MAXIMISING DEFENCE CAPACITIES BY ALLOCATING SOCIETAL RESOURCES - DIVA
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Maximising defence capacities by
allocating societal resources
Balancing the objectives in planning for a total defence
structure
Kristin Leckström
Thesis, 30 ECTS (hp)
War Studies
Master’s Programme in Politics and War
Spring 2020
Supervisor: Sofia Ledberg
Word count: 15 975Acknowledgement
I would like to thank my supervisor, Sofia Ledberg, for her guidance through the writing process.
Furthermore, I wish to extend my greatest gratitude to Björn Nevhage, Elin Edman, Hanna
Langéen and the rest of the team at Structor Riskbyrån for their willingness to support the project.
Thank you all for contributing with your knowledge, insights, advise and encouragement.
IAbstract
This thesis aims to investigate how the objectives of neoliberal economic thought and total defence
structure are relatable in defence planning. With a theoretical base in research on outsourcing of
military logistics, the thesis sets out to contribute to the field of research by conceptualising the
objectives of a total defence structure as a way of understanding the defence posture in Sweden
since 2015. This is analysed through an in-depth study of Swedish defence planning reports and
interviews with relevant actors using a thematic approach of data analysis. The research identifies
that the objectives of neoliberal economic thought and total defence structure correlate to a certain
extent but there are also some discrepancies that affect the defence planning and ability. The result
indicates that there is a potential to combine the objectives more efficiently if the conceptualisations
were developed to fit the current societal structure where outsourcing is a common practice.
Key words: defence planning, military logistics, outsourcing, Sweden, total defence, transport
sector
IITable of Contents
1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1
2 Review of previous research .............................................................................................................. 3
Contribution to the debate .................................................................................................................... 7
3 Theoretical framework....................................................................................................................... 8
Neoliberal economic objectives ............................................................................................................. 8
3.1.1 Privatisation and specialisation ........................................................................................................ 8
3.1.2 Cost-effectiveness and lean production ........................................................................................... 8
3.1.3 Increased capacity and flexibility ..................................................................................................... 9
Objectives of a total defence structure ................................................................................................. 9
3.2.1 Supply chain security ........................................................................................................................ 9
3.2.2 Self-sufficiency and ‘insourcing’ ..................................................................................................... 10
3.2.3 Operational endurance and effectiveness ..................................................................................... 10
Arguments concerning theory ............................................................................................................. 11
4 Methodology ................................................................................................................................... 13
Research design ................................................................................................................................... 13
Case selection ...................................................................................................................................... 13
Strategy for data collection ................................................................................................................. 14
Data analysis ....................................................................................................................................... 15
Analytical framework .......................................................................................................................... 16
5 Analysis ........................................................................................................................................... 19
Neoliberal economic objectives in the defence planning process ....................................................... 19
5.1.1 Privatisation and specialisation ...................................................................................................... 19
5.1.2 Cost-effectiveness and lean production ......................................................................................... 21
5.1.3 Increased capacity and flexibility ................................................................................................... 22
Objectives of a total defence structure ............................................................................................... 24
5.2.1 Supply chain security ...................................................................................................................... 24
5.2.2 Self-sufficiency and ‘insourcing’ ..................................................................................................... 26
5.2.3 Operational endurance and effectiveness ..................................................................................... 27
Compatibility between the objectives ................................................................................................. 29
6 Discussion ....................................................................................................................................... 32
Outsourcing of military logistics .......................................................................................................... 32
Peace-time rationale versus the elements of war ............................................................................... 33
Limitations ........................................................................................................................................... 34
Future research.................................................................................................................................... 34
References ............................................................................................................................................... 35
Appendix ................................................................................................................................................. 41
III1 Introduction
The market for force and presence of private security actors has a long history which has influenced
warfare and war science in numerous substantive ways (Leria 2016:30). After the end of the Cold
War, the phenomenon of privatisation and specialisation expanded and gained importance in the
defence sector as a result of changing geopolitics. The advancement of military outsourcing has
since then influenced the academic debate where discussions often relate to wars fought by Western
armies after 9/11 focusing on the deployment of private military and security companies (PMSCs).
The use of private contractors has increased the number of actors and interests in these settings
which influence civil-military relations and collaboration (Berndtsson & Kinsey 2016). While the
majority of contractors are involved in supply and support services (de Nevers 2012) rather than
providing armed personnel, the focus of academic research has been the contrary (Phelps 2016:14-
16). Most studies are state-centric and centred around the themes of impacts on sovereignty and
monopoly of violence (Avant 2005; Krahmann 2013; Verkuil 2007), accountability and control of
actors (Leander 2010), ethical debates (Pattison 2014) and effectiveness (Dunigan 2011). Logistics
concern the supply of military operations and is therefore a vital component for strategic planning
and absence of this perspective in the academic debate of war science can be misleading.
Furthermore, the research thus far is mostly focusing on international operations in a US or UK
context (Berndtsson 2019) and to improve the understanding of military outsourcing this thesis
sets out to test the theories in a national setting. On the surface there seem to be consensus among
researchers in the field of military outsourcing about the central elements, yet looking closer to the
area of military logistics some differences emerge of whether research on PMSCs can be used to
understand the occurrences of outsourcing of military logistics (Kinsey 2016:20-26). Logistics
differs from other aspects of war due to its importance for all other components and even though
the nature of military logistics has remained the same throughout the history of war the character
of defence logistics has changed (Uttley & Kinsey 2012:414). Therefore, it constitutes an interesting
point of departure for studying defence planning.
