed interest in developing Northern transportation infrastructure, dedicating significant funding towards
transportation improvements in recent years. The 2016 Canada Transportation Act Review Report included a
chapter on Northern transportation and recommendations for the future of Northern infrastructure priorities
and needs, highlighting how satellite capacities are vital to improving transportation and planning throughout
Canada, but especially in the North. The surveillance of infrastructure—the detection of terrain disturbances,
monitoring of permafrost melt, and tracking of deformations of bridges, roads, and rail—is crucial to Northern
transportation and infrastructure. 13
3The benefits of remote sensing are vast for all of Canada, but especially in the Arctic. Improved
communications infrastructure, the challenges of which will be discussed below, would offer similar
advantages.
Air Traffic
The Cross Polar Working Group (CPWG), a forum of air navigation service providers and operators offering
services in the cross-polar and Russian Trans-East traffic flows, estimates that air traffic over the Arctic will
increase annually by 3.5%, or an additional 400-500 flights per year. Improved connectivity and satellite
monitoring will “allow the airspace to accommodate increased traffic, enhance safety, and permit the
introduction of new and more efficient routings.”14 Beyond the Arctic, the United Nations International
Telecommunications Union has taken steps to enable satellites to begin tracking all aircrafts in the world in
real time. These initiatives will help avoid aviation accidents caused by a lack of information and data. 15
Communications Infrastructure
In 2016, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) declared broadband a
basic telecommunication service. Jean-Pierre Blais, the CRTC’s Chair at the time, stated, “The future of our
economy, our prosperity, and our society — indeed, the future of every citizen — requires us to set ambitious
goals, and to get on with connecting all Canadians for the 21st century.”16 The United Nations Human Rights
Council released a similar resolution in 2016 affirming just that: internet access is a basic human right that is
essential for economic, social, cultural, political, and civic participation in the digital era.17 COVID-19 has
amplified this notion, with lockdowns making the internet vital to people’s livelihoods through online learning,
virtual doctors’ appointments, work, staying connected to family and friends, and more. Further,
telecommunications infrastructure in the Arctic is vital to the maintenance and preservation of Indigenous
peoples’ cultures and livelihoods. 18
Given the complex environmental conditions and large distances between population centres, delivering
internet connectivity to the Canadian North has been a challenge. Even where internet is available, the
connection reliability varies greatly, and the cost can be an inhibiting factor for many Northern residents.19
While internet connectivity in the Arctic is essential to improving socio-economic opportunities and livelihoods
in the Canadian North, more advanced and reliable telecommunication will be vital to address the complex set
of defence and security needs in the Arctic. The Arctic has increasingly gathered international attention for its
commercial opportunities, research, and military peace and stability concerns. Arctic sea ice has been melting
rapidly due to global warming, creating opportunities for new maritime routes and outside intervention. As
sea ice melts, the prospects for oil and gas extraction grow, as does the possibility of an alternative corridor
for international shipping through the Northwest Passage (NWP).20
The 2017 report of the Arctic Council’s Task Force on Telecommunications Infrastructure in the Arctic (TFTIA),
Telecommunications Infrastructure in the Arctic, found that “no single technology alone will meet all
telecommunications needs in the Arctic” and that the best way to serve the diverse geographies and users’
needs will likely require a combination of technologies.21 The Canadian space sector could offer expanded and
potentially near-complete coverage for Arctic residents when working in conjunction with existing internet
infrastructure.
4Internet connectivity projects in the Arctic have been plagued with obstacles for years. Most recently, in 2019,
the Government of Nunavut released a proposal to install a fibre-optic cable that would span from Iqaluit,
Nunavut, to Nuuk, Greenland.22 Shortly after the plans were released, the Government of Nunavut backed
away from the Iqaluit-Nuuk fibre-optic cable route when the estimated cost of the project increased from
C$107 million to C$209 million.23 An alternate route from Iqaluit to Hudson Bay through Frobisher Bay and
Hudson Strait emerged as a “higher value option.”24 In Hudson Bay, the cable would be connected to another
cable that the Kativik Regional Government will be installing between Puvirnituq and Chisasibi in northern
Quebec. At Chisasibi, the cable will link to the backbone of the North American internet, a land-based line
running through Montreal. 25 The Government of Nunavut is also simultaneously working with CanArctic Inuit
Networks, a private firm, to install a high-speed fibre-optic cable between Iqaluit, Nunavut, and Clarenville,
Newfoundland.26 While space-based internet is faced with its own set of complex challenges, having a multi-
layered internet infrastructure offers more reliability for connectivity in the North.
