Ready, aim, fire: Key messages in public relations campaigns Melanie James University of Newcastle
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Ready, aim, fire: Key messages in public relations campaigns
Melanie James
University of Newcastle
Abstract
The role of key messages has assumed an advisories, prepared statements, fact sheets,
almost common-sense status within public backgrounders, white papers, meetings,
relations campaigns. This research examines speeches, pitch letters, advertorials, reports and
award-winning campaigns to explore what websites (Courtright & Smudde, 2010, p. 68).
assumptions and understandings underpin the The role of key messages can be seen to have
use of key messages by public relations assumed an almost common-sense status within
practitioners. It was envisaged this would public relations (Moloney, 2006). This status
help explicate an aspect of practice that is led me to question what assumptions and
seemingly widespread and ingrained. The understandings about the way key messages
findings report in four thematic areas that work are held by public relations practitioners.
emerged from the data: environment, It was envisaged that such questioning would
development, attributes and context. The help explicate this aspect of practice that is
concept of a congested and contested seemingly so widespread and ingrained.
messaging environment was found to be the To this end I analysed award-winning
key driver behind the use of key messages. campaign case studies and interviewed a
Practitioners saw well-crafted key messages sample of the practitioners who had designed
as having the power to cut through the award-winning campaigns. This exercise was
environment to achieve specific outcomes and undertaken to deepen understanding about how
positively position organisations. The study practitioners see the role of key messages and
concludes that although a transmission how they see such messages working to help
model/media effects theoretical perspective achieve their desired campaign outcomes. It is
was evident, practice could also be envisaged that the findings will assist educators
conceptualised as a social constructionist to more effectively address this area with
endeavour in that practitioners worked to students, breaking down some of the ingrained
create versions of social reality to achieve practices so that the underpinning theory can be
organisational goals. Further, it was also more deeply examined. The findings may also
found that practitioners might benefit from a provide researchers with insights into the
deeper understanding of how people receive, machinations of practice relating to messaging.
engage with, and process information in This may assist in future research design and
terms of campaign message design and inform future examination of practice.
evaluation.
Key messages in public relations
Introduction Messages have been defined in a public
relations context as the information that
Developing and disseminating key messages
organisations want their target publics to know
is central to public relations campaigns
(Mahoney, 2008). Courtright and Smudde
(Hallahan, 1999; Mahoney, 2008; Pfau &
(2010, p. 66) expanded this and proposed that
Parrott, 1993). As part of campaign work,
“key messages” were a component of strategic
public relations practitioners incorporate key
communication plans, stating that key messages
messages into “public relations discourse
are comprised of “two basic things”. The first
genres” which include news releases, media
thing is “a theme, thesis or slogan that is the
1
James, M. (2011). Ready, aim, fire: Key messages in public relations campaigns. PRism 8(1):
http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.htmlsingle idea around which all communications 2005; Jo, Shim & Jung, 2008; Khaja &
revolve”; the second being “copy points that Creedon, 2010; Stokes & Rubin, 2010; Tilson,
serve as the basic proof or substance for 2006; Vardeman-Winter, 2010; Zhang &
detailed arguments that support the Benoit, 2004). Such thinking links the
theme/thesis/slogan”. This provided a theoretical underpinnings for public relations
working definition of key messages for this practice as suggested by Berger (1999), in that
project. public relations practices “occur in a place, the
Public relations practitioners work within a site, in which practices of representation (in the
domain of practice that seems to accept that forms of message, images and symbols) meet
key messages have the power to do certain an ‘other’” (p. 189). The sites, according to
things. Moloney (2006) states that “attitudes Berger, include “locations, forums, channels
and behaviours only change after many and contexts wherein virtually every form of
rounds of messaging” (p. 131) and Wilson human interaction and communication is
(2001) states that messages “are useless if conducted” and are invariably “congested, with
they are not delivering a specific message to a multiple messages and appearances that are
target public so that the public will act to help contested, fluid, and changing, thereby
us meet our objectives and accomplish our complicating meaning and understanding” (p.
organisations’ missions” (p. 217). Key 190). Recognising that the environment into
messages can “increase organizational which messages are sent is congested, public
valence in the public domain, to nudge their relations practitioners can be seen to prepare
companies back into the good graces of their carefully crafted key messages as part of their
primary stakeholders, and to improve or campaigns, especially in media relations
maintain organizational reputation” (Pratt, campaigns or crisis management situations (e.g.
