NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN HAWAIʻI
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March 22, 2021
NATURE-BASED
RESILIENCE AND
ADAPTATION TO
CLIMATE CHANGE
IN HAWAIʻI
A Climate Ready Hawaiʻi
Working Paper
Photo: A pedestrian walks the flooded roads of Mapunapuna area, past a
mural of a wetland taro farmer cultivating his field. “Sunny day flooding”
will continue to worsen with rising sea levels due to climate change. The
taro farm mural evokes the use of nature-based solutions to make Hawai‘i
climate ready. (Courtesy of Hawai‘i Sea Grant King Tides Project)
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NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN HAWAIʻI
Acknowledgements The Core Team (listed below) gratefully acknowledges the support of all partners in bring- ing this document to its current stage. Reviewers, Commentators and Contributors: Mahalo nui to our partners who con- tributed, reviewed, and commented on the many drafts. They are: Dr. Leah Bremer (Univer- sity of Hawai‘i at Mānoa), Dr. Christian Giardina (University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, USDA For- est Service), Dr. Albie Miles (University of Hawai‘i-West O‘ahu), Amy Markel (DLNR-Division of Aquatic Resources), Ryan Okano (DLNR-Division of Aquatic Resources), Dr. Heather McMillen (DOFAW-Division of Forestry and Wildlife), Dr. Susan Crow (University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Natural Working Lands Research Team), Nancy McPherson (State of Hawai‘i De- partment of Hawaiian Home Lands), Jamie Barton (Healthy Soils Hawai‘i, Natural Working Lands Research Team), Gina McGuire (PhD Student, Geography & Environment, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa), Dr. Johanie Rivera-Zayas (University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Natural Working Lands Research Team), Dr. Bradley Romine (Hawai‘i Sea Grant, Office of Conserva- tion and Coastal Lands), Earl Yamamoto (State of Hawai‘i Department of Agriculture), Mi- chael Madsen (State of Hawai‘i Department of Health), and Kirsten Turner (Hawai‘i State Energy Office). Hui Participants: Mahalo nui to our partners who attended meetings and engaged in deliberations. They are: Andrew Taylor (Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Re- sources), Elaine Vizka (PhD Student, Tropical Plants and Soil Science, University of Ha- waiʻi at Mānoa) Mathew Cocking (Natural Resources Conservation Service), Dr. Kim Fa- linski (University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, The Nature Conservancy), Jade Rhodes (KUPU AmeriCorps, Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources), and Dexter Kishida (Re- silience Office, City and County of Honolulu Office of Climate Change, Sustainability, and Resiliency). Project Core Team: This project was led by Anukriti Hittle (Hawai‘i Climate Change Mit- igation & Adaptation Coordinator) with core guidance and support from Jennifer Phillips (Senior Policy Advisor at the U.S. Climate Alliance), and Leah Laramee (Natural Resource Planner at the Hawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources). Megan Gonsalves (KUPU AmeriCorps, Hawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources) pro- vided extensive research assistance, and Diana Lopera (Climate Ready Hawaiʻi AmeriCorps
VISTA, Hawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources) provided copy editing assis- tance. The Hawaii Climate Exchange (HICE) is a concept spearheaded by Dr. Christian Giardina, Leah Laramee, and Anukriti Hittle, with assistance provided by Diana Lopera and Megan Gonsalves. Document production and Graphics: Bryan Keith (Nomancy Design LLC) produced this document. Disclaimer This Working Paper is a living document, written collaboratively over time, and is subject to change. It is produced for discussion by the Hawaii Climate Change Mitigation and Adap- tation Commission at its meetings. The information is provided on the condition that the State of Hawaiʻi shall not be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information.
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Contents I. Climate Change Threats, Risks, and Vulnerabilities in Hawai‘i ……………….. 1 Summarizes current and projected climate change threats and vulnerabilities in Hawai‘i. II. Ahupua‘a-Moku Approach to Climate Readiness ……..….…………..………….… 8 Provides context for an integrated approach for natural and cultural resources in Hawai‘i. III. Nature-based Solutions: “Green-blue” Efforts in Hawai‘i Illustrate Climate Readiness …………….….………………………………………………………………..… 14 Highlights exemplary nature-based solutions, or “green-blue” projects, strategies and alliances that address resilience and adaptation to climate change in Hawai‘i; and makes connections to where Hawai‘i can (and does) align with subnational, national, and international efforts. IV. Resilience Framework Components for Hawai‘i ………………………….…….….. 23 Outlines general principles for a Climate Ready Hawai‘i, especially the use of nature-based solutions; how to measure climate readiness, and the need for decision support tools. V. Next Steps to Readiness ………………………………………………………………………… 33 Highlights ongoing needs, and recommendations for next steps, such as the coordination of a knowledge exchange for Hawai‘i.
In a world that is falling short of meeting climate goals, Hawai‘i plays an important role in raising ambition. For Hawai‘i, as with its Pacific Island neighbors, climate change is an ex- istential threat. Current international policies and pledges to reduce greenhouse gas emis- sions, if met, will result in an estimated 3-3.5°C of anthropogenic warming by 2100, a level of warming double that which is considered safe. 1 2 While the U.S. rejoins the Paris Agree- ment and renews its pledges to keep global warming under 2°C, Hawai‘i must continue to lead by addressing its vulnerabilities and adaptation to climate change. The Hawai‘i Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Commission approved a Climate Ready Hawai‘i initiative to identify and address vulnerability to infrastructure in a manner that is “clean, equitable, and resilient.” 3 4 Purpose and Scope While Climate Ready Hawai‘i initially focused on sea level rise (SLR) impacts, it became clear that this document must tackle mauka-makai (coastal and landward) issues, and so, go be- yond vulnerability to infrastructure to fully address climate change impacts in Hawai‘i. 5 This Working Paper highlights actions in Hawai‘i that rely on nature-based “green-blue” strategies to adapt to and mitigate climate change. It identifies ongoing efforts in the state, and key action areas for next steps that enhance climate readiness. We hope this document will be used by decision makers, planners, communities, businesses, and scientists as a guide for climate change resiliency work in Hawai‘i. This document does not discuss the resiliency of the power grid, renewable energy re- sources, or sustainable transportation systems, although each of these have important roles to play in climate mitigation and goals of the state. Additionally, resiliency of the built en- vironment is not considered in this document, even though green-blue infrastructure has a large role to play in climate readiness. Because of their complexity, we are unable to fully address climate equity and justice topics here. Since they are central elements of the Com- mission’s mission, we address them in current and subsequent Climate Ready Hawai‘i Work- ing Papers and companion documents. These Working Papers inform strategies for a Cli- mate Ready Hawai‘i, and should be used and considered together. Climate Ready documents can be found on the Hawai‘i Climate Portal on climate.hawaii.gov.