This study has the ambition to contribute to the field of research by exploring outsourcing of
military logistics in a Swedish national context focusing on the transport sector. Therefore, this
thesis aims to investigate issues associated with creating an integrated defence where private actors
are a key component. Exploring this case is interesting as the reinstated total defence system is
based on the idea of reliable supply chains and support ability from a whole of society approach,
whereas the development of outsourcing favours objectives such as privatisation and cost-
1reduction. The research question is then: How do the objectives of neoliberal economic reforms and total
defence structure relate in formulating defence strategies?
Objectives are hereby defined as a concretisation of favoured values to achieve in the defence
planning process. Keeney argues that “values are what we care about” (1992:3) which is an abstract
concept, and by moving from values to objectives the analysis is more tangible while avoiding a
too technical approach to the research question. This enquiry is also theoretically puzzling as some
scholars argue that it is not sufficient enough to study outsourcing of military logistics using the
same parameters as studies of PMSCs with armed personnel. Hence, there is a need for further
research focusing specifically on logistics and looking beyond international operations (Erbel
2016:231-233).
To address this neglected aspect pointed out in previous research, this thesis presents an in-depth
case study of outsourcing of military logistics focusing on transports, relying on a combination of
data collected from defence planning reports and official state documents as well as semi-structured
interviews with relevant actors. By combining this data, the study seeks to explore how the
objectives of outsourcing relate with planning of military logistics in a domestic Swedish context.
The method of analysis is thematic in the sense that data is qualitatively analysed and coded in
order to find key terms or expressions linked to theory (Braun & Clarke 2006).
The following section presents the existing literature and current debate among scholars in the field
of military outsourcing as a way to establish the ground for this thesis. Chapter three presents the
theoretical framework and elaborates on the discussion of relevance of the study. The fourth
chapter introduces the chosen method and arguments for why that method was chosen. Said
section also outlines the research design and means for data collection. The following analysis
explores how the objectives relate to each other in the material. Lastly, there is a summarising
discussion on the implications of the findings for theory and policy and how this can guide future
research.
22 Review of previous research
Many scholars researching privatisation of security and civil-military relations highlight the
historical differences between military outsourcing in general and outsourcing of military logistics.
Even though the two concepts are closely intertwined (Erbel & Kinsey 2018; Moore 2017) there
are indeed some important disparities to consider. As the literature review is tailored to the stated
research objective it does not survey the entire literature on military outsourcing, but it touches
upon several subsets of ongoing discussions.
Military logistics have been outsourced to private actors throughout history however there has been
an increase in the scale and scope of the reliance on these actors to supply military actions during
the past decades (Erbel & Kinsey 2018). The importance of logistics is evident in Martin van
Creveld’s seminal work Supplying War (1977), explaining the link between strategy and military
logistics as:
Strategy, like politics, is said to be the art of the possible; but surely what is possible is
determined not merely by numerical strengths, doctrine, intelligence, arms and tactics, but, in
the first place, by the hardest facts of all: those concerning requirements, supplies available and
expected, organization and administration, transportation and arteries of communication (van
Creveld 1977:1).
Arguably logistics is central for the use of force because “it determines what military forces can be
delivered to an operational theatre, the time it will take to deliver that force, the scale and scope of
forces that can be supported once there, and the tempo of operations” (Uttley & Kinsey 2012:401).
The authors argue that logistics also include the industrial supply base and capabilities to plan for
its involvement in future military operations (Uttley & Kinsey 2012:403). By adding the perspective
of industrial involvement, the aforementioned authors move the definition of logistics into the
current context where logistics is increasingly operated by private actors. Moore (2017) agrees with
this conclusion arguing that the increasing reliance on private actors to provide logistical support is
as significant as the development toward network-centric warfare and the ‘Revolution of Military
Affairs’ (RMA). His study focuses on the scale, scope and emergence of the US military’s
dependence on private companies concluding that the case can guide further research.
The question of why outsourcing of military activities occur and how this influence systematic
organisation is often researched by focusing on private security services, meaning armed PMSCs.
Singer (2008) argues for two broader developments driving the emergence of this industry: the
3transformation in the nature of warfare and the ‘privatisation revolution’. The transformation of
warfare has created new demands opening up market opportunities for private companies. This is
supported by the increased privatisation which provides a logic for and legitimises the entrance of
market rationales into the public domain. Singer’s arguments correspond with defence economists,
such as Keith Hartley (2011), who’s central assumption of the shift from “make to buy”, is that
private actors display efficiency incentives that the public domain lacks. Hence, privatisation and
specialisation are objectives for military outsourcing, especially in the logistics sector since these
activities lies outside of purely military activities. Singer, Krahmann (2010) and Avant (2005) share
the understanding about the link to military downsizing in this development. However, Krahmann
argues that such functional arguments do not sufficiently explain variation in contracting with
private actors among similar states. In her study focusing on the US, the UK and Germany, she
concludes that ideology, political-economic organisation and civil-military relations are intervening
variables explaining military outsourcing. This view is shared by Petersohn (2011, 2017), as he puts
emphasis on the power of norms and ideas in shaping the shift from uniform-heavy operations to
civilian-heavy. These norms and ideas represent the objectives of privatisation and specialisation,
constituting the process for militaries turning into core competency forces. Taylor (2004) further
highlights core competency as a driver for outsourcing, where armed forces outsource non-combat
activities. His emphasis on the dynamic nature of defence posture sets him aside from other scholars
in the field which is an important contribution. The tendency to outsource can be explained through
examining the Swedish defence posture and its central elements. Scholars have used these drivers
to examine outsourcing of military logistics (Erbel 2017; Erbel & Kinsey 2016) creating a link to
how norms and ideas can affect the defence posture (Cusumano 2016; Krahmann 2010). Thus,
studies can gain from including elements specific to the defence posture of the country in focus
which in the case of Sweden includes objectives of total defence.