2004, p. 15). This purported power of Coombs, 2007; Fortunato, 2000; Lundy &
messages to do things sits firmly in the Broussard, 2007). There is ample evidence in
theoretical camp of media effects. the campaign literature that the environment in
The media effect can be described as “a which messaging and counter-messaging is
change in an outcome within a person or being undertaken by public relations
social entity that is due to mass media practitioners is congested with other entities
influence following exposure to a mass media trying to promulgate their own messages.
message or series of messages” (Potter, 2011, Moloney (2006) suggests that public
p. 903). From this position, sending effective relations is “conducive to at least one public
messages to reach “strategically important good” and that is “the sustained and intense
audiences” can be seen as a “critical function scrutiny by third parties of public wrangling
in public relations” (Hallahan, 1999, p. 463). amongst PR voices” which “can produce more
Practitioners work to ensure that their accurate fact and truth statements in public life”
messages are effective, and Lane (2007) (p. 39). However, he goes on to point out that
states that practitioners “fine-tune “while accurate fact and truth statements may
organisational messages to achieve strategic or may not be delivered by PR messages, their
objectives” (p.72). accuracy and truth components will invariably
Key messages are often presented as only be demonstrated to third parties after
planned talking points that, far from being competitive public challenges from other
“uttered off the cuff”, are “planned carefully, messages” (p.39). The literature suggests that
presented strategically” and are underpinned practitioners expect to have their messages
by research (Pratt, 2004, p.15). The analyses challenged and that they apply resources and
of individual campaigns in the academic effort to minimise or circumvent these
literature suggest that practitioners subscribe challenges. My research sought to examine
to this way of thinking in terms of their whether similar findings could be seen in a
messaging strategies (e.g. Batchelor & selection of award-wining campaigns that are
Formentin, 2008; Berger, 1999; Henderson,
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James, M. (2011). Ready, aim, fire: Key messages in public relations campaigns. PRism 8(1):
http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.htmlheld to be examples of best practice in public interviews (Margoluis & Salafsky, 1998) was
relations. undertaken with practitioners who had designed
a national Golden Target award-winning
Methodology campaign between 2005 and 2009 (n=18). It
An initial content analysis was undertaken to was deemed unreasonable to ask practitioners
see whether the words “message” or “key to recall campaign details from longer than five
messages” were present in (a) award entry years ago. Semi-structured interviews were
texts from campaigns that had won a Public used where the line of questioning began with a
Relations Institute of Australia national request to describe how they went about
Golden Target Award between 1999 and designing their award-winning campaign.
2008. Entry texts were included in the sample Topics brought forward by informants
if they were available online at throughout the interview were then further
www.lib.uts.edu.au/gta/ and had sufficient probed. The breakdown of interview informants
information for analysis (n=57). Then, a is included in Table 1.
series of face-to-face key informant
Table 1 – Breakdown on interview informants by state/territory, practice sector and
award entry category
Informant ID by City & Australian Sector of practice Category of award entry
State/Territory
INF1 Perth, WA In-house, state government Consumer marketing
INF2 Perth, WA Consultancy Health organisation
INF3 Perth, WA In-house, corporate Corporate social responsibility
INF4 Melbourne, Vic Consultancy Government campaign
INF5 Melbourne, Vic Consultancy Community relations
INF6 Melbourne, Vic In-house, state government Employee communication
INF7 Melbourne, Vic In-house, state government Issues/crisis management
INF8 Melbourne, Vic In-house, NFP Public affairs
INF9 Sydney, NSW Consultancy Issues/crisis management
INF10 Sydney, NSW Consultancy Public affairs
INF11 Sydney, NSW In-house, corporate Internal communication
INF12 Sydney, NSW Consultancy Business-to-business marketing
INF13 Sydney, NSW Consultancy Business-to-business marketing
INF14 Canberra, ACT In-house, government agency Government campaign
INF15 Brisbane, QLD Consultancy Community relations
INF16 Brisbane, QLD In-house, NFP Issues/crisis management
INF17 Brisbane, QLD Consultancy Marketing communication
INF18 Brisbane, QLD In-house, government corporation Issues/crisis management
3
James, M. (2011). Ready, aim, fire: Key messages in public relations campaigns. PRism 8(1):
http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.htmlThe interviews were recorded and RQ 4 Within what context do practitioners
transcribed for analysis purposes. The entries see key messages working?