I. Climate Change: Threats, Risks, and Vulnerabilities in Hawaiʻi In Hawai‘i, climate change risks associated of land or freshwater supply for irrigation with increased temperatures, sea level rise and drinking, and SLR-driven salinization (SLR), and changing rainfall patterns are re- will also negatively affect some traditional sulting in extreme droughts and unprece- agro-ecological practices, such as loko i‘a dented flooding events. Saltwater contami- (Hawaiian fishponds) and lo‘i kalo (wetland nation of low-lying agricultural lands and or flooded field taro systems), as well as water sources due to SLR and increasing some conventional agricultural practices, strength of storm surges will have negative with impacts to food security and cultural effects on food production, water supply, practices in Hawai‘i. 7 and the state’s economy. 6 SLR-related losses Figure 1. Known as the ‘rainforests of the sea’, our coral reefs provide vital ecosystem services for us, as well as allows for the diverse flora and fauna that thrive in these spaces. Land-based pollution and runoff eventually makes its way into our waters, putting our reefs’ health at risk. Initiatives to protect our reefs and properly managing the adjacent lands will ensure the safety and health of our reefs and the services it provides. (Courtesy of Heʻeia National Estuarine Research Reserve) NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 1 CHANGE IN HAWAIʻI
Equity in Climate Action
Though climate change affects communities and acknowledge those institutions that
around the globe, the impacts and risks are have and currently do cause these dispari-
felt differently by different communities. ties. Recognizing this, Hawai‘i’s Climate
Climate change exacerbates existing Commission puts equity at the center of its
mission statement, to “promote ambitious
inequalities and can bring about new injus- climate-neutral culturally responsive strat-
tices in vulnerable and historically margin- egies for climate change mitigation and ad-
alized communities. To build climate eq- aptation in a manner that is clean, equitable
uity, it is essential to center the voices and and resilient.”
strengths of these communities,
Putting equity first in government planning
Many governments are shifting towards climate change mitigation, adapta-
planning processes that put equity at the tion and resilience.” 8
forefront. Hawai‘i’s Climate Commission
urges all government entities in the state to: In California’s Integrated Climate Adapta-
tion and Resiliency Program’s 2020 Impact
• “Use a vulnerability framework that Report, climate equity is highlighted: “The
is appropriate for Hawai‘i, and incor- central equity challenges for climate change
porate cultural responsiveness, re- policy involve several core issues: address-
flect Indigenous voices and custom- ing the impacts of climate change, which are
ary law practices to identify any ineq- felt unequally; identifying who is responsi-
uitable distribution of benefits, bur- ble for causing climate change and for ac-
dens and processes caused by climate tions to limit its effects; and understanding
change impacts and policy; and the ways in which climate policy intersects
with other dimensions of human develop-
• Recognize and address the inequita- ment, both globally and domestically.” 9 Sev-
ble distribution of benefits, bur- eral other states have put forward equity re-
dens and processes, by incorporating ports and even, legislation. The European
equity considerations from the begin- Union’s new strategy on adaptation to cli-
ning into their planning, policy devel- mate change recognizes that “the local level
opment and implementation for is the bedrock of adaptation.” 10 As we move
forward in crafting strategies and policies
NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 2
CHANGE IN HAWAIʻIfor adapting to climate change, and building capacity of those who are most vulnerable
resilience in Hawai‘i, there is an opportunity and least represented.
to enhance, rather than diminish, the
Vulnerable communities in Hawai‘i
Like Indigenous communities across the The State’s role in providing an enabling
United States and the world, Native Hawai- policy and legislative framework is essen-
ians are disproportionately affected by cli- tial for local jurisdictions to adequately ad-
mate change. Rising sea levels, declining dress equity issues of adaptation and resili-
freshwater availability, and changing eco- ence. To do so, we must understand existing
systems directly threaten communities’ vulnerabilities within communities and
health and livelihoods, as well as their famil- identify how they will interact with climate
ial relationships with ancestral resources. impacts so that benefits and burdens of cli-
SLR has impacted cultural practices such as mate change are equally distributed.
loko i‘a maintenance, cultivation of salt, and
gathering from nearshore fisheries. In Ha- A more detailed discussion of equity in cli-
wai‘i, effects of ocean acidification, drought, mate change mitigation, adaptation and re-
pollution and other climate change factors silience is being built out in companion
have already been documented. 11 12 13 Working Papers.
Identifying communities in Hawaiʻi that are
the most vulnerable to climate change im-
Identifying communities in
pacts—Native Hawaiian, Pacific Islander,
Hawaiʻi that are the most
and other groups-- is central to cor-
rectly analyzing how strategies, policies and vulnerable to climate change
projects will affect them. The State of Ha- impacts—Native Hawaiian,
wai‘i is in the process of developing a vul- Pacific Islander, and other groups--
nerability index to help describe such vul- is central to correctly
nerabilities. At the county level,
analyzing how strategies, policies
the Oʻahu Office of Climate Change, Sustain-
and projects will affect them.