Kinsey’s research expands the scope of analyses concerning military outsourcing by including
logistics as a separate entity. In Corporate Soldiers from 2006, he examines the UK security service
industry and considers the history of which to extend beyond the neoliberal revolution of the 1980s
(Kinsey 2006:64-74). He makes an important contribution by distinguishing the important
differences between supply service contracting and armed private security providers. Most literature
in the field implicitly suggests that the phenomenon of logistics outsourcing can be understood
through the same parameters as private security companies. Singer identifies three types of
companies for the basis of his typology (2008:151-229), but these are not divided by the different
services they provide. Even though he expresses the importance of logistics, he overlooks this
4perspective when formulating problems with examinations of military combat services. Krahmann
tries to overcome the same issue by using private military companies (PMCs) as an umbrella term,
which correlates with her research agenda (Krahmann 2013). However, it becomes problematic as
not all types of contractors have the same impact and role in military missions or civil-military
relations. Depending on what kind of services companies perform, the implications for missions
and policy differ. Thus, it is important to differentiate companies according to the type of services
they perform. What these scholars have in common is the conclusion that supply chain is a central
component for the use of force which is a leading argument for this study.
In Operational Logistics, Moshe Kress (2016) develops a framework focusing on the operational level
rather than employing a more general stance like the other scholars mentioned. According to Kress,
logistics can be divided by two attributes: the scientific and the artistic facets. Logistics can be
regarded as a purely quantitative discipline with parameters such as volume and numbers allowing
mathematical modelling relating to the scientific aspect. The artistic facet highlights the qualitative
components of logistics which are not readily quantifiable, such as creativity, intuition and mental
flexibility in the process of planning for military logistics (Kress 2016:7-8). Kress uses the division
of functional levels of military operations – strategic, operational and tactical – to address logistics.
The book focuses on the operational level and presents seven properties or criteria for evaluating
defence planning: flexibility, attainability, continuity, tempo, simplicity, survivability and efficiency
(Kress 2016:54). This thesis utilises the “soft” principles related to the artistic facet of Kress’s
theoretical framework but also applies other aspects that are not as bound to a specific level of
logistics.
Partly because of the long history of dependence on contractors for military logistics, governments
often have more long-term commitments with these contractors in relation to PMSCs. Thus,
indicating a need to reconsider the overwhelming focus on outsourcing functions to armed
contractors. Even though the aforementioned scholars argue that military logistics is a critically
important topic, most research in recent years focusing on the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have
studied PMSCs with armed personnel. Erbel and Kinsey (2018) emphasise the importance of
putting logistics at the centre of study in the field of War Studies. Their article also connects the
RMA to the ‘revolution in military logistics’ (RML), naming the latter as a prerequisite for the
former. However, both developments are continuously driving each other. The authors argue that
the increasing complexity and diversification of the military supply chain and logistics systems have
been given little thought in recent academic debate. By using van Creveld’s definition of the link
5between strategy and logistics, Erbel and Kinsey identify five factors affecting this relation: policy,
resources, information, geography and the adversary (Erbel & Kinsey 2018:523). After using these
factors in analysing the operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, the main argument is the centrality of
logistics as determining occurrence, conduct and outcome of war.
Several authors also examine consequences of military outsourcing and associated risks. Verkuil
(2007) highlights how military outsourcing affects state sovereignty through a changed ownership
of decision-making processes and how reliance on contractors risks undermining sovereignty.
Berndtsson (2016) uses this argument as a starting point in researching military profession, private
contractors and the state in Sweden. The aim of his study is to examine what is known about the
significance of privatisation in military organisations and the effects on state control. The main
contribution to the field is to acknowledge the differences among contractors as it influences the
effect on ownership. In a later study, Berndtsson continue this discussion through an in-depth case
study of Swedish military profession (2019) and perceptions of military personnel about PMSCs
thus offering an insight into the relational aspects of military outsourcing. According to Berndtsson
(2014), Bobbitt’s idea of the “market-state” can provide a conceptual foundation for studies of
military outsourcing. The increasing influence of market ideas such as competition, cost-
effectiveness and outsourcing in the organisation of military institutions cannot be underestimated
(Bobbitt 2002:234-237).