and transcripts containing the words ‘message’
or ‘key messages’ were then more closely Findings
examined and the ways in which the words Of the 57 national Australian award-winning
were used were thematically coded using codes public relations case studies examined it is
that emerged from the data, together with the notable that 82 percent of these mention key
categories suggested by the literature. The messages or messages being used as part of the
award entries that did not contain the words strategies and tactics employed to achieve
‘message’ or ‘key messages’ were also stated goals. It is clear that these terms are used
examined to determine whether there was interchangeably and that use of either word in
content present that indicated the use of key the sample’s text supports the working
messages in spite of those exact words not definition of key messages for this project. The
being used. If this was identified, then the interview transcript data show key messages
entry was again, more closely examined and featuring prominently when practitioners
coded. The themes identified were grouped discuss how they approach their campaign
under four broad categories that emerged from work, no matter what type of campaign was
the data: key message environment, key being discussed or what sector the practitioner
message development, key message attributes worked within. Key messages are developed as
and key message context. part of all media relations campaigns but are
National award-winning campaigns were also used in materials designed to directly
selected as the sample because these are seen engage and/or inform publics and audiences –
by industry as examples of best practice in the “discourse genres” as outlined by
public relations and are frequently used for (Courtright & Smudde, 2010, p. 68). There is
teaching and research purposes. Even though only one award entry that actively sought a
only Australian practice has been included in dialogic exchange in meaning making. This is a
this research sample, an assumption that such case where public relations practitioners were
practice is not atypical in the context of how working with indigenous communities in
campaigns are designed and implemented in remote Australia and a key message-based
Western countries has been made. This approach had failed to achieve a satisfactory
assumption is based on sources including the outcome (1999, Case 561). This was the only
descriptions of campaigns and the guides to award entry that approached applying what
designing, implementing and evaluating could be described as a two-way symmetrical
campaigns found in textbooks used in tertiary approach (Grunig & Hunt, 1984) in the
level courses around the world. It is also based communication strategy.
on the guidelines for entries into award/prize
programmes conducted by public relations RQ 1 What assumptions or understandings
professional bodies in many countries including are evident about the key message
Australia (PRIA), Singapore (IPRS), USA environment?
(PRSA), UK (CIPR), New Zealand (PRINZ),
and the international association, IPRA. a) That the environment into which
The following research questions were messages are sent and received is cluttered:
posed: All data suggest that award-winning
RQ 1 What assumptions or understandings practitioners work with the understanding that
are evident about the key message many messages from multiple sources are
environment? competing for attention. The data point to the
RQ 2 What thinking underpins practice in efforts made by practitioners to be innovative
developing key messages? and creative when working with their
RQ 3 What attributes must key messages organisations to find what it is that will make
incorporate to be effective in the campaign
context?
1 A list of all case studies can be found in Appendix 1.them stand out from the crowd – to find a that notice is taken of them. Repetition also
“campaignable concept” (INF17 interview). related to the importance of the issue, a
This is to achieve “cut through” or to “cut presumption by practitioners that if people are
through the clutter” – phrases commonly used exposed to something frequently they might
in the interview data. For example: start to think it worth noticing or start believing
How do we make it new and how do we something to be true.
make it interesting because if we don’t
cut through here, it doesn’t matter how RQ 2 What thinking underpins practice in
good the message is; over here is never developing key messages?
going to hear it (INF12 interview).
a) That research must underpin message
b) That the role of message dissemination
development: All award entries identify the
channels is central: The data show that
research undertaken in the development of their
practitioners work to ensure that the materials
campaigns. This is a mandatory component of
containing their key messages are as valuable
the award entry template but the importance of
as possible to those controlling the conduits and
research was addressed repeatedly in the
channels to intended audiences. This relates to
interviews, for example:
both research for message development and
tailoring the message themes. Knowledge of Research allows you to fine tune the
the channels of dissemination is shown to be a strategy ... it gives you a chance to look
prerequisite for being able to design and at your messages and say … we need
package the messages to best meet the needs of more of this type of message and less of
message receivers. It is clear that practitioners this type of message (INF5 interview).
hope that message receivers will further b) That messages must be tailored for
disseminate or “amplify” (INF10 interview) the target publics: All award entry campaigns
key message/s. Knowledge of the channels of identify target publics in their campaigns and,
dissemination is shown to be a prerequisite for in fact, are compelled to do so by the award
being able to design and package the messages entry process. All campaigns identify multiple
to best meet the needs of the message target publics and develop messaging strategies
disseminators e.g. style and tone of a particular tailored to those publics. The data show that the
media outlet; localising national stories for techniques of framing are widely used and are
regional media outlets. This is seen as a way of embedded in key message development. For
maximising the chances of key messages being example:
incorporated into media content. The battle isn’t just having your
c) That repetition of the message is message understood the way you
necessary for success: Repetition of key intended it to be within somebody else’s
messages is seen as a necessary part of frame of reference, it’s also having them
campaigns. The congested environment into judge it to be a fair and true statement
which messages are sent clearly underpins the and then they might accept it. (INF18
practitioners’ thinking when crafting messages. interview)
Several practitioners use words such as “getting
it into their heads” and “ramming it home”
RQ 3 What attributes must key messages
when discussing repetition of messages, for
incorporate to be effective in the campaign
example: “You’ve only got an opportunity to
context?
