Schooling, Child Marriage and Workforce Participation in Bangladesh: A scoping paper to identify gaps in evidence Sajeda Amin
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Schooling, Child Marriage and
Workforce Participation in
Bangladesh: A scoping paper to
identify gaps in evidence
Sajeda AminSchooling, Child Marriage and Workforce Participation in
Bangladesh: A scoping paper to identify gaps in evidence
Sajeda Amin
The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do
not necessarily reflect the views of UNICEF. Any part of this publication may be freely reproduced if
accompanied by the following citation: Amin (2021). Schooling, Child Marriage and Workforce
Participation in Bangladesh: A scoping paper to identify gaps in evidence. Compendium Paper. UNICEF
Innocenti, Florence, Italy.
Correspondence should be addressed to: florence@unicef.org.
Cover image: Shehzad Noorani
© 2021Schooling, Child Marriage and Workforce Participation in
Bangladesh: A scoping paper to identify gaps in evidence
Sajeda Amin
1. Introduction frequently cited as a marker of Bangladesh’s
This scoping paper explores broad patterns in development achievements, along with
girls’ schooling, marriage and workforce improved health, economic growth and better
participation rates in Bangladesh, and how economic opportunities for women. Despite
these are interlinked. Through a review of the
1
these considerable advances, the practice of
literature and new analysis of existing data, it child marriage in Bangladesh remains common
describes what is known about these linkages – nationally, nearly 60 per cent of girls are
and identifies gaps in the evidence, in order to married before the age of 18. Child marriage
inform programmes and policy. As far as the potentially undermines investments in human
available data allow, the paper attempts to go development. Overall, the levels of women’s
beyond evidence at the level of associations to workforce participation remain relatively low,
explore the causal links and contextual factors although participation rates have seen
that drive recent patterns and trends. Child moderate increases among women of all ages,
marriage is not common among boys and is but particularly for older women.
thus not explored in this paper. The analysis
Table 1 shows how Bangladesh compares with
focuses mostly on factors that can be
other countries of South Asia. Like India and
addressed through sectoral investments in
Nepal, the country has universal education:
education, which could help to reduce these
only 2.7 per cent of girls reported never having
vulnerabilities.
attended school. The corresponding figures are
Schooling rates for girls in Bangladesh have 3.6 per cent in India, 3.7 per cent in Nepal and
increased rapidly in recent decades. The 26.8 per cent in Pakistan. However, Bangladesh
pronounced gender gap that existed in has a lower median number of years of
schooling as recently as the 1990s has all but schooling (among women aged 20–24 in the
disappeared (Asadullah and Choudhury, 2009), Demographic and Health Survey – DHS). It has
and the country has now reached gender parity higher labour force participation rates than
in education. Those programmes that India and Pakistan, but lower than Nepal – 22.3
particularly incentivized girls’ schooling, per cent of women aged 15–24 in Bangladesh
beginning in 1994, are credited with having report that they are currently working (as
brought about these changes, although rapid against 45.1 per cent in Nepal, 11.1 per cent in
economic growth and urbanization may also Pakistan and 14.9 per cent in India). It is in
have played a part by increasing the demand terms of age at marriage that Bangladesh is
for schooling. Gender equity in schools is truly an outlier: the median age at marriage is
1
The author would like to acknowledge the contributions
of Irfan Hossain and Eashita Haque, Population Council,
Dhaka for research support
1Schooling, Child Marriage and Workforce Participation in
Bangladesh: A scoping paper to identify gaps in evidence
Sajeda Amin
only 16.1 years in Bangladesh, compared with Nepal, India and Pakistan, the figures are 39.5
18.5 in Nepal, 19.6 in India and 21.3 in Pakistan. per cent, 25.3 per cent and 18.3 per cent,
Overall, 59 per cent of women aged 25–29 in respectively.
Bangladesh are married before the age of 18. In
Table 1: Girls’ education, work and marriage in selected South Asian countries, DHS, 2014–2015
Bangladesh Nepal Pakistan India
2014 2016 2017–2018 2015–2016
Percentage of girls aged 10–14
2.7% 3.7% 26.8% 3.6%
with no education
Median years of schooling completed,
6.4% 8.3% 3.8% 9.2%
women aged 20–24
Percentage of women aged 15–24
22.3% 45.1% 11.1% 14.9%
who are economically active
Median age at marriage for all women
16.1% 18.5% 21.3% 19.6%
aged 15–49
Percentage of women aged 25–29
58.6% 39.5% 18.3% 25.3%
married before the age of 18
The DHS data suggest that, as a factor their early twenties, but the same is true for less
associated with schooling and work, early or than a third of men. Young men and women
child marriage is relevant for women, but not have similar levels of school completion rates
for men. Household roster data from the DHS and median years of schooling completed.
show the gender differences in the transition to However, there is a vast difference in workforce
adulthood indicators for men and women in participation: in the age group 20–24, 13.3 per
their twenties (see Table 2).2 The majority of cent of women are active in the workforce, as
women (85 per cent) are already married by against 72.6 per cent of men.