ability and Resiliency utilizes tools like the
Centers for Disease Control’s Social Vulner-
ability index, 14 and a combined map of social
vulnerability and climate change. 15
NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 3
CHANGE IN HAWAIʻIClimate change is a major threat to the state of Hawai‘i. The direct and indirect effects of climate change are already apparent, with numerous associated risks that need to be quan- tified and assessed for Hawai‘i to address its vulnerabilities to future change. 16 Here, we briefly summarize climate change threats, risks and vulnerabilities in Hawai‘i. A. Rising Sea Levels A combination of ice melt and land subsid- ence has translated into SLR of 10 inches on average since 1950 off the coasts of Ha- wai‘i. 17 18 Current projections suggest that 3.2 feet of SLR or more may occur as early as 2060. 19 Figure 2. Local sea level rise has impacts beyond the coast- line. Here, we can see the increase of flood events in places like Mapunapuna in O'ahu. As sea levels continuing to rise, flooding is worsening further and further inland where sea- water will flow backwards from storm drains – leading to pools of dirty, contaminated brackish water where we live, posing public health and economic risks for those that need access to these places. (Courtesy of Trista McKenzie, UH Mānoa) Coastal erosion and inland flooding Approximately 70% of beaches on Kaua‘i, communities, but inland flooding will also O‘ahu, and Maui are eroding and progres- increase, impacting communities further sively receding, which places increased from the coast. pressure on exposed infrastructure from waves, in turn resulting in further land According to the Hawai‘i Sea Level Rise Vulner- loss. 20 Through modeling via the Hawai‘i Sea ability and Adaptation Report, (2017), flooding Level Rise Viewer 21 tool it is clear that SLR caused by SLR of 3.2 feet will cost the state will not only affect low-lying coastal $19 billion. With this projection, “nearly 550 NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 4 CHANGE IN HAWAIʻI
Hawaiian cultural sites would be flooded or near the shoreline would be unusable or
eroded, 38 miles of major roads would be lost- resulting in approximately 20,000 dis-
chronically flooded, and more than 6,500 placed residents.” 22
structures and 25,800 acres of land located
B. Less but more intense rainfall
Hawai‘i is getting drier. Rainfall has declined it does finally rain, it rains heavily. 23 In
significantly over the past 30 years, with March 2021, for example, Maui county is-
widely varying rainfall patterns on each is- sued a drought disaster for parts of Maui
land. This means some areas are flooding County and then experienced life threaten-
and others are too dry. Since 2008, overall, ing flooding that same week. 24 25
the islands have been drier. However, when
Figure 3. Heavy rainfall events and the re-
sulting landslides and flooding have devas-
tated areas throughout Hawaiʻi, causing
damages to homes, buisinesses, and traspor-
tation infrastructure. In March 2021, the is-
lands of Maui, Kaua‘I (shown here), and
O‘ahu experienced flashflood events
that prompted the governor to declare a
State of Emergency. As weather and rainfall
patterns continue to shift, extreme weather
events like these are likely to occur more of-
ten. (Courtesy of HIDOT)
Intense rainfall means runoff, erosion, flooding, and landslides
Extreme rainfall events not only tend to dis- more than two weeks. 27 In 2015, El Niño
rupt human activity, but can be catastrophic brought 11 days of record-setting rainfall to
to life and property. In 2018, Kauaʻi’s north Honolulu. 28 The resulting flash floods, im-
shore experienced the single-biggest rain passable roads, landslides and shuttered
event in U.S history. 26 This event caused an businesses provide an eerie glimpse into the
estimated $20 million in damage to public future of what climate change will bring to
property, affected more than 500 homes, the islands. In urbanized areas such as Wai-
and cut off access to Wainiha and Hā‘ena for kīkī, which was once a wetland and is now
NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 5
CHANGE IN HAWAIʻIthe most populated area in Hawai‘i, drainage ensuing floods affecting the islands have led
failure and flooding pose a risk to a signifi- the Governor to declare a state of emer-
cant portion of the population. Even as this gency. 29
paper is being written, torrential rains and
Rainfall variability and water shortages
Water shortages have been identified as one ideal for aquifer recharge. Aquifer depletion
of the most critical climate-related risks to results in negative effects on groundwater
island nations. 30 Dry areas are projected to dependent ecosystems including anchialine
get drier, which will likely result in regional pools, loʻi kalo, loko iʻa, and nearshore
water shortages. Intense rainfall events, ecosystems.
such as those described above, are also not
Figure 4. Each year Hawai‘i loses the
same percentage of land to wildfire as
California. These wildfires are the result
of drought conditions caused by climate
change and present a critical threat to the
state. In 2018-2019, Maui saw a 500% in-
crease in acres burned by wildfire, with a
single wildfire burning over 10,000 acres
and forcing thousands of residents to
evacuate their homes. (Courtesy of DLNR-
DOFAW)
C. Rising Temperatures
Hawai‘i, along with the rest of the world, has across all islands, and 2019 was the hottest
seen an increase in temperatures. Tempera- year ever recorded on O‘ahu, featuring the
tures are increasing at four times the rate of hottest day ever recorded in Honolulu’s his-
half a century ago. 31 The last five years have tory.
seen peak average annual temperatures
NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 6
CHANGE IN HAWAIʻIHeat waves pose a severe threat to public health
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency temperature, which has quadrupled in the
estimates that 1,300 deaths per year in the last 40 years to over 0.3°F (0.17°C) per dec-
United States are attributed to extreme ade. 34 35 Pre-existing health conditions such
heat. 32 Research demonstrates a consensus as obesity, which affects nearly 22% of adults
that rising temperatures will lead to an in- in the state, are of increasing concern for
crease in heat-related deaths and illnesses. 33 the local population in the face of climate
This is particularly relevant for Hawai‘i change. 36
given the increasing rate of warming air
A hotter, drier Hawai‘i means more wildfires and more erosion
A hotter, drier Hawai‘i means an increased western U.S. in terms of the percentage of
presence and risk of wildfire. More relative land area affected annually. 37 Wildfires al-
area burns per year in Hawai‘i than any low invasive species such as strawberry
other state, and rising temperatures will guava, to outcompete native species such as
exacerbate this trend. The extent of area ‘ōhi‘a lehua, and lead to increased runoff
burned annually in Hawai‘i has increased and erosion.