Despite this, fibre-optic cables remain a cheaper option than satellite infrastructure, leaving the majority of
investment in telecommunications networks to be driven by the private sector. 27 As stated by the TFTIA, the
development of telecommunications infrastructure and connectivity in the Arctic “will require work by, and
cooperation among, a constellation of different actors in the public and private sectors.” 28 As such,
partnerships between the private sector and the government will be of particular advantage in future
connectivity projects.
Government Commitments to Improved Telecommunications Infrastructure
In the same year as the CRTC’s declaration on the importance of telecommunications, the Canadian
government began the Connect to Innovate program, which aimed to enhance access to high-speed internet
for nearly 400,000 homes in 900 communities, including 190 Indigenous communities. Further broadband
projects include the C$2-billion Rural and Northern Stream of the Investing in Canada Infrastructure Program,
and the CRTC’s C$750-million Broadband Fund.29 In November 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic, the
Canadian government made a promise to connect 98% of all Canadians to high-speed internet by 2026,
reaching 100% by 2030. The C$1.75-billion fund to build infrastructure across the country (mostly in rural and
remote communities) was announced in the 2019 federal budget. Beyond this, the government had also
reached a $600-million agreement with Telesat to improve broadband in the North specifically.30
As outlined, space can play an important role in improving safety and security in the Canadian Arctic. However,
the high costs and slow rollout of these efforts leave opportunities for the private sector to play a part in the
Canadian space satellite sector by improving remote sensing and telecommunications capabilities.
Why Public-Private Partnerships?
Public-private partnerships offer unique opportunities to simultaneously drive Canadian innovation in space
and solve public goods needs in the Arctic. These partnerships offer benefits that would be unavailable if
pursued only through public or private avenues.
5Governments looking to expand their capabilities in Earth monitoring, satellite communications, and
navigation can make use of the reduced costs and risk offered through public-private partnerships.31 There are
many reasons why governments may engage in a public-private partnership to fill a public sector need. The
expertise the commercial sector provides might offer citizens improved public sector services. Or maybe the
public sector lacks the resources and capacity to develop infrastructure within a required timeframe.32
Commercial space actors are not constrained by government bureaucracy, nor are they dependent on
taxpayer funding, which makes them an attractive option for innovative undertakings.33 For private companies
in the space sector, government investment is always helpful. Space exploration is expensive and risky for
investors; economic returns are far from guaranteed. If governments act as anchor investors, it will make it
less risky for others to invest as well.
Public-private partnerships are sometimes challenging in the North. Projects such as the Stanton Hospital
Project in Yellowknife are singular ventures, which are less attractive to investors that prefer long-term
projects.34 And, if private companies were to ‘go it alone’ in the Arctic, investment in Arctic services might not
provide a sufficient consumer base to make a profit. The government subsidies often offered with public-
private partnerships make projects in the Arctic more financially viable for private actors.
The RADARSAT Missions and Telesat are both examples of public-private partnerships in the Arctic, which
attempt to fill public sector needs. While the RADARSAT Missions offer improved remote sensing capabilities,
Telesat aims to provide broadband coverage to the entirety of Canada. Both offer lessons for future
partnerships in the Arctic, which allow for benefits that the public or private sector could not individually
realize.