Men Women
Percentage of those aged 20–24 ever married 29.3% 85.0%
Percentage of those aged 25–29 who have completed secondary school or higher 53.9% 53.0%
Median years of school completed at age 25–29 6 6
Percentage of those aged 20–24 who are currently working 72.6% 13.30%
Table 2: Marriage timing, schooling and work status, by gender, DHS, 2011
2
As with most surveys, individual survey respondents
are selected from a listing of households in the sampling
frame for the DHS. The roster data are public access.
2Schooling, Child Marriage and Workforce Participation in
Bangladesh: A scoping paper to identify gaps in evidence
Sajeda Amin
2. Trends in schooling, work and marriage 2014, the proportion of women who had
Starting from a very low base, the schooling completed at least secondary schooling rose
levels in Bangladesh have risen considerably from 18 per cent to nearly 70 per cent (see
for girls and young women. Between 1993 and Figure 1).
Figure 1: Women who completed secondary/higher education, by select age groups and survey year
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1993-94 1996-97 1999-2000 2004 2007 2011 2014 2017-18
Age group 15-19 Age group 20-24 Age group 45-49
The labour force participation rates for women less likely than older women to report working
also rose during the same period, but the (see Figure 2). At younger ages – up to and
increase was less pronounced: from 22 per cent around the time of marriage – workforce
in 2004, the proportion of women who reported participation rates among girls are consistently
currently working for pay had risen to over one low. The rates increase steadily with age,
in three in 2014. In general, younger women are declining slightly among older women.
Figure 2: Percentage of women currently working, by age and survey year
Bangladesh 2004
Bangladesh 2007
Bangladesh 2011
Bangladesh 2014 58
Bangladesh 2017 to 2018 53.9 55.7 55.2
47.3
41.2
39 39.3 39.8
37.9 36.7 36.3 37.1
34.3
34.1 33.2
26.6 29 28.4 28.2
24.1 26.1 25.2 22.6
17.8
16.2 17.1 15.6
14.8 14.4 13.6 14.2
9.9 12.1
6.2
15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49
3Schooling, Child Marriage and Workforce Participation in
Bangladesh: A scoping paper to identify gaps in evidence
Sajeda Amin
The increase in the proportion of women this sector while about one in four workers are
working is greatest among those who perform single (Hossain et al, 2017; Haque and Bari,
skilled labour and those in the service sector. It 2021). Although many garment-factory workers
is known, however, that Bangladesh’s garment are unable to continue factory work after
sector is the nation’s fastest-growing industry, marriage, a significant proportion do remain in
suggesting that women’s employment in the workforce.
garment factories likely makes a substantial
In sharp contrast to the trends in women’s
contribution to the increase in women’s
education and employment, and to trends in
engagement in economic activities. Heath and
other settings, child marriage characterizes the
Mobarak (2015) estimate that 90 per cent of
majority of most marriages even though it
women working in the garment sector are aged
declined between 1994 and 2014, dropping
16–24, and many are concentrated in urban
from 73.3 per cent of 20–24-year-old women
areas. Work before marriage may be more
who reported marriage before the age of 18 in
common among garment workers than in other
1994 to 59 per cent in 2014 (Figure 3).
sectors. Several recent studies suggest that the
majority of workers enter the labour force in
Figure 3: Percentage of women aged 20–24 married by the age of 18, DHS, 1993–2018
80 73.3
68.5 68.7
65.3 66.2 64.9
70
58.6 58.9
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1993-1994 1996-1997 1999-2000 2004 2007 2011 2014 2017-2018
Grants to encourage enrolment and prevent narrowing of the wide gender gap in education
dropout that existed when the programme was
A national programme to incentivize girls’ launched to certain components of the national
schooling has been in place since 1994 in rural programme, such as the provision of female
Bangladesh. Asadullah and Choudhury (2015) secondary school scholarships. The credit they
attribute the rising education levels and the give the national programme hinges on
4Schooling, Child Marriage and Workforce Participation in
Bangladesh: A scoping paper to identify gaps in evidence
Sajeda Amin
evidence that gender gaps and lower levels of employment opportunities and more desirable
female education persist in the urban areas of marital partners? Does work improve the
Bangladesh, where the programme is not likelihood that children will finance and
available. In the Population Council’s rural complete their education and get married? How
surveys, the majority of girls who are eligible do these hypotheses vary by the contexts in
report being in receipt of a grant (although the which young people live?
low levels of time actually spent in school
What are the causal pathways or intersecting
suggests that the precondition of regular
drivers of child labour, educational
attendance is probably not enforced).
access/outcomes and marriage?