get a few points across, so ram home your
messages and a couple of facts to support
a) An effective spokesperson: Key
them” (INF17 interview). messages must be delivered, articulated and
Repetition related to the theme of this attributed, and the issue of spokespeople
cluttered environment where target publics and emerges as a significant component of key
audiences are potentially exposed to so many message delivery. Media training is seen as the
messages that it is only when some are repeated
way of preparing people for the role of
5
James, M. (2011). Ready, aim, fire: Key messages in public relations campaigns. PRism 8(1):
http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.htmlspokesperson and is reported as being used in changes in what is being included in messages
many examples of practice examined in this over a period of time, or differences in what is
project. For example: “We took a lot of time in included in messages being delivered by
coaching the CEO on how to deliver a message different spokespeople or through different
enthusiastically, to show passion in your face.” channels. It is evident that practitioners work
(INF15 interview) to avoid inconsistency and there are numerous
b) Credibility: Two main factors relating to references to how public relations practitioners
the theme of credibility are evident and these work with executives and staff of their
are (i) that the spokesperson/s delivering the organisations to achieve consensus on the key
message has to be seen as credible, and (ii) that messages, for example:
the consistency of messages being delivered Regular meetings were conducted…
contributes to perceptions of credibility. these meetings also ensured that the key
Practitioners see the need for spokespeople to messages were carefully refined and
be trained in media skills that portray and agreed to by all parties involved in the
convey perceptions of credibility. For example: launch. (2006, Case 22)
We’ve got them so well trained now… d) New information should be linked to
When you’ve actually got people who that which is already understood:
get it and can have a sophisticated Practitioners construct their messages to meld
conversation about the issue and how it with what research has indicated target publics
could be taken and how it could be already understand, for example: “If you don’t
better framed then they’re completely go back to where they were and pick them up
committed and behind it and believe in and bring them along with you, you know,
what they’re doing. Your outcome is you’re going to have a disconnect forever”
just infinitely better. (INF18 interview) (INF6 interview); and:
This then returns to the key message itself. You could construct a campaign that
For example, this practitioner sees expertise in links into their understanding of the
message delivery, being consistent, and staying good work the x organisation does and
on message as vital: if they believe what they know about
The other thing is the consistency of the x organisation, that it’s good, then
message for your spokespeople… with a that kind of translates to being able to
media who is trying to chase down any build, well, a message that this must be
inconsistency, if you have an okay too. (INF17 interview)
inconsistency of your own making e) Key messages have to constructed and
you’re just making more work for conveyed but not ‘spun’: Although
yourself... it starts to undermine acknowledging the need to get the best results
credibility and then undermines the possible for their clients or employers, no
belief in everything else that you’re practitioners advocate being untruthful. This
saying. (INF7 interview) seems to be related more to the fact that it is
c) Consistency: Practitioners identify that likely that attempts to be untruthful would be
the problem with inconsistency in key discovered by the media or stakeholders rather
messages is its potential to undermine or erode than deep ethical commitments. For example:
credibility or believability, for example: “It There’s no point putting out a message,
[inconsistency] undermines your credibility and or positioning something in a way that
introduces distrust and cynicism” (INF18 it’s not because our stakeholders will
interview). This would seem to impact on the always find out. There’s no point us
ability of the message to achieve its intended saying okay we’re going to address
action. Practitioners describe inconsistencies in something and then nothing ever being
messages as either being errors in factual done about it because then that’ll result
content, a mismatch between what is being said in a bigger furore at the end of the
and what can be seen by audiences or publics,
6
James, M. (2011). Ready, aim, fire: Key messages in public relations campaigns. PRism 8(1):
http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.htmlproject than you ever had at the when Brisbane Council wanted to position
beginning. (INF15 interview) itself as responsibly managing the city’s future
Only one practitioner indicated that work water supply (2007, Case 7). Research is
would be refused on the basis of ethical reported as informing the positioning strategy,
considerations but it should be noted that this for example:
was not a particular focus of this study. No data The RAS commissioned four focus groups
indicate that ‘spinning’ key messages is among its target markets to inform the
undertaken or constitutes acceptable practice. positioning of rodeo as an event, and to develop
There is little data that refers to ethics key messages. (2006, Case 46)
specifically. Only one award entry (2001, Case c) That the evaluation of public relations
18) expressly mentioned working according to can be undertaken through key message
an industry association’s code of ethics. reporting: Success is most frequently
measured in terms of not having key messages
RQ 4 Within what context do practitioners challenged and by their ‘take up’ by media and
see key messages working? other channels. This take up is seen as ideal
when the key messages appear in the form in
a) That key messages have the power to which they were constructed by the
do something: Key messages are ascribed the organisation that commissioned the public
power to undertake an array of tasks such as relations activity. Success is further measured
dispelling myths, allaying concerns, and by having third parties disseminate and endorse
instilling confidence. In one instance, key messages in their communication material.
