NUTRIENTS: FUNCTIONS, SOURCES & REQUIREMENTS
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For Healthcare Professional use
Toddler Factsheet 1.1i
NUTRIENTS: FUNCTIONS,
SOURCES & REQUIREMENTS
www.infantandtoddlerforum.org
l T his Factsheet is about the nutrients in food. Eating a healthy balanced diet, including all
of the food groups, as outlined in Factsheets 1.1 and 1.2, will provide all the nutrients and
energy toddlers need (apart from vitamin D – see Factsheet 1.1).
l Most toddlers have body stores of all these nutrients and poor eating for a day or two will
not deplete them of any. Over a week or so toddlers’ nutritional intakes will usually average
out and cover their full needs.
l T his Factsheet is not a guide to what toddlers should eat – that is covered in Factsheets 1.1
and 1.2 – but summarises in what foods nutrients can be found, what they do, how much of
them is needed and the signs of nutrient deficiencies or excess. The nutrient requirements of
toddlers are expressed as a reference nutrient intake (RNI), a term that is explained on page 2.
DIETARY REFERENCE VALUES
FOR NUTRIENTS
The terms below appear on the labels on foods and RDA ‘Recommended Daily Amount’ is used for
drinks, and on vitamin and mineral supplements. the whole population but should not be used for
They are also used by public health bodies, toddlers and young children as it applies to adults.
government and other agencies, to define nutritional
requirements. Collectively they are called ‘dietary The relationship between these terms is shown in the
reference values’ (DRV). bell-shaped curve below, which describes the normal
range of nutrient requirements of a population of a
RNI ‘Reference Nutrient Intake’ is the amount defined age group. DRVs vary according to the age
recommended per day for any age group to make of people and sometimes to their body weights. In
sure they all get enough. toddlers estimates of some RNIs are based on limited
data. DRVs change over the years and should be
EAR ‘Estimated Average Requirement’ is the average regarded as best estimates at the time that they were
needed for a defined age group. set. They are often reviewed in the light of
new information.
LRNI ‘Lower Reference Nutrient Intake’ is the amount
below which most people in a defined age group will RNIs have been set ‘high’ on the curve in order to
be deficient. ensure that they supply the needs of the vast majority.
With the exception of energy (excess energy intake
SI ‘Safe Intake’ A recommended amount per day leads to obesity) consumption of a nutrient above its
where there is not enough evidence to define an RNI RNI is not harmful, unless in great excess.
Nutrient requirements
Lower reference Estimated average Reference
nutrient intake requirement nutrient intake
(LRNI) (EAR) (RNI)
02
Food sources which Daily requirement (RNI) for 1-3 Signs of deficiency
Nutrient Function in the body1
toddlers enjoy1 year olds2 or excess in toddlers3
Protein Provides structure for all cells in Richest sources are milk, yogurt, 14.5g/day. Deficiency of protein alone is rarely
Made up of, and is a source of, the body, enzymes and carrier cheese, meat, fish, eggs, ground and seen in the UK. Poor growth and
peptides and amino-acids. molecules. crushed nuts and nut butters – development would result.
Growth increases requirement as Good sources are pulses such as Muscle wasting is a sign of severe
extra protein is needed for new dhal, lentils, baked beans, hummus protein deficiency although it can
muscles and other cells. and other starchy beans: chick peas, have other causes.
butter beans and red kidney beans.
Cereals and foods containing flour
such as bread, chapatti and pasta
also provide some protein.
Carbohydrate Provides energy (calories). Potatoes, yam, breakfast cereals, No RNI. Insufficient energy (calories) from
May be ‘simple’ sugars, such as couscous, rice and any foods About 50% of energy should be carbohydrate (and fat) causes poor
sucrose and glucose, or ‘complex’ containing flour such as bread, taken as a carbohydrate’ should be growth and development. Faltering
such as starches and digestible chapatti, pasta, pastry, biscuits on a separate line like this: growth due to low calorie intake is
fibre. and cake. not uncommon in the UK.