In line with the arguments about the dynamic nature of defence posture there has been a change
in the organisation of the Swedish Armed Forces (SAF) leading up to the reinstatement of the total
defence in 2015. Total defence is not a new concept as it characterised the defence posture of
Sweden during the Cold War. Total defence policies involve a whole of society approach to national
defence planning and concern both military and civil defence preparations. The collaboration
between armed forces, government ministries, private business actors and civil society
organisations is thereby institutionalised which is what distinguishes total defence from other
defence structures. A general end of such a strategy is to deter an enemy and raise the costs of an
invasion for the invader. Total defence policies are also gaining attention since contemporary
threats are blurring the lines between war and peace as well as challenging the military and non-
military divide (Wither 2020). In 2015, the Swedish Ministry of Defence and the Civil Contingencies
Agency were assigned with conducting a total defence proposal which resulted in a Defence
Commission report. The report specifically discussed challenges with reinstating a total defence
policy in a changed socioeconomic setting where the supply chain of critical services and goods are
6operated by an increased number of actors (Sweden, Government Offices 2015). The transport
sector is deeply integrated with global trade and is dependent upon private companies to a greater
extent than before which has led to a complexity regarding responsibilities in demanding situations.
For example, the rail transport sector is deregulated with several domestic and international
operators and road traffic is often operated by international companies (Ingemarsdotter & Lundén
2019:16-18). This relates to the arguments discussed above where scholars agree on the impact of
the rise of neoliberal economic ideas for defence postures. As such, specific concepts based in this
economic perspective serves as a part of the theoretical framework of this thesis to guide the
analysis. These will then be complemented with the stated objectives of total defence policies
explained in section 3.2.
Contribution to the debate
This thesis addresses several findings from the literature discussed above and builds on the
identified gaps. As mentioned earlier, the aspects of supplying and supporting operations have been
overlooked in previous research, while the main focus has been the role of PMSCs in combat roles.
The literature discussing such companies is however important for the purpose of this thesis as the
values favouring outsourcing are intertwined with reasoning for outsourcing military logistics.
Furthermore, the previous research almost exclusively focuses on international operations carried
out by the US, UK or other NATO-countries, whereas smaller countries are neglected. By
exploring outsourcing of military logistics in Sweden, this thesis aims to bridge both these gaps in
the existing literature. The research discussed above guides the concretisation of the neoliberal
economic objectives examined here. However, there is a need to add other elements to capture the
specifics of the Swedish defence posture which is why the objectives of a total defence structure
are included. Since these are mostly derived from the empirical material, this combination of
objectives constitutes the main contribution of this thesis. Theoretically this thesis contributes by
combining theoretical approaches opening up the field to interdisciplinary conceptualisation which
can enrichen the debate. It also contributes to the endeavour of putting logistics in the centre of
attention for War Studies. Lastly, it explores the possibility to move the theorical focus from an
international setting into a national context. This refocus is important since outsourcing in a
national context can affect outsourcing in international operations and vice versa. Most researchers
highlight the centrality of transport in support functions for the military, but few studies are focused
around this component specifically which indicates a need for further research.
73 Theoretical framework
This section introduces the theoretical framework guiding the analysis. By combining theoretical
conceptualisations from the literature on outsourcing of military logistics with central concepts in
neoliberal economic thought and relating that to the objectives of the total defence structure, the
aim is to investigate the nexus between these approaches. The first contribution of this study is the
theoretical framework itself, where the objectives were developed through an abductive approach
moving between theory and empirics.
Neoliberal economic objectives
3.1.1 Privatisation and specialisation
One of the objectives of outsourcing is that adopting market reforms leads to more efficient supply
chains since the market is perceived to be more productive than the military. This ties together
with the idea of core competency meaning that organisations should focus on a few unique
capabilities that differentiate them from competitors and that they have to perform themselves.
The change in scale and scope of logistics outsourcing can partly be explained as a consequence of
technological sophistication in many weapon systems. This caused soldiers to focus on becoming
specialised in a certain weapon system and pay less attention to performing support services (Erbel
& Kinsey 2016:71-76). On an organisational level this led to core competency armies focusing on
generating maximum firepower and outsource other services. This development is not unique for
militaries but rather following a trend of other sectors as well where organisations mostly focus on
a specific task. This has led to a bias towards business solutions and against the government as a
service provider. Avant (2005), Singer (2008) and Cusumano and Kinsey (2016) all argue that the
preference for privatisation is motivated by an ideological belief in the superiority of the market.
3.1.2 Cost-effectiveness and lean production
Identifying and implementing cost-effective solutions is a key objective for outsourcing and it is
often argued that outsourcing is the cheaper option to carry out public services. A main argument
used to gather political support for privatisation reforms is how it is financially beneficial to
taxpayers as well. The actual evidence for the cost-effectiveness is limited (Cusumano & Kinsey
2016) and even if there is a financial gain in a short-term perspective, it is contested whether this
is also true in the long-term (Cusumano 2016:80). Despite the difficulties associated with measuring
cost-effectiveness, the superiority of such measures is considered a fact. The concept of cost-
effectiveness encompasses a variety of elements. For example, just-in-time delivery based on the
8idea of reduced stockpiles is one of the main goals. In Sweden, this was specifically articulated in
the reorganisation of the military in the 1990s presented as the Network Based Defence which led
the development marked by rationality and cost-efficiency. The just-in-time approach can lead to
weakened supply chain security since the flow of goods and services is more sensible to disruptions
(Berndtsson 2014:550). This objective is especially relevant for the transport sector and has affected
the development in recent years.