promulgating key messages were seen as the Media evaluation is extensively used, for
way to “fuel a debate in the media” (2006, Case example:
33), in another a key message was “designed to The quantitative and qualitative
play on a public feeling” (2003, Case 16), and research was supplemented by an
as part of one campaign, “key messages were analysis of local, national and
developed to bring the objectives to life in international media reports. This was
communication materials and activities" (1999, used to determine how the media were
Case 21). The efforts practitioners expend on interpreting the key messages.
researching intended audiences and crafting the Throughout the campaign, the media
right key messages for them indicates that most team recorded that in 92 percent of
practitioners ascribe to these views – as if a cases, the media interpreted the key
correctly crafted message will operate to messages and facts correctly. (2006,
deliver the desired outcome. Case 29)
b) That key messages could assist in There are isolated instances of media
positioning a product, service or idea audiences being surveyed to evaluate recall of
positively in the minds of audiences: Of the key messages, for example: “To determine cut
award-winning campaign entries, 42 percent of through of the strategy, key message and
campaigns (n=27) specifically mention attitudes towards the meaning of Australia Day,
positioning as a desired outcome of the a Newspoll survey was conducted” (2003, Case
campaign. Of these, all work actively to use 4). Of the 27 award entries that mention
key messages to assist in achieving the desired positioning as a desired outcome, only six
positioning, for example: “We tend to work on reported on positioning outcomes in their
three key messages that are your main themes evaluation/results sections. There is little if any
of how you want to position this initiative.” evidence of receiver-centred campaign
(INF17 interview) evaluation being undertaken. One practitioner
Messaging strategies are used for various described the barriers to more thorough
positioning purposes such as when the Child evaluation:
Abuse Trust wanted to “to reinforce its position With clients, the thing that is really hard
as an independent advocate” (2004, Case 6), or to get them to do is to pay for research
7
James, M. (2011). Ready, aim, fire: Key messages in public relations campaigns. PRism 8(1):
http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.htmlor evaluate our programs at the end… view or meaning. This relates to Heath’s
So long as they perceive they’ve got (2001) discussion on zones of meaning – the
their outcome, they are happy with that; practitioners undertook research to establish
they don’t need the documented what the understandings or attitudes of target
evidence to back it up, which is quite publics were before the public relations
interesting…We would normally do a activity. This meant that the campaign
level of evaluation for clients just based messages could be designed in a way that
on deliverables and our quick analysis would blend or meld with those understandings
of did we get key messages across and or attitudes. The evidence in this study
that kind of thing, but we wouldn’t do indicates that this thinking may be firmly
proper quantitative and qualitative embedded in public relations practice.
research unless it was engaged by the While there are many ways in which publics
client. (INF17 interview) can be segmented and defined (e.g. Botan &
Soto, 1998; Grunig & Hunt, 1984; Grunig,
Discussion 1997; Verčič, 2008; Walker, 2006), in this
It was evident that the sites wherein these study a situational defining of publics was most
campaigns took place were both congested and evident. Key messages were clearly tailored
contested, and that this “clutter” was one of the and framed differently for identified publics.
main drivers behind using key messages as This approach has been called best practice by
described by practitioners. Factors such as Pratt (2004, p. 18) who advised framing issues
repetition, consistency and credibility of “differently for supportive and unsupportive
messages resonate throughout the findings. audiences, for friendly or hostile groups”.
This is consistent with observations about how Practitioners segmented target publics for this
campaigns have been structured to support purpose and, in the public relations field, this
message repetition since the early twentieth practice is seen as essential “to allow a
century (Weaver, Motion & Roper, 2006). communicator to identify which publics need to
Foundational research in this area found that be addressed, and to avoid the waste of
message repetition could have positive impacts resources of attempting to communicate with a
(e.g. Hovland, Janis & Kelly, 1953; Cacioppo whole population” (Walker, 2006, p. 398).
& Petty, 1989). The findings from such studies The findings show that the techniques of
can be seen to underpin the day-to-day thinking framing as described by Hallahan (1999) and
and practices in public relations as articulated Ihlen and Nitz (2008) are widely used and are
by practitioners in this study. Their approach embedded in key message development
can be seen to stem from understandings about processes. The techniques and theory of
the way meaning is constructed, deconstructed framing can be seen to be underpinned by a
and reconstructed within the sites where public social constructionist theoretical view of public
relations operates. The findings indicate that relations where practitioners work to construct
they believe that consistent and persistent a particular version of reality in the minds of
representation is required if they are to have target audiences and publics (James, 2009;
any success in having their intended Gordon & Pellegrin, 2008). In attempts to
representation accepted by target publics structure a version of social reality,
(Berger, 1999). practitioners framed content in particular ways
The development of key messages in this but were also very cognizant of the need for
study sat within the two-way asymmetrical effective message delivery.