Requirements depend on activity
Fructose is the sugar in fruit and Fruit, honey and milk. and how much fat is eaten. Excess carbohydrate intake can
honey. Milk puddings such as sago, and cause obesity.
About 50% of energy should be
Lactose is the sugar in milk. tapioca as well as rice. taken as carbohydrate. Excess and frequent intake of simple
Foods containing refined sugar sugars can cause dental caries. In
5% or less of energy should come
such as sweet drinks and foods England 25% of 5 year old children
from free sugars which excludes
e.g. puddings and sweets. already have some dental decay.5
lactose and the fructose in whole
fruit.4
Fat Provides energy. Oils and fats used to fry foods. No RNI. Insufficient energy (calories) from
Sometimes called ‘lipid’, and is The membranes of all cells are made Butter, margarine and other spreads About 35% of energy should be fat (and carbohydrate) causes poor
made up of – of lipids, including those of the for bread. taken as fat. growth and development.
1. Fatty acids which may be short, nervous system. Cream and cheese. Omega 3 and omega 6 fats are Excess fat intake can cause obesity.
medium or long chains of: The omega 3 and 6 fats are essential essential - the body cannot make
Cakes, biscuits and crisps.
• saturated for brain and nerve function and them, and they must be part of the
• mono unsaturated Small amounts in whole milk and
healthy skin. diet.
• polyunsaturated including yogurt, egg yolks and lean meat.
Transport of fat soluble vitamins. 0.2% or more of total energy should
omega 3 & omega 6. There are usually plenty of omega 6
come from omega 3 fats.
2. C
omplex fats e.g. cholesterol fats in the diet.
1% or more of total dietary energy
and phospholipids. Oily fish in fish pie or fish cakes are
should come from omega 6 fats.
good sources of omega 3 long chain
fats, DHA (docosahexaenoic acid)
and EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid).
03
04
Food sources which Daily requirement (RNI) for 1-3 Signs of deficiency
Nutrient Function in the body1
toddlers enjoy1 year olds2 or excess in toddlers3
Fat Rapeseed oil and walnut oil are
(continued) good sources of omega 3 ALA
(alpha- linolenic acid).
Olive and soya oils have a good
balance of omega 3 and omega 6.
Fibre Regular functioning of intestines Fruits and vegetables, cereals and 15g/day for 2 – 5 years4 Constipation and disordered bowel
Also called ‘carbohydrates that are and bowel. foods made from flours. habit may be exacerbated with too
No defined recommendation for
neither digested nor abosorbed in little fibre intake.
Feeds the bacteria in the colon and Wholegrain cereals such as those under 24 months of age.
the small intestine’.
maintains colonic health. porridge, Ready Brek and
Fibre includes: Weetabix contain more fibre than
• non-digestible carbohydrates, most processed cereals.
mostly derived from plant
Wholegrain flours and breads will
material, that are fermented in
contain more fibre than white flour
the colon
and breads.
• prebiotics.
Fluid For maintaining normal hydration, Water. Six to eight drinks per day in Constipation may be exacerbated
blood pressure and fluid balance. addition to fluid in some foods. by, or can be a result of, too little
Milk, fruit juices and diluted
fluid intake.
Toddlers’ bodies are about 70% squashes are all about 90% water. About 120mls (4oz) is an average
water. drink for one to three year olds. Dehydration caused by not enough
Soups, sauces, fruit and vegetables
fluid, can cause lethargy.
have high water contents. More may be needed on a very
hot day and after a lot of physical
activity.
Vitamins
Vitamin A Ensures normal growth and de- Whole cows’ milk. 400ug/day. Deficiency causes night blindness,
(Retinol and ß-Carotene) velopment, strengthens immune skin problems, and increased
Orange, red and dark green fruit
system, healthy skin and good night infections, particularly of the
and vegetables such as carrots, red
vision. respiratory and gastrointestinal
peppers, tomatoes, sweet potato,
tracts.
pumpkin, apricots, mangoes,
cantaloupe melons, broccoli. 15% of toddlers in the UK have
intakes below the LRNI6 .