The RADARSAT Missions: Solving Remote Sensing Challenges in the Arctic
RADARSAT-1 was a Canadian-led collaborative project between the federal government and the private
sector. It was a remote sensing Earth observation satellite, which would prove to be the first of three in the
RADARSAT program. Canada, with its vast territory and variety of landscapes, has long recognized the
importance of Earth observation systems. RADARSAT-1 was developed to pursue this priority and was
launched on November 4, 1995. 35 The private companies that designed and built RADARSAT-1 include Spar
Aerospace, MDA, SED Systems, CAL Corporation, COM DEV, Fleet Industries, IMP, and FRE Composites.36
RADARSAT International (RSI) was a private Canadian company established in 1989 to process and distribute
the data gathered from RADARSAT-1. RSI was owned by several aerospace companies, before becoming a
wholly owned subsidiary of MDA. RADARSAT-1 is, in part, why Canada remains a world leader in the
processing of satellite remote sensing data.37
RASDARSAT-2 was launched on December 14, 2009, and remains active today. Technical advancements
allowed for enhanced marine surveillance, ice monitoring, resource management, and mapping as compared
to RADARSAT-1. The updated satellite gathers high-resolution images, regardless of weather or time of day.
Unlike RADARSAT-1, MDA owns and operates RADARSAT-2 and its corresponding ground segments in Quebec
and Saskatchewan.38 MDA is also in charge of data distribution. While the Canadian government funded the
construction and launch of the satellite, it recovered its investment through the supply of data gathered by
RADARSAT-2.39
6The RADARSAT Constellation Mission (RCM), launched on June 12, 2019, is the latest evolution of the
RADARSAT program. The Constellation’s use of three satellites allows for complete satellite coverage of
Canada, flying over the Arctic up to four times a day, and provides access to 90% of the world’s surface.40
While RADARSAT-2 was able to capture an image of the exact same location every 24 days, the RCM is able to
do so once every four days.41 With its capabilities spread across three satellites, the RCM is a more robust,
flexible system that is more cost effective to launch and operate. MDA was once again the primary contractor
for the newest RADARSAT mission, although the Government of Canada owns the satellite and the data that it
gathers. According to the Canadian government, “approximately 300 people worked on the construction of
the RCM in some 50 companies across the country. In total, 125 suppliers across 7 Canadian provinces played
a role in the project.”42
The RADARSAT Missions are prime examples of successful public-private partnerships that helped solve
security and public goods needs. Increased surveillance and observation are essential for Canada to protect its
interests in the Arctic—a concern mediated by the RADARSAT Missions. RADARSAT-2 was especially influential
in monitoring and protecting Arctic infrastructure, such as in the development of the Inuvik Tuktoyaktuk
Highway (ITH) in the Northwest Territories.43 The ITH, spanning 138 kilometres, is the first highway in Canada
to connect to the Arctic Ocean. The Northwest Territories’ government estimates that the ITH will reduce the
cost of living in Tuktoyaktuk by approximately C$1.5 million annually. Images of the landscape between
Tuktoyaktuk and the Arctic, provided by RADARSAT-2, were instrumental in planning the construction of the
highway.44 In the future, RADARSAT-2 imaging will better preserve existing Arctic infrastructure and identify
risks for emerging projects. The RCM, on the other hand, has been influential in monitoring climate change. By
offering imaging of the exact same location in the Arctic every four days, monitoring climate change and
human impacts on the environment has been made easier and more immediate. The RCM is also equipped
with an Automatic Identification System (AIS) for ships, which allows for the improved detection and tracking
of vessels.45 Overall, the RADARSAT Missions have enhanced Canadian capabilities in the Arctic, improved
living conditions for those living in Arctic communities, and provided invaluable data for research in climate
change and other areas.