approach “which utilizes research to develop This was evident is how practitioners
messages meant to persuade publics to the supported media training for their campaign
organization’s point of view” (Berger, 1999, p. spokespeople. Scholars have highlighted that
187). Messages were developed using research lack of trained spokespeople could compromise
findings to increase the possibility of the target the effectiveness of key messages, especially in
publics constructing the organisation’s point of specific instances such as in crisis management
8
James, M. (2011). Ready, aim, fire: Key messages in public relations campaigns. PRism 8(1):
http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.htmlwhere people use such messages as a basis for also support Coombs’ (2007) assertion that
decision-making (e.g. Lee, Woeste & Heath, consistency is promoted when all spokespeople
2007; Lundy & Broussard, 2007). In this study, from an organisation are unified in the manner
media training was mainly instigated in an in which they deliver messages. The findings
attempt to control both the content and the suggest that practitioners have some knowledge
delivery of the messages. It is standard fare for of the tenets of Festinger’s Cognitive
media training materials to recommend Dissonance Theory. This theory states that
preparing key messages in such control humans are driven towards consistency and
attempts (Macnamara, 2009). However, as “avoid information that is likely to increase
Macnamara (2009) has stated, practitioners dissonance” (Griffin, 2006 p. 205), preferring
may need to rethink their practice to adapt to instead to engage with people, material and
technological change, and to the social and opinions that are consistent with their existing
cultural changes that accompany such change. beliefs. The findings indicate that public
He has suggested that the “control paradigm relations practitioners recognise this and so
practices” could be replaced with “alternative tailor and disseminate messages in ways that
interactive PR strategies” (2009, p. 11), but are interpretable by audiences in terms of the
there is little evidence of these practices narratives that are already operating in their
emerging in the reports of practice included in communities (Heath, 2001).
this study. Although messages are tailored in this way
The credibility of the spokesperson to forward the agenda of the organisation, no
delivering the message was shown in the data practitioner advocated working with key
to be an intrinsic part of key message message material that was not based on facts.
development and delivery – even with skilful Although only one award entry mentioned
framing of the message it was seen that there working within an industry association code of
was a risk of the message failing in its purpose ethics, no practitioner supported unethical
if not delivered effectively. Reber and Berger practice. The major concern of the single
(2005) have suggested media training may practitioner who reported pressure to
assist spokespeople in maintaining the integrity exaggerate the facts centred on the organisation
of the message frame and this can be seen to be being exposed in some way rather than the
the impetus for media training efforts. Avery actual ethics or otherwise of the situation. That
(2010 suggested that practitioners should no practitioner questioned the ethics behind
incorporate indicators of expertise, working to construct particular viewpoints that
transparency, and knowledge into their aimed to control the construction of meaning
messages to enhance the audience’s perceptions by publics as tightly as possible is concerning.
of the credibility of the sources they use. It was This perhaps indicates that such practice is
evident that practitioners worked with their indeed ingrained and unquestioned in the
spokespeople in an effort to do just this. The industry.
findings suggest that perceptions of credibility The findings support the view that working
stem from of a co-construction of meaning with key messages is primarily about self-
process between the public relations advantaging communication where attention is
practitioners and target publics, and that this drawn to the positive values and behaviours of
occurs as a result of all factors involved in the the interest the practitioner represents, and not
development, delivery and reception of key the negative ones (Moloney, 2006). The ethics
messages. of when such self-advantaging communication
Being consistent in design and delivery of is acceptable or not is unclear in this project’s
key messages was also a crucial element in this findings but may be related to how individuals
meaning construction process. According to interpret the code of ethics they work within
Bruce and Tini (2008), a consistent message and their personal values systems. Given the
supports believability and the practices power of key messages as discussed and
described by practitioners support this. They described in the data to undertake an array of
9
James, M. (2011). Ready, aim, fire: Key messages in public relations campaigns. PRism 8(1):
http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.htmltasks, the ethical dimensions of such practices could be to measure when the zone of meaning
are worthy of future further research efforts. within which the target public is operating and
That practitioners ascribed key messages the zone of meaning constructed by the public
with the power to do so many things is not relations practitioner could be said to have
surprising given that academic literature blended or melded. In this way, practitioners
supports the view that key messages can do could be conceptualised as working to co-
things or enact certain conditions. The efforts construct meaning in tandem with the publics
practitioners have expended, as described in the to whom messages are offered. How this could
data, on researching intended audiences and be measured in practice is problematic in terms
crafting the right key messages for them of how it would be done and who would pay
indicates that most practitioners ascribe to the for it.