Fish pie or fish cakes using oily fish.
Liver pâté.
Food sources which Daily requirement (RNI) for 1-3 Signs of deficiency
Nutrient Function in the body1
toddlers enjoy1 year olds2 or excess in toddlers3
Vitamins (continued)
B vitamins Growth and development of healthy Liver pâté and yeast extracts such 0.5mg/day vitamin B1 (thiamin). Deficiency causes cracked and sore
Include thiamin, folic acid, niacin nervous system, skin and mucous as Marmite are the only foods that skin in some cases, and anaemia
0.6mg/day vitamin B2 (riboflavin).
(nicotinamide), riboflavin, membranes in the lung and contain all the B vitamins. and heart failure.
pyridoxine, biotin, pantothenic gastrointestinal tract. 8mg/day vitamin B3 (niacin).
Most breakfast cereals are fortified Damage to nerves may result from
acid and cyanocobalamin.
Involved in converting food into with extra B vitamins. 0.7mg/day vitamin B6 (pyridoxine). anaemia due to insufficient vitamin
energy and protein metabolism. B12 or folate.
Meat, fish, eggs, nuts pulses, flour 0.5ug/day vitamin B12
Vitamins B6 and B12 are also and cereals (cyanocobalamin). Spina bifida can be caused by
involved in the formatin of red insufficient folate in early months
70ug/day folate.
blood cells of pregnancy.
Pantothenic acid –
B vitamin deficiencies are rarely
no recommendation.
seen in toddlers in the UK.
Biotin – no recommendation.
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) Helps absorption of iron from Most fruit and vegetables 30mg/day. Deficiency causes slow wound
non- meat sources. contain some. healing, recurrent infections and
bleeding gums.
Antioxidant that protects cells from The richest sources are
damage. blackcurrants, kiwi fruit, citrus fruits, In extremely rare cases vitamin C
tomatoes, peppers and strawberries. deficiency can cause scurvy.
Maintains blood vessels, cartilage,
muscle and bone. Potato, sweet potatoes and
mangoes are also good sources.
Strengthens immune function and
aids wound healing.
Vitamin D Needed to absorb calcium into the Most vitamin D is made in the skin Safe Intake is 10ug/day.7 Deficiency can cause weakness of
body, and to regulate its movement when toddlers are outside during the muscles and twitching (tetany),
in and out of the skeleton ensuring the summer months i.e. April – rickets and bone deformities.
strong bones. September in the UK. It is the
This is not unusual in the UK
ultraviolet sunlight which acts on
Part of the immune system especially toddlers of Asian, African
exposed skin to make vitamin D.
and middle-eastern ethnic origins
Fish cakes or pie made with oily fish, who do not take the recommended
margarine and whole milk. supplement.
Some breakfast cereals, bread and
yogurts have vitamin D added.
Formula milks are enriched with it.
05
06
Food sources which Daily requirement (RNI) for 1-3 Signs of deficiency
Nutrient Function in the body1
toddlers enjoy1 year olds2 or excess in toddlers3
Vitamins (continued)
Vitamin E Antioxidant that protects cell In a wide variety of foods. No RNI. Deficiency very rarely seen
structures. in toddlers.
Rich sources are vegetable oils and
margarine, avocados, almonds,
meat, fish, eggs.
Vitamin K Blood clotting and bone health. Mainly produced by bacteria in the No recommendation. Tendency to bleed can sometimes
large bowel. be due to deficiency.
Synthesis of some proteins
Rich food sources are green leafy
vegetables and broccoli.
Minerals
Calcium Bone strength and teeth. Richest sources are milk, cheese, 350mg/day. Deficiency can cause fits or bone
yogurt and fortified soya milk. deformity due to rickets.
Cell structure and function.
White bread is fortified with
calcium.
Biscuits or cakes with ground
almonds.
Canned fish with bones such as
sardines.
Copper Energy and protein production. In small amounts in most foods. 0.4mg/day. Deficiency is very rare in the UK.
Fragile bones and increased
infections can be effects of defi-
ciency.