four-fold in recent decades, rivaling the
Rising temperatures and more CO2 affect Hawai‘i’s oceans
Increased ocean temperatures bring in-
How a community is affected by
creased mortality and disease to native spe-
climate change is influenced by the
cies of aquatic life. In 2015, due to increased
vulnerability and sensitivity of that
ocean temperatures, Hawai‘i experienced a
community to a hazard event, as well
bleaching event that resulted in an average
as the ability for that community to
mortality of 50% of the coral cover in west-
prepare, respond, and recover from a
ern Hawai‘i. 38 These coral reef bleaching and
hazard event.
mortality occurrences have increased, and
projections show that these events may oc- acidification- caused by increased carbon di-
cur annually by 2050, putting our reefs at oxide absorbed by the ocean, is causing cor-
high risk. 39 als and other calcifying species to erode
away. Increasing levels of land-based run-
Other climate impacts, such as ocean off exacerbate these impacts and make it
NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 7
CHANGE IN HAWAIʻIharder for reefs to recover and be resilient in a reduction in tuna and billfish species to the effects of bleaching. 40 Warming wa- abundance in the central Pacific Ocean and ters are also projected to reduce the mixing a decline in maximum fisheries yields by 2%- of nutrients into the surface zone, resulting 5% per decade. 41 42 Unpredictable and changing weather patterns affect vulnerable people disproportionately Increased frequency and intensity of ex- recover from a hazard event. Factors such as treme weather events, as well as risks posed age, race, health, income, and community by new or unexpected threats that emerge cohesion often greatly influence the magni- from changes in the surrounding environ- tude of impacts, as well as the duration or ment will negatively affect all aspects of life longevity of their effects. 43 44 45 For this rea- in Hawai‘i. How a community is affected by son, climate change affects vulnerable com- climate change is influenced by the vulnera- munities more. 46 However, work needs to be bility and sensitivity of that community to a done on defining and describing vulnerable hazard event, as well as the ability for that communities in Hawaiʻi to adequately ad- community to prepare, respond, and dress risks from climate impacts. II. Ahupuaʻa-Moku Approach to Climate Readiness To help build resiliency, a Climate Ready Ha- nearshore waters and the ocean.”48 Because wai‘i looks to the traditional Hawaiian land Pacific islands are characterized by rela- divisions –the ahupua‘a and moku--that tively small watersheds and tightly linked connect mauka and makai resources.47 The land-sea resources, terrestrial agricultural state Office of Planning- Coastal Zone Man- practices and marine ecosystem health are agement Program’s most recent Ocean Re- intricately linked.49 It follows, then, that sources Management Plan acknowledges natural and working lands (NWL), coral that “most – if not all – natural resource reefs, fisheries, coastal agriculture, aquacul- agencies recognize that activities that take ture and deep sea fisheries-- all of which place mauka, flow makai, where they impact make up the watersheds and larger land di- streams, springs, aquatic ecosystems, vision, the ahupuaʻa and moku, have a big NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 8 CHANGE IN HAWAIʻI
role to play in helping Hawai‘i adapt to cli- foundational to an ahupuaʻa-moku ap-
mate impacts. proach, and underpin any climate readiness
in all lands and waters. Both are discussed
Soils and the supported food system are briefly below.
Soil health is intricately linked to climate readiness
Managing lands for soil health can protect stakeholders, resource managers, and local
waterways and nearshore reef ecosystems in communities to support climate-smart land
the face of other stressors such as increased stewardship. Such stewardship includes
ocean temperatures and acidification. Cli- crafting equitable, effective, and science-
mate-smart land management practices backed policies and programs that enable
that focus on building soil health, combined diverse groups to enact changes on the land
with stable land tenure, can provide ecolog- that result in greenhouse gas (GHG) seques-
ical and economic resilience for agricultural tration and the protection of natural re-
communities throughout the islands and in- sources while meeting local food production
crease food system resilience. The U.S. Cli- goals, biodiversity, watershed protection,
mate Alliance’s Hawaiʻi Natural and Work- and social and cultural values.
ing Lands Research Team collaborates with
The current food system produces greenhouse gas emissions and affects
public health
Globally, the food system generates an esti- with how agri-food systems are structured
mated 25-30% of total GHG emissions 50 51 52 53 and managed, will have an overwhelming
54 and is a key social determinant of public influence on the ability of global society to
health, with low-quality diets being a signif- sustain critical ecosystems services, miti-
icant factor in the substantial rise of diet-re- gate and adapt to climate change, and en-
lated obesity and non-communicable dis- sure food security, human health and well-
eases globally. 55 56 57 Dietary patterns, along being into the future. 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 9
CHANGE IN HAWAIʻIFigure 5. Locally-produced agriculture is a vital part of
our economy. Combining cultural wisdom with new
scientific methods, carbon smart farmers can reduce
carbon emissions and improve crop yields through uti-
lizing cover crops, reducing tillage, agroforestry and
other carbon smart practices. Here, lo‘i (wetland taro
farming) demonstrates the role cultural practices play
in addressing food and climate resiliency. (Courtesy
of Hawaiʻi Visitors and Convention Bureau Image Li-
brary)
Hawai‘i’s food system—dependent, vulnerable, and undiversified
With a residential population of over 1.4 Simultaneously, the post-plantation agricul-
million and 10 million annual visitors (pre- tural economy of Hawai‘i remains largely
COVID-19), Hawai‘i has one of the most food oriented toward external markets, with a di-
import-dependent populations in the world. versified agriculture sector and regional
Importing over 90% of its food and fertilizer, food economy limited by a range of social,
and over 73% of its energy, the Hawaiian Is- economic and political obstacles. 73 74 75 76
lands are uniquely vulnerable to statewide With 41% of Hawai‘i’s agricultural lands cur-
and community food insecurity in the face rently unfarmed, 77 there is a huge oppor-
of anthropogenic climate change, fuel price tunity to lower the state’s food importation
fluctuations and other economic or natural rates while mitigating climate change and
disturbances. 66 67 68 69 70 In addition, the sys- protecting native ecosystems and cul-
tem of shipping food into Hawai‘i has few tural/traditional practices.