view that a correctly crafted message will There may also be a reluctance to be open
operate to deliver the desired outcome. There is with the findings of such an evaluation process
clearly a media effects model of thinking at given that the evidence in this study indicates
work in these instances and Macnamara (2006) that the aim of messaging practice in most
has described how such thinking still cases was to influence target publics to move
predominates in much public relations practice. towards the organisation’s view. This is
Olson (2001) has stated that “knowing that the essentially a strategic co-construction of
audience was exposed to one’s message in the meaning, within a social constructionist
media is no guarantee that it will produce the theoretical framework. It relates to the
desired effects” (p. 271). However, the expectation of practitioners that if key
evaluation practices described in award entries messages are well crafted, delivered and
indicate that practitioners in the main do not disseminated, members of target publics will
subscribe to such a view and are still focused process the information in a way that
on outputs as measured in media evaluation, progresses the organisation’s mission.
and not outcomes. Media evaluation remains Within such expectations it was evident that
one of the primary methods used in evaluating there was some alignment to rhetorical
public relations campaigns and whether an theoretical approaches (e.g. Heath, 1993, 2009)
organisation’s key messages were carried by in that there was evidence of a “wrangle” when
the media is a specific and commonly used messages were disseminated into the
measure of public relations success (e.g. “marketplace” of ideas (Heath, 2009, p. 23).
Murphee & Rogers, 2004; Wilcox, Cameron, However, it appears that the majority of public
Ault & Agee, 2007). There was little in this relations practitioners in this study do not think
project that would dispel this assertion. this wrangling is a desirable state of affairs and
This state of affairs is seen as less than there is no evidence of intent to embrace a
satisfactory in many quarters of public rhetorical approach. If messages put forward by
relations. Jeffrey, Michaelson and Stacks an organisation were found to be unacceptable
(2006) highlighted case studies that illustrated by the target publics, then those messages and
the fallacy of considering a campaign a ideas may need to be reconsidered by the
success if one gets lots of overall pick- practitioner. Adjustments to what is being put
up, and even ‘key-message’ pick-up, forward may need to be made so that
without checking that the messages intentional representations can be honed, and
delivered were accurate and resonated zones of meaning better blended or melded
well with the targeted audience. (p. 10) with those of the target publics. In the data,
there is some evidence that campaign
This has implications for practice, perhaps
monitoring was undertaken in some instances
exposing practitioners to accusations of false
to do just this.
claims of success if they do not undertake such
The reception and interpretation of key
checking and merely report on the ‘pick-up’ of
messages remains a somewhat neglected area
key messages by the media. An alternative way
of public relations research. This is a significant
of viewing successful public relations outcomes
10
James, M. (2011). Ready, aim, fire: Key messages in public relations campaigns. PRism 8(1):
http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.htmloversight given that meaning is the primary storylines may provide the beginnings of an
concern of public relations and interpretation is explanation for why key messages are so
a central process within public relations central to public relations practice. The theory
activities (Heath, 2009; Leichty & Warner, also provides insights into the concept of the
2001). The issue of publics as receivers of credibility of messages, and of the
messages, and research into how they process organisations and spokespeople promulgating
messages and construct an image of an such messages. This is because the theory
organisation, requires attention (Moffitt, 2001). suggests that certain positions hold specific
There was little if any evidence in this study’s rights and responsibilities in terms of who has
data that a receiver-centered campaign the right to speak on an issue and what
evaluation culture has been taken up in public storylines (i.e. messages) are opened or closed
relations practice. However King (2010) states: by particular positions taken by an
To better understand how or why a organisation. Further research is required to
reader responds to an organizational text explore these concepts more fully in a public
in a particular way, an analyst can focus relations context. The public relations
on the ways in which the audience may practitioners in this study clearly connected the
or may not identify their interests with use of key messages with their positioning
those being forwarded in a text. efforts. What remains unclear is why such a
Importantly, even if a particular small number of award entries reported in their
discursive pattern can be said to campaign evaluation on whether desired
represent the interests of its author, positioning was achieved.
there is not necessarily a correlation Overall there was a strong current of the
between what the pattern evoked in a transmission model of communication being
reader and what the author may have the key driver throughout the descriptions of
planned for. (p. 25) practice relating to key messages. This was,
however, very much tempered with the efforts
This leaves open the possibility that the best-
of practitioners to create zones of meaning for
crafted messages may not be successful in
target publics that were informed by research.
achieving the construction or co-construction of
Practitioners were not just loading up an arrow
an organisation’s intended meanings. The
with a message and shooting it out randomly.