3.1.3 Increased capacity and flexibility
By outsourcing certain activities to private actors, the military can increase manpower and get
access to specialised skills and knowledge outside of the military. This increases capacity in the
specialised activities as well as the capacity in the military functions since it allows uniformed
personnel to focus on warfighting operations (Dunigan 2016:245). Such an approach builds on a
desire to effectively and efficiently use defence resources by asking the question of which services
the armed forces should or should not acquire from others (Taylor 2004). Flexibility in this context
concerns the different organisational elements between the private, public and military sector.
Private companies positioned outside of government bureaucracy can act more rapidly in times of
crises. The deployment of military personnel or civil servants with deployment-related roles takes
time as it demands approval from multiple levels of government (Dunigan 2016:246). The growing
number of private companies in the transport sector increases capacities because more vehicles are
available in times of crises. Private companies can also offer more specialised transport solutions
which could increase both capacity and flexibility (Ingemarsdotter & Lundén 2019:16-18).
Objectives of a total defence structure
3.2.1 Supply chain security
Research concerning supply chain management and specifically supply chain security receives
increasing attention in academic literature regarding business. However, this perspective is
neglected in regard to military supply chains and logistics systems (Erbel & Kinsey 2018). The
increased outsourcing of military logistics and transfer of ownership of skills and knowledge into
the private sector has resulted in less visible and controllable layers in the supply chains. This is
associated with a risk of volatile chains undermining operational endurance and effectiveness. The
contemporary strategic uncertainty where rapid military responsiveness is demanded builds on
stabile logistics capabilities and the success of an operation is dependent on functioning supply
chains (Wither 2020). After the Cold War, the modernisation of military supply chains in a Swedish
context were characterised by a reduction of stockpiles to the lowest possible level with reduced
9inventories leaving the Armed forces at the end of a fragile line of supply. The concept of
stockpiling and a just-in-case principle were discarded in favour of more cost-efficient methods of
organisation for logistics (Skoglund 2012:196). The development of supply chain security is stated
as a main objective for reinstating the total defence system in Sweden. A report submitted by the
Defence Commission in May 2019 stressed the issue of well-functioning logistics chains and
described it as a main priority for the mid- and long-term defence planning. The report concluded
that the current organisation is not designed to meet an armed attack on Swedish territory and
argued for the importance of building a necessary infrastructure in order to meet the demands of
an attack (Sweden, Defence Commission 2019).
3.2.2 Self-sufficiency and ‘insourcing’
The supply of the armed forces has historically been characterised by a more comprehensive self-
sufficiency than the current system. The question of who delivers support services if an armed
attack occurs is high on the agenda in defence planning but is associated with a number of
challenges. As a consequence of increased outsourcing in the logistics sector the involvement of
private businesses is key to the development of a robust supply system. By integrating the idea of
core competency, the military was redefined from being relatively self-sufficient to focusing on
combat activities to a greater extent (Erbel & Kinsey 2018). The Defence Bill of 2015, through
which the total defence concept was reinstated, expressed the issue of how to supply the armed
forces with critical logistical support as a reason for reactivating the strategy (Sweden, Government
Offices 2015). In this aspect, outsourcing of military logistics has complicated the defence planning.
According to Erbel, it is unlikely that any state will attempt to ‘insource’ military capabilities,
meaning return outsourced activities to the armed forces (2016:235). However, in the Swedish case,
it might be possible to enhance preparedness for securing supply chains by adopting a whole of
society approach that the total defence concept builds on. The objective of self-sufficiency needs
altercation in a new setting and one way meet it is to change the perspective of insourcing to include
the entire system of private companies delivering support services. Hence, this indicates a
broadening of the concept of how to supply the armed forces while staying in line with the
objectives of the defence planning process (Wither 2020).
3.2.3 Operational endurance and effectiveness
Territorial defence is back on the agenda in the Nordic region as a result of the deteriorated security
situation in Europe following Russia’s annexation of Crimea. In Sweden, this led to a revived total
defence planning where a whole of society approach to security influences the strategic posture.
10As such, operational endurance and effectiveness constitute a cornerstone for the current defence
planning process (Wither 2020). Having a robust military defence with support from civil defence
actors is stated as the main priority for the SAF in policy documents as well as the mid- and long-
term planning for the military. According to Wither, this objective builds on the concepts of
resilience and territorial defence. He describes resilience as society’s ability to resist and recover
from societal shocks through a combination of “civilian, economic, commercial and military
factors” (2020:62). Territorial defence refers to the strategic defence posture which is characterised
by a defensive approach and an intent to deter by denial. To reach the objective of endurance, the
armed forces need to have adequate support from civilian resources, for example in the transport
sector, which rests upon a strong cooperation in the planning process. A recent report from the
Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI) identifies the significant role of private sector in the
context of renewed total defence planning as vital societal functions, including transports, are in
many cases operated by private companies (Ingemarsdotter & Lundén, 2019:51-52).