functional redundancies built in. 71 72
Climate change will impact food security globally and in Hawai‘i
Climate impacts to U.S. and global agricul- years and are projected to increase in sever-
ture, fisheries, and food system infrastruc- ity over this century. 78 79 Such impacts on
ture have steadily increased over the last 10 crop yields, food processing, storage,
NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 10
CHANGE IN HAWAIʻItransportation, and related infrastructure crises by 2040. 88 Even with significant and could significantly diminish the security of coordinated efforts to limit global GHG the U.S. and global food supply, drive food emissions, all regions, including Hawai‘i, price spikes and negatively impact the avail- must prepare for more frequent and severe ability of high-quality foods, especially to climate-induced shocks, disruption of criti- low-income and vulnerable communities. 80 cal supply chains and fisheries, increased 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 Further, it is understood that food insecurity, and the catastrophic loss of this warming may persist for millennia and life, livelihoods, property and infrastruc- result in severe economic and humanitarian ture. 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 Effects on vulnerable communities in Hawai‘i High rates of food insecurity and diet-re- Under stochastic biophysical and/or social- lated health disparities have long impacted economic shocks, it underscores the need to the Native Hawaiian and low-income com- become more resilient. 106 107 108 109 munities. 97 98 99 Legal cases over water rights and access to quality farmland and housing To better adapt and mitigate within a rap- remain unresolved for many communi- idly changing climate, Hawai‘i will need to ties. 100 101 102 103 104 105 This situation raises make a range of systemic changes. Its for- questions as to the sustainability, resiliency ests, food system, agricultural lands, range- and equity of Hawai‘i’s existing food system lands, and nearshore waters can all play a and its ability to meet the long-term eco- role in providing that resilience to climate nomic, ecological, cultural, public health change. and food security needs of its population. A. The role of native forests in resilience Native forests and agroforests make Hawai‘i consider in making Hawai‘i climate ready, as more resilient and healthier; they filter air they help build resilience in landscapes by pollution, capture water and slow the enhancing a suite of ecosystem services. intensity of rainfall which reduces erosion and run-off, and reduce heat islands in cities Globally, degradation and loss of native for- through shade which provides relief from ests is destabilizing natural systems on a oppressive temperatures and a reduced scale unseen in human history. Hawai‘i ech- need for air conditioning; and more. The po- oes this trend as half of its forests have al- tential of these systems is important to ready been lost. 110 In 2016, Hawai‘i’s forested NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 11 CHANGE IN HAWAIʻI
areas were the primary carbon sink in the climate change by absorbing GHGs and re-
state contributing the majority of the 6.51 ducing flooding, erosion, and siltation of
MMT CO2 sequestered. 111 Healthy native for- reefs and fisheries. Additionally, forests sus-
ests are essential to stabilizing soil organic tain irreplaceable cultural and natural val-
carbon which accounts for over half of the ues and facilitate social connections and cul-
carbon stored in Hawai‘i’s terrestrial ecosys- tural connection to place. Forests and agro-
tems (approximately 158.9 Tg C of the total forests are an essential part of the solution
232.9 Tg C where one Tg = 1 billion kilo- to tackle climate change and biodiversity
grams). 112 collapse. 113 Healthy forests and agroforests
provide jobs and sustainable livelihoods
Protecting forest watersheds is the most through forest products, conservation, and
cost effective and efficient way to replenish restoration.
our aquifers and reduce impacts from
B. The role of agricultural lands in resilience
Sustainably-managed agricultural systems still viable today. By contrast, Hawai‘i’s leg-
can play a critical role in enhancing local acy of plantation agriculture has left many
food supplies, increasing resilience and of the most highly productive soils in the
adaptive capacity to climate change, and state in a degraded condition. There are,
protecting Hawai‘i’s coral reefs ecosys- however, many producers interested in re-
tems. 114 115 116 117 118 119 There are a number of versing this trend. 122 Climate-smart agricul-
models of sustainable food systems in Ha- tural management choices support soil
waiʻi, including approaches that incorporate health over time which provides beneficial
Indigenous management strategies, that can outcomes for air and water quality, human
help to build resilience, and support biodi- health, groundwater recharge, nearshore
versity and ecosystem services. 120 121 Recent ecosystem resilience, increased drought tol-
research suggests that Indigenous agroeco- erance of crops and plants, reduced impacts
systems (including agroforestry, lo‘i sys- of flooding, increased crop and livestock
tems, and dryland agriculture) supported productivity, and overall ecosystem resili-
large populations of Native Hawaiians pre- ence.
European contact, and that many of the ar-
eas that these systems likely occupied are
NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 12
CHANGE IN HAWAIʻIC. The role of nearshore lands and waters in resilience
Hawai‘i’s ocean waters and reefs are local economies, generating over $360 million
and international treasures, providing cul- each year, 124 but play a significant role in cli-
tural, economic, and recreational opportu- mate readiness through healthy reef sys-
nities to residents and visitors. 123 Not only tems that provide coastal flood protection
do they drive both our local and tourism valued at $835 million annually. 125
Coastal estuaries and food production practices can mitigate
storm impacts 126
Estuarine ecosystems provide a “spongy” natural wetlands and estuaries, traditional
coastline that is more resilient to climate food production practices such as loko i‘a
impacts than a hardened one. Research done (Hawaiian fishponds) and lo‘i kalo (wetland
in Hawai‘i and other Pacific Islands shows or flooded field taro systems) provide im-
that coastal vegetation can mitigate the im- portant ecosystem services (e.g. sediment
pacts of storm surges and tsunamis to vary- retention, flood mitigation, wave attenua-
ing degrees, and serve as a green buffer tion, stormwater filtering), and function as
against these events. 127 In addition to important nature-based solutions. 128
Figure 6. Native plants like Naupaka, Beach Morning Glory, and
Aki Aki help minimize erosion along our shorelines. Dune restora-
tion at Bellows Air Force Station (left) and Waihe‘e Refuge (above),
shown here, are examples of living shorelines. These help mitigate
erosion, and provide co-benefits such as habitat for native spe-
cies, sediment filtration, and protection against storm and high
wave events. (Courtesy of Anukriti Hittle)
NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 13
CHANGE IN HAWAIʻIIII. Nature-based Solutions: “Green-blue” Efforts in
Hawai‘i Illustrate Climate Readiness
While there is no one particular definition of increase human, ecosystem, and infrastruc-
nature-based solutions (NBS), the general ture resilience to climate impacts.” 130
concept encompasses the use of “green-
blue” strategies to address climate impacts. Nature-based solutions, when rooted in
The International Union for the Conserva- place-based value and knowledge, can pro-
tion of Nature defines NBS as “actions to vide climate resilient solutions, and are of-
protect, sustainably manage and restore ten less expensive and more effective than
natural or modified ecosystems that address their conventional “gray” counterparts
societal challenges effectively and adap- alone 131 132. These solutions often also pro-
tively, simultaneously providing human vide a greater array of co-benefits than
well-being and biodiversity benefits.” 129 The “gray” infrastructure alone. For instance,
Nature Conservancy describes NBS as “pro- protecting native forests or restoring cul-
ject solutions that are motivated and sup- turally-valuable agroforests as part of a cli-
ported by nature and that may also offer en- mate adaptation strategy, can simultane-
vironmental, economic, and social benefits, ously provide erosion control, biodiversity,
while increasing resilience. Nature-based and cultural benefits. The nature-based ex-
solutions include both green and natural in- amples below illustrate local, state and re-
frastructure.” The Environmental and En- gional efforts in Hawai‘i to adapt to climate
ergy Study Institute defines NBS as “Restor- change.