Telesat: Solving Communications Challenges in the Arctic
Satellite communications is another area where the Government of Canada is already utilizing a public-private
partnership to solve security issues in the Arctic. Despite the importance of the Arctic to the Canadian
government, satellite communications capabilities remain limited to the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) north
of 65° North latitude.46 Providing satellite communications would assist in defence capabilities, provide public
safety and health services more efficiently to those living in the Arctic, and help with coordination between
government activities.47
Telesat, a Canadian satellite-based communications company headquartered in Ottawa, Ontario, offers a
solution to the connectivity issues present in the Arctic. Historically, Telesat and other satellite
communications companies have utilized systems in geosynchronous orbit (GEO). These are large spacecraft
that orbit 35,000 kilometres from Earth’s surface—this covers a large area, allowing operators to monitor
most of Earth with only three satellites.48 Becoming increasingly popular, however, are constellations of
satellites in Low Earth Orbit (LEO). These orbit only around 500 to 2,000 kilometres from Earth’s surface and
7thus allow for faster communications and higher bandwidth. By utilizing a constellation of LEO satellites,
global coverage can be achieved.49 Telesat plans to launch a LEO constellation composed of 298 satellites,
called “Telesat Lightspeed.”50 It is expected to deliver high-speed internet connectivity to the most remote
communities in Canada, and worldwide. According to the 2019 Memorandum of Understanding between
Telesat and Industry Canada, Telesat will offer “broadband coverage to Canada’s far north in 2022 and all of
Canada from a constellation in mid-2023.”51
Telesat has received strong support from the Canadian government to develop Lightspeed. In November 2020,
the Government of Canada committed C$600 million in funding in order to provide subsidized broadband
services to rural areas of Canada. This agreement enables “Internet and mobility service providers to acquire
Telesat LEO capacity at substantially reduced rates to bring universal broadband connectivity to rural,
Northern and Indigenous communities across Canada.” 52 Additionally, on February 18, 2021, Quebec’s
provincial government announced it would invest C$400 million into Lightspeed.53 Directly and indirectly,
Telesat will invest C$1.6 billion back into Quebec, by having many of its operations run out of the province. 54
Analysis and Conclusion
Public-private partnerships in space are an essential tool in solving security issues and public goods needs in
the Arctic. This has been proven to be true in Arctic communications and Earth observation. The RADARSAT
Missions were—and continue to be—highly successful in preserving Arctic infrastructure, improving
operations, and monitoring climate change. Telesat, on the other hand, will allow for satellite communications
north of 65° North latitude, something previously unavailable to Canada and its citizens. 55 This will not only
serve to improve living conditions in rural Arctic communities, but assist in defence capabilities as well.
Canada should consider these public-private partnerships a success and draw lessons from them for future
alliances with industry. The RADARSAT Missions were highly beneficial for the Government of Canada and
MDA. RADARSAT-1 allowed MDA and its counterparts to market and distribute the data with RSI. RADARSAT-2
and the data it collected were owned by MDA totally, which (in part) is why MDA remains such a prominent
leader in robotics satellite systems. While Telesat Lightspeed is not fully funded by the Government of Canada,
unlike the RADARSAT Missions, Canada did make a public commitment to use its services when they become
available to the public. This commitment has made it easier for others to invest in Telesat’s Lightspeed. Often
when there is an “anchor investor” (Canada), there is less risk for others to also invest. Canada can and should
do this with other space companies in the future to help them finance their projects and encourage others to
do the same.
The RCM is designed to last ten years, and there has not yet been a public announcement for a replacement
system. Meanwhile, Telesat still has a minimum of two years before it reaches its full capacity. Canada should
already be looking ahead for future opportunities and partnerships with the private space sector. In looking
towards other opportunities to engage with the Canadian space sector, Canada should consider the following
questions: What other security issues can space solve in the Arctic? How can Canada support and leverage the
power of Canadian space industry to solve these issues? What can we learn from Canada’s past successes and
how can we apply them to ensure the future success of other partnerships?