reasons for this may link closely to the concept
They were using a carefully tailored message
of intentional strategic positioning, where
on the arrow and shooting it out with a finely
messaging is just one aspect of the positioning
honed bow (i.e. a trained spokesperson) – the
process (James, 2010, 2011). If the
target was not random but clearly scoped out
organisation has not determined a viable
and defined.
position or has not enacted its desired position
It was found in a previous study (Byrne,
in some way, key messages alone seem
2007) that Australian public relations practice
unlikely to achieve successful positioning
was most closely aligned with Grunig and
(James, 2011). The evidence in the award-entry
Hunt’s (1984) press agent/publicity model. In
data points to the use of messaging as a way of
this study, the approach of practitioners aligns
undertaking intentional positioning as it is
more closely with the two-way asymmetrical
described in the Halcion case study undertaken
model of public relations (Grunig & Hunt,
by Berger (1999). It can also be seen to link to
1984). This is where insights gleaned through
positioning through discursive strategies as
research were designed to feed into better-
articulated by Motion and Leitch (1996).
targeted strategic communication efforts for the
Positioning theory (van Langenhove &
achievement of the organisation’s public
Harré, 1999) has only recently been applied in
relations goals. It should be noted that Byrne’s
a public relations context (James, 2010, 2011;
sample did not focus on award-winning
Leitch & Motion, 2010) but its basic premise
practitioners or examine notions of best
that positions can be established and
practice. Part of the award entry template for
maintained through speech acts and supporting
11
James, M. (2011). Ready, aim, fire: Key messages in public relations campaigns. PRism 8(1):
http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.htmlthe campaigns examined in my study asked less commonly, recall of key messages. It was
practitioners to detail the research undertaken clear in all but one case of practice examined
for their campaign development. These factors that key messages either underpinned or were
may explain the difference in the theoretical an integral component of campaigns. Success
orientations. was not seen as having organisational
Overall, the findings suggest that public viewpoints challenged in informed debate by an
relations practitioners are guided by the active engaged society. Success was measured in
message processing model which assumes “that terms of not having organisational messages
information is the key: that it triggers cognitive challenged and by the ‘take up’ of key
responses in people, thereby affecting attitudes messages by media and in other channels.
and behaviours” (Pfau & Wan, 2006, p. 112). The implications of this study centre on the
The data indicated that such thinking permeated need to better understand the concept of key
practices around key messages in what was messaging as a central part of public relations
deemed by the public relations profession in campaigns. Practitioners clearly see key
Australia as examples of best practice. messages as having the potential to achieve an
array of outcomes but the findings did not show
Conclusion to what extent outcomes such as behavioural or
This study concludes that key messages attitudinal change are achieved. Nor did they
featured prominently in descriptions of show whether any such change could be
campaign practice primarily because attributed to the processing of key messages by
practitioners recognised the milieu in which target publics in any way. Campaign evaluation
public relations operates as a contested and practices of practitioners were primarily output-
congested site. The site is conceptualised as focused, rather than outcome-focused. It is
cluttered and messaging strategies operate to suggested that the perpetuation of these
cut through the clutter to reach a target public. practices may be occurring through client
Key messages have a perceived power to ‘do reluctance to pay for additional evaluation, and
things’ – to achieve an outcome or to through industry recognition programmes that
successfully position an organisation. Although award prizes to campaigns using such
understandings and assumptions of evaluation techniques.
practitioners are based in a transmission model Public relations messaging techniques draw
or media effects perspective, the theoretical from disciplines such as social psychology and
orientation of messaging practice was a social cultural studies but this study suggests that
constructionist perspective. Practitioners did practitioners may be working with only surface
not mention ‘social constructionism’, but all understandings of how and why messaging may
practitioners could be conceptualised as having or may not be successful. I suggest that if
worked actively with key messages to construct public relations practitioners had a deeper
particular meanings in attempts to have target understanding of how people receive, engage
publics construct particular versions of reality. with, and process information, this could
Practitioners tailored key messages in ways inform not only campaign design but also
that would facilitate publics constructing the evaluation techniques. There would be
intended meaning of the organisation; they implications for undergraduate course curricula
disseminated messages via media and if deeper engagement in related fields of study
communication channels they thought would were to be accommodated. Given the
best reach target publics and audiences; they limitations of this study in terms of its method,
used spokespeople who would be perceived as sample and scope, further research would need
credible and these spokespeople were trained to be undertaken to determine whether such
for their role; they saw the need for consistency changes were warranted or viable.
and repetition in their quest for message Key messages were found to be a significant
success; and they evaluated campaigns to a part of campaign practice examined in this
significant extent through the reporting or, far study, and the assumptions and understandings
12
James, M. (2011). Ready, aim, fire: Key messages in public relations campaigns. PRism 8(1):
http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.htmlthat practitioners held indicate that further Cacioppo, J. & Petty, R. (1989). Effect of message
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