ing and/or emulating nature in order to
Nature-based solutions, when rooted in place-based value and
knowledge, can provide climate resilient solutions, and are often less
expensive and more effective than their conventional “gray”
counterparts alone. These solutions often also provide a greater
array of co-benefits than “gray” infrastructure alone.
NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 14
CHANGE IN HAWAIʻIFigure 7. Our mauka natural and working lands include forests and a variety of agricultural and ranching lands. The manage- ment of these lands plays an important role in reaching our net negative carbon goal, and sustainable management of these lands provides a suite of benefits beyond carbon. (Courtesy of Leah Laramee, DLNR-DOFAW) A. Examples: Mauka Lands 1. Noteworthy are two state-implemented that was once a native forest of koa and forest carbon projects, that not only can ‘ōhi‘a lehua. The restoration of this area reduce GHG emissions, but also provide will withdraw an estimated 94,000 metric cultural and resilience benefits through tons of carbon, provide habitat for many forest conservation and restoration, endangered species, and mitigate wild- maximization of freshwater capture and fire threats. 135 storage, reduction of erosion, and crea- tion of green jobs. 133 The Pu‘u Mali Forest 2. Range lands occupy over 20% of Hawai‘i’s Carbon Project on the slopes of Mauna land area and are a critical component of Kea (Hawaiʻi Island) is focused on restor- sustainable land management and cli- ing an area that was once prime forest mate adaption. Well-managed range- habitat but was converted into agricul- lands can provide a range of ecosystem tural land. This area will provide habitat services including watershed protection, for native species (e.g., palila, Loxioides carbon sequestration, open space preser- bailleui) and is estimated to withdraw vation, wildfire mitigation, habitat 98,000 metric tons of carbon from the at- preservation, noxious weed control, and mosphere. 134 The Kahikinui/Nakula For- cultural values. Ranches across Hawaiʻi est Carbon Project on the slopes of work both to maintain and manage Haleakalā (Maui) is an alien grassland NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 15 CHANGE IN HAWAIʻI
healthy grassland systems as well as to including the restoration and upkeep of
protect and restore native ecosystems. In an 800 year old Moli‘i fishpond, imple-
managing healthy rangelands, ranchers menting fencing to protect rare and en-
provide a suite of services that benefit dangered species, outplanting of native
native ecosystems and broader society, species, restoring lo‘i, and clearing
including controlling fires and invasive streams. 138
species. Haleakalā Ranch, for example,
has implemented multiple conservation 3. Strengthening community capacity for
programs, staying true to its core value stewardship is crucial to resource man-
of land stewardship. Waikamoi Preserve agement. The Stewardship Mapping and
is a partnership between Haleakalā Assessment Project (STEW-MAP)
Ranch and The Nature Conservancy highlights sites on Hawaiʻi Island and
where the Ranch granted a perpetual O‘ahu in an online geospatial database
conservation easement to TNC to man- that aims to make visible and elevate
age 5,230 acres of fragile watershed community-based and civic efforts to
lands. 136 The ranch also focuses on sus- care for our natural-cultural resources.
tainable rangeland management, imple- By highlighting gaps and concentrations
menting activities including wildfire and of care for regions, the platform becomes
invasive species control, vegetation a resource for community groups and
cover maintenance, and koa forestry. partner agencies to effectively
The Koa Restoration Program and Nene communicate and collaborate with each
Safe Harbor program are two more note- other, to identify opportunities to
worthy conservation programs occur- support community-based efforts and to
ring at Haleakalā Ranch. 137 Kualoa Ranch enhance the capacity of stewards. 139
is similarly dedicated to mālama’ āina,
and does so through various initiatives,
Well-managed rangelands can provide a range of ecosystem services
including watershed protection, carbon sequestration, open space
preservation, wildfire mitigation, habitat preservation, noxious weed
control, and cultural values.
NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 16
CHANGE IN HAWAIʻIB. Examples: Ahupuaʻa
1. Several statewide projects address
soil health, watersheds, and fish- • Currently, 63% of seafood consumed
ponds, illustrating the interconnect- in Hawai‘i is imported. By increasing
edness of the ahupuaʻa. aquaculture in Hawai‘i, we can reduce
• A project to develop a decision-sup- our reliance on imported foods, pro-
port tool that will aid farmers in un- vide jobs, and minimize the strain on
derstanding the linkages between our marine resources. The Statewide
management practices that aggrade, Programmatic General Permit and Pro-
degrade, or maintain soil is underway grammatic Agreement for the Restora-
at the University of Hawai‘i. 140 This tion, Repair, Maintenance and Recon-
tool will support healthy and resilient struction of Traditional Hawaiian Fish-
soils, landscapes, and communities. pond Systems Across Hawaiʻi is a pro-
gram that aims to streamline the per-
• Another soil-focused project is pro- mitting process for the restoration,
ducer-driven and aims to identify repair, maintenance and reconstruc-
barriers and challenges farmers face tion of loko i‘a. 143 This program will
in adopting soil health management stimulate the restoration of fish-
systems and the social, economic, and ponds statewide, and result in valua-
environmental impacts of these man- ble cultural and ecological services.
agement systems. Other research has
looked at the potential of Indigenous 2. The crucial role of watersheds and
agricultural food production under watershed partnerships in resilience
climate change in Hawai‘i and deter- is codified in the State’s commitment
mined that both lo‘i and colluvial ag- to protecting 30% of its highest prior-
roforestry systems could be resilient ity watersheds by 2030. The 30x30
in a wide range of future climate Watershed Forests Plan outlines
shifts. 141 strategies to meet this goal: increas-
ing access to nature, controlling non-
• The Mōhala I Ka Wai project 142, sup- native ungulates and plants, prevent-
ported by the Honolulu Board of Wa- ing wildfires, combatting forest dis-
ter Supply and many more partners, eases and pests, planting native trees,
is focused on restoring Mākaha Valley educating residents and visitors, and
(O‘ahu) areas through lo‘i restoration supporting watershed partner-
with hopes of restoring the valley and ships. Through the 30x30 initiative,
144
stream flow. Hawai‘i has already planted over
NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 17
CHANGE IN HAWAIʻI120,000 native trees, provided 80+ to articulate goals to “focus addi-
jobs per year, and protected 210 en- tional effort on water security and
dangered plants and animals. 145 quality for the wetland refuges, espe-
cially in regards to taro farming on
3. Several forest and watershed restora- the refuge…” and to “focus on im-
tion examples from Kaua‘i highlight proving the refuge’s coordina-
the connection between traditional tion/partnership with the refuge taro
knowledge, ecosystem benefits and farmers of Hanalei valley.” 147 148
resilience:
• Located in one of the most biodiverse
• Research conducted in Limahuli Val- valleys in the Islands, the National
ley, Hā‘ena, Kaua‘i, outlined a method Tropical Botanical Gardens in Hanalei
to assess restoration strategies utilizes ancestral resource manage-
through cultural outcomes, ecologi- ment practices like lo‘i kalo to “re-
cal outcomes, and hydrological out- store health, function, and resilience
comes. 146 The research identified a to the valley”. At the Limahuli Garden
hybrid restoration strategy, which in- and Preserve, “a pu‘uhonua (place of
cluded native, Polynesian-introduced refuge) for an ecological system that
and modern-introduced species as honors the connection between na-
the most resilient strategy, while also ture and humanity, where Indigenous
supporting the highest cultural val- traditions live in the 21st Century,”
ues and native species. this effort provides visitors with edu-
cational opportunities through tours
• The connections between water qual- or hands on work and locals a chance
ity, wildlife refugia and traditional to connect to the culturally im-
taro farming are highlighted in the portant system of lo‘i kalo, all while
community and kūpuna feedback supporting the biodiverse ecosystem
that was incorporated into the U.S. that surrounds it. 149 150 More such ef-
Fish and Wildlife Service’s (USFWS) forts, based in local and traditional
Comprehensive Conservation Plan at practices, will help with resilience
Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge. and climate readiness.
“Talk story” sessions led the USFWS
NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 18
CHANGE IN HAWAIʻIFigure 8. Located in one of the most biodiverse val-
leys in the Islands, Limahuli Garden and Preserve in
Hanalei demonstrates the connections between tra-
ditional knowledge, ecosystem benefits and resili-
ence. (courtesy of Steven Gaertner)
C. Examples: Makai Lands and Nearshore Waters
1. Demonstrating the interconnected- infrastructure (widening of flood-
ness of culture, food resiliency, and ways adjacent to rivers, temporary
sustainable agricultural practices, water detention, and stream/river
partners Kakoʻo ‘Ōiwi, Paepae o bank elevation and stabilization)
He‘eia, and the He‘eia National Estua- strategies to protect coastal commu-
rine Research Reserve utilize tradi- nities, buildings and infrastructure. 152
tional management practices includ- Such projects help build climate read-
ing agroforestry, lo‘i kalo (wetland iness in Hawai‘i.
taro), and loko i‘a (marine fish ponds)
while increasing biodiversity and 3. Non-profit partners help manage
ecosystem services. 151 coastal lands, and to varying degrees,
use nature-based approaches. One
2. Hawai‘i Sea Grant has conducted mul- such example is the Hawaiian Island
tiple projects that address SLR issues Land Trust (HILT) which conserves
and climate-related vulnerabilities. “lands that enable Hawaiʻi's long-
For example, three at-risk sites with term well-being, lands with scenic
high erosion rates on O‘ahu- Sunset views, agricultural resources, wildlife
Beach, Waikīkī, and Pearl Harbor-
were analyzed as to the efficiency of
living shoreline (coastal sand dunes,
vegetation, and coral reefs) and green
NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 19
CHANGE IN HAWAIʻIhabitats, water resource areas, cul-
tural and historical values, and out-
door recreation opportunities.” 153
Statewide guidance and coordination
of approaches would provide even
more effective results in making Ha-
wai‘i climate ready.
Figure 9. Hawai‘i currently has multiple initiatives in place to
ensure the protection of its coastal habitats and coral reefs.