Fluoride Strengthens tooth enamel and Pea sized amount of fluoride Safe intake is 0.12mg/Kg body Dental caries are more common
helps to prevent tooth decay. toothpaste on toothbrush when weight/day. with fluoride deficiency.
cleaning teeth twice a day provides
In England 25% of 5 year old
enough.
children already have some dental
Supplied by drinking water in areas decay.5
where tap water is fluoridated or the
Dental fluorosis or brown spots on
water naturally contains adequate
teeth is caused by excess intake of
levels.
fluoride. This is usually due to giving
Water is not fluoridated in Scotland, too much of a fluoride supplement.
Northern Ireland and some areas of
England.
Food sources which Daily requirement (RNI) for 1-3 Signs of deficiency
Nutrient Function in the body1
toddlers enjoy1 year olds2 or excess in toddlers3
Minerals (continued)
Iodine Part of the hormone thyroxine, Fish, milk and milk products, eggs. 70ug/day. Deficiency causes impaired brain
which helps convert food into development and reduced IQ.
energy and assists general mental
An enlarged thyroid gland may
and physical development.
indicate deficiency.
Iron Necessary for carrying oxygen Best sources are red meat (beef, 6.9mg/day. Iron deficiency causes anaemia,
around the body in the blood lamb and pork) and dark poultry increases susceptibility to infections,
(haemoglobin) and muscles meat e.g. chicken legs and thighs. lethargy, and delays physical and
(myoglobin). White meat such as chicken breast mental development.
has less.
Also involved in energy metabolism In the latest NDNS survey 10%
and the immune system. Other sources are: toddlers had intakes below the
• fortified breakfast cereals LRNI. Over 50% did not meet the
• ground or crushed nuts (see back RNI. Blood results showed 5% with
page for caution with peanuts and low Haemaglobin levels and 31%
whole nuts*) with low Ferritin levels.6
• dhal, lentils, hummus
• poppadums made with lentil flour
• bhajis and Bombay mix made with
chickpea flour.
Smaller amounts are in fruit and
vegetables.
Formula milks are fortified with it.
Magnesium Helps bone development, protein Best sources are wholegrain 85mg/day. Deficiency can cause muscle
production and converting food breakfast cereals, milk and yogurt. weakness, poor growth and
into energy. neuromuscular function.
Also in meat, egg, dhal, lentils,
hummus, potatoes and some This is rare in the UK.
vegetables.
Phosphorus Bone growth and energy Richest source is milk. 270mg/day. Deficiency is rare and only seen in
metabolism. association with other conditions
Present in most other foods.
which cause malabsorption.
Potassium Important for fluid balance, muscle Milk, vegetables and potatoes. 800mg/day. A deficiency which causes muscle
contraction and nerve conduction. weakness is rarely seen unless there
Bananas, dried apricots, prunes,
are kidney problems.
dates and kiwi fruit are also good
sources.
07
08
Food sources which Daily requirement (RNI) for 1-3 Signs of deficiency
Nutrient Function in the body1
toddlers enjoy1 year olds2 or excess in toddlers3
Selenium Antioxidant. Brazil nuts. 15ug/day. Heart problems have been linked to
selenium deficiency in China but it
Production of thyroid hormone. Meat, fish, eggs, and vegetables.
is rarely seen elsewhere.
Sodium Important for acid-base regulation, Salt is the main source so processed 500mg/day. Deficiency is rare but can cause loss
fluid balance and blood pressure. foods with added salt such as crisps, of appetite and mental confusion.
bacon, ham, cheese and bread
Excess salt increases thirst and very
contain the highest amounts.
high amounts can cause fits and
It is also found in meat, milk and death.
yogurt.
Chronic high sodium intakes in
older children may cause
hypertension.
Zinc Involved in the function of many Best sources are meat, fish and 5mg/day. A deficiency causes wounds to heal
enzymes. shellfish and eggs. slowly. A skin rash is seen in more
This may be set too high and other
severe cases of deficiency.