81 Aram Daniel Kerkonian, “Chapter 2: International and Canadian Space Activities,” in Space Regulation in Canada: Past, Present and
Potential, SpringerLink, 25 March 2021, 10, https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-68692-5_2
2 “Alouette I and II,” Government of Canada, 28 September 2019, https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/satellites/alouette.asp
3 “Pathways: Connecting Canada’s Transportation System to the World,” Government of Canada, vol. 1, 2015, 56,
https://tc.canada.ca/sites/default/files/migrated/ctar_vol1_en.pdf
4 “Strong, Secure, Engaged: Canada’s Defence Policy,” Government of Canada, 2017, 50, http://dgpaapp.forces.gc.ca/en/canada-
defence-policy/docs/canada-defence-policy-report.pdf
5 Ibid., 51.
6 Ibid., 72.
7 “What is Remote Sensing?” NASA Earth Data, 10 March 2021, https://earthdata.nasa.gov/learn/backgrounders/remote-sensing
8 Arctic Council Task Force on Telecommunications Infrastructure in the Arctic (TFTIA), “Telecommunications Infrastructure in the
Arctic: A Circumpolar Assessment,” Arctic Council Secretariat, 2017, 11.
9 “Space serving the Arctic and the Great Canadian North,” Government of Canada, 10 December 2019, https://www.asc-
csa.gc.ca/eng/satellites/everyday-lives/space-serving-the-arctic-and-the-great-canadian-north.asp
10 Ibid.
11 “Space serving the Arctic and the Great Canadian North,” Government of Canada.
12 Ibid.
13 “Pathways: Connecting Canada’s Transportation System to the World,” Government of Canada, 81.
14 TFTIA, “Telecommunications Infrastructure in the Arctic,” 11.
15 “Pathways: Connecting Canada’s Transportation System to the World,” Government of Canada, 81.
16 Matthew Kupfer, “CRTC declares broadband internet access a basic service,” CBC News, 21 December 2016,
https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/crtc-internet-essential-service-1.3906664
17 Michael Delaunay, “Submarine Cables: Bringing Broadband Internet to the Arctic, a Life Changer for Northerners?” Arctic
Yearbook, 2017, 2, https://arcticyearbook.com/arctic-yearbook/2017/2017-briefing-notes/250-submarine-cables-bringing-
broadband-internet-to-the-arctic-a-life-changer-for-northerners
18 TFTIA, “Telecommunications Infrastructure in the Arctic,” 10.
19 Marc Lanteigne, “The Internet in the Arctic: Crucial Connections,” Over the Circle, 5 April 2020,
https://overthecircle.com/2020/04/05/the-internet-in-the-arctic-crucial-connections/
20 Zhao Long, “Arctic Governance: Challenges and Oppertunities,” Council on Foreign Relations, November 29, 2018,
https://www.cfr.org/report/arctic-governance
21 TFTIA, “Telecommunications Infrastructure in the Arctic,” 10.
22 Jim Bell, “New undersea fibre-optic pitch for Nunavut competes against territorial government’s plans,” Nunatsiaq News, 15
January 2021, https://nunatsiaq.com/stories/article/new-undersea-fibre-optic-pitch-for-nunavut-competes-against-territorial-
governments-plans/
23 Lanteigne, “The Internet in the Arctic: Crucial Connections.”
24 Jim Bell, “Nunavut Government Takes Cable Plans in New Direction,” Nunatsiaq News, 20 January 2021,
https://nunatsiaq.com/stories/article/nunavut-government-backs-away-from-iqaluit-nuuk-fibre-optic-cable/
25 Ibid.
26 Bell, “New undersea fibre-optic pitch for Nunavut competes against territorial government’s plans.”
27 TFTIA, “Telecommunications Infrastructure in the Arctic,” 64.
28 Ibid., 12.
29 “High-Speed Access for All: Canada’s Connectivity Strategy,” Government of Canada, 16 July 2019, 2,
https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/139.nsf/vwapj/ISEDC_19-170_Connectivity_Strategy_E_Web.pdf/$file/ISEDC_19-
170_Connectivity_Strategy_E_Web.pdf
930 CBC News, “Canadian PM promises to connect 98% of Canadians, including in North, to high-speed internet by 2026,” Eye on the
Arctic, 9 November 2020, https://www.rcinet.ca/eye-on-the-arctic/2020/11/09/canadian-pm-promises-to-connect-98-of-canadians-
including-in-north-to-high-speed-internet-by-2026/
31 Karen L. Jones, “Public-Private Partnerships in Space,” Aerospace, 19 April 2018, 3, https://aerospace.org/paper/public-private-