From the Coral Bleaching Recovery Plan that includes com-
prehensive pathways to meet the state’s goal of promoting
coral reef recovery, to the Industry Coral Pledge which in-
centivizes companies involved in marine tourism to commit
to coral-safe practices, these strategies provide neces-
sary mauka-makai connections for resilience. (Courtesy
of Getty Images)
4. The restoration of loko i‘a in Hawai‘i, Program to facilitate permitting of
like in the culturally important beach and dune environmental resto-
Kīholo Preserve area on Hawai‘i Is- ration projects as a nature-based al-
land, provides cultural, spiritual and ternative to shoreline hardening,
economic benefits, increases the such as seawalls and revetments,
state’s food production rate, provides which have been shown to lead to
habitat to many native fish species beach loss on eroding coasts. 155
and seabirds, and has been correlated
with increasing coral reef resilience. 6. Land-based source pollutants are a
The coral reef adjacent to the Kīholo huge threat to coral reef ecosystems.
fishpond was found to be “the most Research in West Maui developed a
resilient to climate change impacts of decision-support tool to determine
twenty reefs studied in West Ha- the optimum management strategies
wai‘i.” 154 for minimizing sediment delivery to
coral reefs while also minimizing
costs. 156 Strategies included water-
5. The DLNR Office of Conservation and
shed restoration, ungulate fencing,
Coastal Lands is updating its Small
invasive species control, green infra-
Scale Beach Restoration Permitting
structure and working with farmers
NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 20
CHANGE IN HAWAIʻIand ranchers to reduce nutrient in- effectively managing 30% of Hawai‘i’s
put. nearshore waters by 2030. 160 As its
name implies, the Holomua plan in-
7. Hawai‘i currently has multiple initia- cludes a range of adaptive manage-
tives in place to ensure the protection ment techniques which aim to work
of its coastal habitats and coral reefs. “together with community members,
The Coral Bleaching Recovery Plan local, state and federal government
was implemented following the 2014- agencies, and other stakeholders we
2015 coral bleaching event and in- hope to usher in a new era of partici-
cludes comprehensive pathways to patory and place-based adaptive
meet the state’s goal of promoting management that is scientifically and
coral reef recovery, 157 while the In- culturally-informed.” 161 There are
dustry Coral Pledge incentivizes com- four pillars to support effective man-
panies involved in marine tourism to agement: place-based planning, pono
commit to coral-safe practices, 158 and practices, monitoring, and protection
the Coral Restoration Nursery is using and restoration. All of these will re-
innovative strategies to repopulate quire further articulation about how
and restore our reefs. 159 we can collaborate from mauka to
makai to make Hawai‘i truly climate
8. The Holomua Marine 30x30 Roadmap ready.
lays out the state’s commitment to
D. Broader Alliances for Climate Readiness
Through effective regional and global part- are part of a larger Sustainable Ha-
nerships, the state can plug into the wai‘i Initiative, announced by Gover-
larger efforts that address systemic changes nor Ige at the 2016 IUCN World Con-
on regional and global scales. These efforts servation Congress, which includes
take their cues from the place-based work goals for local food production, biose-
in Hawai‘i, and in turn, are strengthened by curity, watershed protection, marine
the larger efforts into which they feed. For management, and renewable energy.
example: Together, these initiatives will bene-
fit our mauka land, coral reefs and
• Holomua Marine 30x30 Initiative and coastal habitats, and address resili-
30x30 Watershed Forests Target ency.162
NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 21
CHANGE IN HAWAIʻIFigure 10. Hawai‘i is actively engaged in part-
nerships that address systemic changes on
regional and global scales. These efforts take
their cues from the place-based work in Ha-
wai‘i, and in turn, are strengthened by the
larger efforts into which they feed. (Courtesy
of Shellie Habel, DLNR-OCCL)
• Hawai‘i’s partnership with the Inter- • As part of the global 1 trillion tree in-
national Alliance to Combat Ocean itiative which aims to grow 1 trillion
Acidification has enabled us to join a trees by 2030, Hawai‘i has pledged to
global network of governments that protect or plant 10 Million trees a
are working together to decrease year for a total of 100 million trees
ocean acidification. 163 The State of over the next decade.
Hawai‘i is developing an Ocean Acidi-
fication Action Plan to address spe-
• At the 2019 United Nations Frame-
cific actions that can be taken in Ha-
work Convention on Climate
wai‘i's unique environment.
Change summit, Hawai‘i signed a bi-
coastal sun-national agreement that
• Hawai‘i is an active member of the recognizes that states must decrease
U.S. Climate Alliance which released a greenhouse gas emissions and ocean-
“Natural and Working Lands Chal- specific emissions, increase ocean-re-
lenge” that “invites all national and lated mitigation, facilitate the devel-
subnational jurisdictions, tribes, opment of clean and renewable en-
businesses and other actors to make ergy, increase the resilience of coastal
commitments to reduce GHG emis- ecosystems, communities, and econo-
sions and protect and enhance carbon mies, and reduce stressors on the
sequestration across all natural and ocean.
working lands.” 164
NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 22
CHANGE IN HAWAIʻIIV. Resilience Framework Components for Hawai‘i 1. Defining resilience To achieve a Climate Ready Hawai‘i, it is im- environment and the economy and con- portant to first have a shared understanding firms that institutions must recognize the of what it means to be resilient to climate importance of all city systems- health and change. This provides a common under- well-being, economy and society, infrastruc- standing of what success would look like, ture and environment, and leadership and and provides the consistency needed to strategy- when building resilience. achieve common goals. While resilience has not been defined statewide, the City and The U.S. Climate Alliance’s New Governors’ County of Honolulu’s Oʻahu Resilience Strategy Resilience Playbook reminds us that resilience defines resilience as “the ability to survive, is defined as: “the capacity to recover adapt, and thrive regardless of what shocks quickly from difficulties; toughness.” 166 The or stresses come our way.” 165 The county Playbook adds that “[r]esilience is the ability states that resilience is built at the intersec- of people, communities and institutions to tion of the Figure 11. To better adapt and mitigate within a rapidly changing climate, Hawai‘i will need to make a range of systemic changes—and its for- ests, food system, agricultural lands, rangelands, and nearshore waters can all play a role in providing that resilience to climate change. Here, these flooded taro fields in Hanalei illustrate the timelessness of this ancient Hawaiian prac- tice, and the importance of the reciprocal rela- tionship between the land and its people. (Cour- tesy of Moonjazz, Flickr) NATURE-BASED RESILIENCE AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE 23 CHANGE IN HAWAIʻI
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