Arguments concerning theory
The literature on outsourcing focusing on neoliberal economic ideas has been subject to a fair
amount of criticism. Some scholars argue that functionalist explanations such as market reforms in
defence planning fail to address the different approaches by countries who outsource military
functions (Cusumano & Kinsey, 2016:201-206). Despite the criticism, it is used as a point of
departure in this thesis because the objectives with such ideas affects the defence policy and
planning in Sweden and are therefore highly relevant to the topic at hand. The liberal model in
general aims to limit governmental power by establishing politically neutral and professional armed
forces, similar to the US and the UK. Whereas a republican model favours conscripted citizen-
soldiers to centralise security (Krahmann 2010:16-18). In relation to these ideas, Sweden constitutes
a puzzling case since outsourcing of military logistics has increased while the armed forces use
conscription thus indicating a combination of liberal and republican influences. Furthermore, with
the exception of the works of Hartley and to some extent Cusumano, theorists often neglects the
economic dimensions of market democracies in analyses. The economic dimensions presented in
this chapter could adversely affect defence planning and military performance. One potential
challenge with using the neoliberal economic theories is to be sensitive to the potential of other
factors shaping the defence planning process as well and to not see the functionalist explanations
as the only truth (Cusumano & Kinsey 2016:208). To address this challenge, this thesis combines
the functionalist perspective with ideational and political-instrumentalist explanations to widen the
analytical scope. By adding the objectives of a total defence structure, this thesis aims at examining
11the issue of balancing the different objectives in defence planning and also contributing with a
modified theoretical framework for analysis.
124 Methodology
This section discusses methodological considerations concerning data collection and analysis that
influenced the study, and arguments in favour of and possible criticism of the methodological
choices are debated.
Research design
The research field of military logistics is old from a formal perspective, however, there is a lack of
modern research focused on cases beyond expeditionary operations by the US or UK. Logistics
and supply chain management is often researched from a positivistic approach influencing the
ontological and epistemological considerations. However, the field of military logistics is not bound
to any specific paradigmatic perspective and a diversification of approaches can enrich the debate
(Skoglund 2012:105-108). This thesis builds on an abductive logic of inquiry associated with an
interpretivist approach. It is designed as a single in-depth case study of the objectives relevant for
Swedish defence planning. One concern is the issue of generalisability of the results as some
arguments are specific for the Swedish context (Berndtsson 2017:82-88). That said, it is also an
inherent strength that a case can be intensively examined. Rather than focusing on generalising
across broad populations, this study is concerned with examining objectives influencing defence
planning based on a total defence idea and thus contributing to the academic debate on outsourcing
of military logistics (George & Bennett 2005:38-40). This study serves the purpose of
understanding similar cases with widespread outsourcing of logistics and an ambition to plan for a
comprehensive defence strategy (Gerring 2004:342). This case also offers a chance to apply
theoretical concepts derived from previous literature and combine this with concepts found in the
empirical material thus contributing to the development of our knowledge about military
outsourcing and the objectives articulated in defence planning. Even though these are central for
the strategic posture they are relatively unknown or at least not examined in a theoretical study like
this. The choice of research design is based on the suitability for conducting a qualitative analysis
that allowed for a comprehensive examination of one case (Bryman 2012:380-384).
Case selection
There are a number of reasons for choosing Sweden’s defence planning and focusing on logistics.
To begin with, Sweden has outsourced a variety of previously state-operated activities, including
military logistics, during the past decades in line with the development in many other countries.
Following the economic slump during the 1990s a neoliberal policy reorientation led to the
13adoption of competition-oriented strategies for critical infrastructural systems previously operated
by the state. These reforms were not as market-radical as in, for example, the UK but rather
adjusted to fit the Swedish welfare state (Kuhlmann & Wollmann 2014:177). Therefore, the
reinstatement of the total defence strategy happened in a new setting different from when a similar
strategic posture was in place during the Cold War (Wither 2020). Because of the changed setting
it is interesting to examine the defence planning process after the reinstatement in 2015. By
focusing on logistics, this thesis aims to contribute to the limited literature concerning outsourcing
in this sector by considering it as a separate entity. Lastly, logistics is identified as a foundation for
military capabilities in both domestic and international operations. As such, logistics provides a
logical starting point for analysing the defence planning in Sweden. The transport sector was
chosen as a focal point for the analysis to delimit the material and reach deeper in the analysis. This
choice was made because transports are identified as a sector of critical importance for
infrastructure during crises or war by the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (Ingemarsdotter &
Lundén 2019) and transports are also mentioned throughout the theoretical material as a vital
function for logistics.
Strategy for data collection
The strategy for collecting material is divided in two: documents and interviews. The written
sources consist of reports by the SAF concerning the long-term defence planning as well as official
reports of the Swedish Government (henceforth: SOU) and reports about defence budgetary
decisions and political objectives relevant for the strategic posture. These documents produce
significant insights into the publicly stated interests guiding policy planning. While providing
detailed descriptions of Swedish defence policies these sources do not, however, present
theoretically grounded analyses. This thesis can therefore contribute by uncovering the underlying
conditions guiding defence policies. The long-term planning by the SAF, perspektivstudie, offers a
suitable starting point for analysing objectives of defence planning since they are clearly articulated.
By combining these documents, it is possible to gain access to a wider perspective of the Swedish
defence posture. The long-term planning was chosen because it discusses objectives of defence
planning on a higher level of abstraction than reports with a narrower time frame. As Bryman
(2012:554-555) argues, there are risks with treating such documents as comprehensive and
transparent representations of reality. The reports are written in a certain context and for a specific
audience and are not solely designed to be examined by social researchers and by combining
documents with interviews the analysis reaches beyond oversimplified descriptions of outsourcing
of military logistics. Since this thesis employs an in-depth aim with the purpose of reaching a more
14comprehensive understanding for a phenomenon, it is necessary to study not only the articulations
of objectives in defence planning documents and government reports, but also to study the ways
in which these are received by relevant actors in the field (Bryman 2012:554-558).