partnerships-space
32 Ibid., 3.
33 Rebecca van Burken, “Biden Can Utilize Space Companies and Public-Private Partnerships,” Reason Foundation, 14 December
2020, https://reason.org/commentary/biden-can-utilize-space-companies-and-public-private-partnerships/
34 Stephen Van Dine, “Canada’s Arctic needs ongoing investment in infrastructure,” iPolitics, 11 January 2021,
https://ipolitics.ca/2021/01/11/canadas-arctic-needs-ongoing-investment-in-infrastructure/
35 “What is RADARSAT-1,” Government of Canada, 21 March 2014, https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/satellites/radarsat1/what-is-
radarsat1.asp
36 Kevin Rokosh, Maria Rey, & David G. Michelson, “World View: Canadian remote sensing at home and abroad,” IEEE, 2016,
https://canrev.ieee.ca/en/cr75/ICR75__Canadian_Remote_Sensing_at_Home_and_Abroad.pdf
37 “Archived – Canadian Space Agency,” Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat, 5 November 2009, https://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/dpr-
rmr/2008-2009/inst/csa/st-ts04-eng.asp
38 “What is RADARSAT-2,” Government of Canada, 8 January 2021, https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/satellites/radarsat2/what-is-
radarsat2.asp
39 Ibid.
40 “What is the RCM?” Government of Canada, 19 December 2019, https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/satellites/radarsat/what-is-
rcm.asp
41 “What is RADARSAT-2,” Government of Canada.
42 “Frequently Asked Questions – RADARSAT Constellation Mission (RCM),” Government of Canada, 16 March 2021,
https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/satellites/radarsat/faq.asp
43 “RADARSAT-2 helps create permanent road link to Arctic Ocean,” Government of Canada, 13 December 2017, https://www.asc-
csa.gc.ca/eng/blog/2017/12/13/radarsat-2-helps-create-permanent-road-link-to-arctic-ocean.asp
44 Ibid.
45 “Frequently Asked Questions – RADARSAT Constellation Mission (RCM),” Government of Canada.
46 Marc Boucher, “Procurement Process of Canada’s Next Military Satellite Project Stuck in the 20 th Century,” SpaceQ, 6 December
2017, https://spaceq.ca/procurement-process-of-canadas-next-military-satellite-project-stuck-in-the-20th-century/
47 TFTIA, “Telecommunications Infrastructure in the Arctic,” 17.
48 Chris Daehnick, Isabelle Klinghoffer, Ben Maritz, & Bill Wiseman, “Large LEO satellite constellations: Will it be different this time?”
McKinsey & Company, 4 May 2020, https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/aerospace-and-defense/our-insights/large-leo-satellite-
constellations-will-it-be-different-this-time#
49 Ibid.
50 “Telesat Lightspeed,” Telesat, https://www.telesat.com/leo-satellites/
51 “Memorandum of understanding between Industry Canada and Telesat Canada,” Government of Canada, 23 July 2019,
https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/smt-gst.nsf/eng/sf11543.html
52 “Telesat and the Government of Canada Finalize $600M Agreement to Bridge Canada’s Digital Divide with Telesat’s Low Earth
Orbit Satellite Constellation,” Telesat, 9 November 2020, https://www.telesat.com/press/press-releases/telesat-and-the-
government-of-canada-finalize-600m-agreement-to-bridge-canadas-digital-divide-with-telesats-low-earth-orbit-satellite-
constellation/
53 Jason Rainbow, “Telesat raising $500 million in debt for Lightspeed broadband network,” Space News, 14 April 2021,
https://spacenews.com/telesat-raising-500-million-in-debt-for-lightspeed-broadband-network/
54 “Telesat Lightspeed to Receive $400 Million Investment from the Government of Québec,” Global Newswire, 18 February 2021,
https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2021/02/18/2178440/0/en/Telesat-Lightspeed-to-Receive-400-Million-Investment-
from-the-Government-of-Québec.html
55 Boucher, “Procurement Process of Canada’s Next Military Satellite Project Stuck in the 20th Century.”
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