It has a structural role in growth Other good sources are milk, countries recommend 3mg/day.
hormone and insulin. wholegrain breakfast cereals such
as porridge, Shredded Wheat,
Weetabix, and bread.
Some in potatoes, dhal, lentils, hum-
mus and leafy vegetables.
Phytochemicals
Substances in plants, which Important antioxidants and play a All fruit and vegetables, especially No recommendation for individual Unknown in toddlers but adults
provide long-term protection part in immune function. brightly coloured. phytochemicals but for adults, five who do not get enough are at
against cancer and heart disease. servings of fruit and vegetables per higher risk of heart disease and
Cocoa and chocolate.
day will ensure adequate intake. cancer.
Also called flavanoids, flavanols,
isoflavones. Giving toddlers fruit and/or
vegetables at each meal will ensure
Examples: lycopene lutein and
they get enough.
quercertin.
References
1. Nutrients, Food and Ingredients. British Nutrition Foundation 2016. Available from: https://www.nutrition.org.uk/
nutritionscience/nutrients-food-and-ingredients.html [accessed April 2018].
2. Dietary Reference Values for Food Energy and Nutrients for the United Kingdom. HMSO 1991; Report on Health and
Social Subjects 411991.
3. Michaelsen KF, Weaver LT, Branca F, Robertson A. Feeding and Nutrition of Infants and Young Children. WHO Regional
Publications 2000; European Series 87.
4. Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition Carbohydrates and Health London: TSO; 2015. Available from: https://assets.
publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/445503/SACN_Carbohydrates_
and_Health.pdf [accessed April 2018].
5. National Diet and Nutrition Survey: Headline Results from Years 5&6 (combined) of the Rolling Programme 2012 -2014.
Food Standards Agency & Public Health England 2016. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/
ndns-results-from-years-5-and-6-combined [accessed April 2018].
6. National Diet and Nutrition Survey: Headline Results from Years 7&8 (combined) of the Rolling Programme 2014 -2016.
Food Standards Agency & Public Health England 2018, Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/ndns-
results-from-years-7-and-8-combined [accessed April 2018].
7. Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition Vitamin D and Health;TSO; 2016. Available from: https://assets.publishing.
service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/537616/SACN_Vitamin_D_and_Health_
report.pdf [accessed April 2018].
Further Reading
Gregory et al. National Diet and Nutrition Survey: children aged 11/2 to 41/2 years. London: HMSO 1995; Vol 1:
Report of the diet and nutrition survey.
McCance and Widdowson. The Composition of Foods, Sixth summary edition ed.Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry; 2002.
National Dental Epidemiology Programme for England: oral health survey of five-year-old children 2015 Public Health
England (2016) Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_
data/file/520798/Oral_health_survey_5_year_old_children_official_statistics_short_commentary.pdf [accessed April 2018].
09
Rice – boiled or fried Bread slices (fresh or Mashed potato
2–5 tablespoons toasted) – granary 1–4 tablespoons
½–1 medium slice
Banana Broccoli / cauliflower Carrot
¼–1 medium banana 1–4 small florets or 1–3 tablespoons /
½–2 tablespoons 2–6 carrot sticks
Processed cheese Yogurt Custard
15–21g (1 slice / 1 triangle or 1 average pot (125ml) 5–7 tablespoons custard
string / 1 mini Babybel™)
Poached / boiled / fried White / oily fresh fish Falafels
egg ¼–1 small fillet or 1–3 mini falafels (25g each)
½–1 egg 1–3 tablespoons
Fruit (e.g. garibaldi) Bar of chocolate / Digestive (plain) biscuit
biscuit chocolate biscuit ½–1 biscuit
1–2 biscuits 2–4 squares of chocolate
Cheese sandwich Salmon and vegetables Pasta bolognaise
Cheese sandwich ¼–1 small fillet salmon, 3–5 tablespoons pasta
(½–1 slice wholemeal bread), 1–4 small florets broccoli, with bolognaise,
1–4 cherry tomatoes 2–4 medium potato wedges ½–2 tablespoons green beans
10Additional copies of this Factsheet can be downloaded from
www.infantandtoddlerforum.org
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