Semi-structured interviews serve as an additional means of data collection in order to explore the
research question. This method is suitable since it allows for a conversation concerning perceptions
and conceptions of the respondents. Furthermore, this approach allows for a more diversified
structure of the interview questions which is appropriate when respondents have various
responsibilities and professions. Questions do not need to be asked in the same way or order in
each interview allowing a natural flow of the discussion and the researcher can get more detailed
answers (Brinkmann & Kvale 2015:31-34). Open-ended questions were favoured since it gives the
respondents further freedom to answer the question as they wish, which can enrich the analysis
(Halperin & Heath 2017:288-292). Therefore, semi-structured interviews were considered to be the
best approach for the purpose of this study. In doing so, it is important to recognise the risk that
qualitative research and interview data may be overinterpreted. This is partly the reason for
choosing to use both interviews and written documents. Combining official reports with semi-
structured interviews offers a potential to gain a richer image and understanding for the objectives
in a defence planning process (Berndtsson 2017:86-87). Furthermore, interviews allow a more
exhaustive examination of the themes and topics found in the documents or to uncover issues not
articulated in the texts. Lastly, there are ethical concerns involved in using interviews for data
collection that were considered throughout the research process. Informed consent was obtained
before the interview started and an understanding for ethical issues was taken into account during
the interview situation as well as in the transcription and translation phase. The interviewees were
given the opportunity to remain anonymous and comment or change statements if wanted
(Brinkmann & Kvale 2015:85, 91). Another consideration related to this is that the translation of
quotes from interviews was done by the researcher and to stay close to the original material, this
process was carried out with caution to linguistic details.
Data analysis
The qualitative data is analysed through a thematic analysis. Identifying themes and sub-themes in
texts or other qualitative material is a basis for much social science research. This is done in the
initial exploratory phase of research to identify central categorisations that are crucial for the latter
descriptive and concluding phases. By explicitly explaining how themes are established in relation
to the data, the methodological choices are made assessable (Braun & Clarke 2006). One of the
15benefits with the method lies in its flexibility as a research tool since it can be used in a variety of
theoretical approaches. The criticism of the method often refers to this flexibility as a lack of clear
boundaries and concise guidelines. Without knowing how researchers went about analysing their
data, it is difficult to evaluate their outcomes or conclusions (Bryman 2012:580). Despite these
challenges, thematic analysis is used because of the advantages associated with the method and
how it correlates with the aim of this study. According to Ryan and Bernard (2003), themes can be
defined as “abstract (and often fuzzy) constructs that link not only expressions found in texts but
also expressions found in images, sounds, and objects” (p. 87). The authors further explain that a
theme is identified when it is possible to answer the question “What is this an expression of?”. In
line with the paradigmatic structure of this thesis, themes come from both the empirical data and
from previous theoretical understandings. Hence, an abductive approach is combined with
influences of theoretical sensitivity, which is also the favoured technique by Ryan and Bernard.
They present a detailed discussion on what to look for when conducting a thematic analysis which
will guide the strategy for data analysis in this thesis. Finding topics or reoccurring regularities
served as a way to identify the objectives in focus in this study. Expressions of the objectives were
found by searching for similarities and differences and compare them across units of data. Another
question to ask the material is what is not there which is a reversed technique to look for missing
data. This approach needs to be exercised with caution so that data is not manipulated. Lastly, by
using a theory-related technique it is possible to investigate how qualitative data can illuminate
questions related to social science (Ryan & Bernard 2003). The themes were coded using a software
to help structure the analysis. The coding was done manually and requires a familiarity to the
research field. Therefore, theme identification involves a judgement by the researcher and to
enhance validity of the judgements the arguments are made explicit and clear in section 4.5 (Braun
& Clarke 2006).
Analytical framework
In order to operationalise the theoretical framework, this thesis uses the concepts of
aforementioned scholars to specify what is being analysed and how. By doing so, the more general
categorisations presented in the theory section are translated to concrete analytical tools used to
interpret the empirical material. With reference to the stated purpose and research question of this
thesis, the analytical framework specifies how the different objectives are identified and balanced
in the empirical material. In order to answer how the objectives relate, the analysis aims to explore
how phrases or wordings used to explain the different objectives are compatible or if they contrast
each other. Specifying the expressions that this thesis evaluates also increases the transparency of
16the research process. Kress (2016:51) presents a number of so-called properties important for the
design of defence planning that can be used to measure the quality of the plan. This thesis adopts
some of the parameters presented by Kress and other scholars to guide the analysis.
The neoliberal economic factors deriving from theory, and to some extent the empirical material,
are categorised as specialisation and privatisation, cost-effectiveness and lean production, and
increased capacity and flexibility. These broad themes are uncovered by looking for more specific
expressions or concepts. In accordance with neoliberal economic reforms, and as stated by Kress
(2016:36), privatisation and specialisation in relation to military logistics can be understood as a
shift towards commercial practices, private sector partnerships and reconstruction initiatives. This
is measured through expressions of the relevance of optimisation of costs in relation to benefits
and resource allocation. At an operational level this means that decisions are made based on trade-
offs and marginal utilities (Kress 2016:38). This ties together with cost-effectiveness since the
objective is identified by looking for expressions of the relation between input and output. At a
tactical level this is practiced by balancing economic considerations against operational
effectiveness and support of supply (Dunigan 2016:246-247). Lean production relates to cost-
effectiveness as both objectives are identified through expressions of downsizing and a logistics
organisation characterised by just-in-time delivery (Skoglund 2012:196-197). Thus, correlating with
Kress’s principle of attainability in the sense that following the idea of lean production and cost-
effectiveness risks jeopardising attainability of supply at the tactical level of the logistics network
(2016:51). Increased capacity and flexibility, as two of the most commonly noted objectives of
outsourcing, both relate to the idea that using private actors in logistics networks enables better
utilisation of the armed forces. In defence planning this is often expressed through the ability to
quickly respond to changing conditions. Moreover, central themes to examine are mentions of
decreased stockpiles and limitations of storage facilities or transportation nodes (Kress 2016:51-
54).
The objectives of total defence policy are presented as: Operational endurance and effectiveness,
supply chain security and self-sufficiency and ‘insourcing’. Because of its centrality for planning
military organisations, analysing operational endurance includes a variety of dimensions and the
focus moves between all levels of logistics. The objective is manifested primarily by allocating
resources among competing demands in order to enhance ability and operational effectiveness
(Kress 2016:38-40). This is observed in the material through mentions of combined defence ability
of the total defence system. More specified factors considered are mental agility, meaning the ability
17to react fast to incoming information, and cognitive consonance, which means that the different
actors share a common understanding of a situation. The latter factor is affected by how
communication is distributed among the actors within the system (Kress 2016:39-41). Supply chain
security is analysed by expressions of the importance to prevent disturbances in the flow of supply
between the actors. This affects all levels of logistics since the tactical level is dependent on proper
planning for supply at a strategic level. Supply chains can be defined as a network that works
together to enable flows of supply. Military supply chains differ from other businesses because of
a greater need for geographic proximity of supplies to the operating units who are the end
consumers (Erbel & Kinsey 2018). Lastly, self-sufficiency is measured through expressions of the
availability of resources on short notice across the area of operation. This is an indicator of the
level of independence concerning supply and support services in the different military units (Erbel
2016:234-236). However, there needs to be a balance in self-sufficiency to not jeopardise the
flexibility and mobility of units, relating back to the question of lean production (Kress 2016:65).
These principles will guide the subsequent analysis of the defence planning process in Sweden
based on observations from thematic analysis of policy documents and interviews. To further
illustrate the operationalisation of the themes as well as attain transparency, Table 1 shows specific
portrayals from the empirical material. However, these are not perceived as constant but rather
dynamic in nature.
Table 1: Operationalisation
Objectives Key words
Privatisation and specialisation • Market reforms and logics
• Outsourcing to private actors
• Maximise opportunity
Cost-effectiveness and lean production • Cost-effective use of resources
• Optimising input vs. output
• Focus on main activity
Increased flexibility and capacity • Short lead times
• Limit storage, stockpiles and
transportation nodes
Supply chain security • Prevent and reduce risk of disturbances
• Critical infrastructure protection
Self-sufficiency and ‘insourcing’ • Inhouse resources and capabilities
• Independency in support and supply
Operational endurance and effectiveness • Combined capabilities
• Mental agility
• Communication and collaboration
185 Analysis
Before moving to the analysis, this chapter starts by referring back to the research question: How
do the objectives of neoliberal economic reforms and total defence structure relate in formulating defence strategies?
The following sections are concerned with analysing how the objectives are identified through
expressions in reports and interviews. To stay coherent with the theoretical framework the section
is divided in accordance with the objectives under the overarching themes of neoliberal economic
ideas and total defence structure. The contribution of the thesis rests upon analysing how neoliberal
economic objectives and total defence objectives impact defence planning. To address the results
of the analysis the chapter also discusses how these objectives are compatible in a defence planning
context.
Neoliberal economic objectives in the defence planning process
5.1.1 Privatisation and specialisation
The current state of the organisation of the SAF is a result of decades of downsizing and reduced
number of troops and facilities. A theme identified in the material and that is reoccurring
throughout the different sources is the idea of privatisation. The long-term planning from the SAF
concludes that organisational decisions since the 1990s have had a negative impact on the starting
conditions to build a defence based on a total defence structure. This is partly due to years of
privatisation and reduced budgetary resources to the military (SAF 2018). In addition, this problem
can be derived from the organisational decision to focus the SAF capabilities to engage in
international operations whereas the total defence structure means a refocus towards enhancing
the ability to ensure national security (SAF 2018). Furthermore, the final report by the Defence
Commission (Ds 2019:140) concludes that critical infrastructure that was previously owned and
operated by public actors are now administered by private companies either based in Sweden or
abroad. The changed prerequisites have affected the production standards and conditions of the
military and defence industry which has a great impact on logistics for the armed forces. These
developments correlate with Bobbitt’s idea of the market-state, where the ultimate aim is to
stimulate and maximise opportunity for the population. Privatisation is then a tool used to bring
capital gains to the state while also increasing the number of market operators which is beneficial
for the people (Bobbitt 2002:668). When addressing military logistics specifically, the Commission
concludes that such activities “in the broadest sense have changed from being organised to support
a quantitatively large military defence – with demands of ability and endurance – to supporting a
small peacetime-organisation” (2019:141). Following peace-rational premises, the Swedish defence
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