Schooling and learning
Since waged work, schooling and child
Despite fairly high rates of enrolment,
marriage may all be reflections of common
schooling appears to do a poor job of imparting
drivers (such as economic and social
learning. A recent comparative analysis of
disadvantage), data on experimental studies
literacy and numeracy data in Bangladesh,
can offer important evidence on causal
Malawi and Zambia shows that the acquisition
pathways. A study by the Bangladeshi
and retention of specific skills is poor in all
Association for Life Skills, Income and
three settings and is sensitive to the competing
Knowledge for Adolescents (BALIKA)
demands on time and resources that arise from
represented a unique opportunity to examine
early marriage and childbearing (Psaki et al.,
the impact of three skill-building programme
2019). In their analysis of the correlation of
strategies on the prevalence of child marriage
learning outcomes, the authors find evidence of
(Amin, Saha and Ahmed, 2018). All three
loss of skills in numeracy and English,
approaches, which placed different emphases
associated with such events as child marriage,
on education, gender rights training and
pregnancy and childbirth. Skill loss is higher at
livelihoods training, showed a similarly strong
lower levels of schooling, and is not observed
impact on reducing child marriage prevalence.
once 8th grade education is achieved. There is
The skills programmes had several elements in
no evidence of skill loss in local language
common, such as a reliance on locally recruited
literacy.
mentors, an emphasis on access to digital
technology and remote learning, and strong
3. Evidence on causal pathways related to
engagement of the community through
education, work and child marriage
intensive community outreach. These common
How do variations in schooling and work
programme elements may have contributed to
pathways determine later transitions into
the impact across the board. The interventions
adulthood (employment, marriage,
were evaluated for impact at the community
childbearing)? Does schooling promote better
5Schooling, Child Marriage and Workforce Participation in
Bangladesh: A scoping paper to identify gaps in evidence
Sajeda Amin
level, and the study documented a significant training (Montalvao et al., 2017), and that such
decline in child marriage – both for girls who soft skills related to gender rights awareness,
participated in the programme and for those negotiating skills, etc. appear to be especially
who did not. This suggests that there is some important in more strongly patriarchal contexts
diffusion of the impact of the programme that limit and circumscribe women’s economic
beyond the direct beneficiaries. While the lives.
programme imparted learning across a range of
Mahmud and Amin (2006) analysed panel data
indicators and made an impact, the
from a survey of adolescent girls carried out in
interventions were only evaluated at two points
2001 and 2003 to understand variation in school
in time, and thus do not allow us to explore
dropout rates by economic status. They found
pathways of change or the sequence of events.
that poverty is an important correlate. At the
Thus, we are unable to say whether delayed
time of the first panel, about one girl in five had
marriage led to better schooling, or whether
never attended school. Poor girls were more
better schooling improved girls’ marriage
likely than wealthier ones either never to have
outcomes. Panel data with more than two
enrolled in school or to have dropped out
panels conducted in the context of intervention
before completing primary school. Girls from
research would help to explore some of these
the wealthiest households were more likely to
pathways.
have entered secondary school, but were also
A more recent analysis examined the impact of more likely to report that a marriage proposal
the programme on economic indicators and (or actual marriage) had precipitated their
found a more differentiated impact (Makino and dropout.
Amin, 2021). Exploring outcomes in terms of
labour force participation, wages earned and 4. Gaps in evidence: Suggestions for new areas
hours spent in paid work estimated from time of investigation
use data, the analysis found that the gender Why does workforce participation decline as the
rights awareness arm and the livelihoods level of education increases – and why does
intervention arm had the greatest impact; and that trend go into reverse at the highest level of
only those two arms had any impact on school education? An enduring puzzle for Bangladesh
dropout rates or increased workforce – and South Asia generally – is the U-shaped
participation. One interpretation of these relationship between level of education and
findings resonates with another study of workforce participation; and more specifically,
women’s labour force participation the decline in the proportion of girls in the
programmes, which shows that programmes to workforce as the level of schooling increases –
help with soft skills are more effective than except for at the highest levels of education,
those that focus on hard skills or sector-specific which relatively few girls attain (see Figure 4).
6Schooling, Child Marriage and Workforce Participation in
Bangladesh: A scoping paper to identify gaps in evidence
Sajeda Amin
Figure 4: Percentage of women currently working, by educational attainment, various years
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2004 DHS 2007 DHS 2011 DHS 2014 DHS
No education Primary Secondary Higher
While surveys may help in understanding the education plays a role in the decision to work
interplay of work opportunities, schooling and rather than to marry. However, it may also be
marriage, such work probably calls for mixed- that at education levels lower than completed
methods research related to both the supply of secondary, the workforce options and decisions
and the demand for labour. Workforce are associated with greater risk – perhaps the
participation is highest among women with no need for mobility or the perceived risk
education, and declines as the level of associated with mobility is the problem. Or
completed schooling increases. The perhaps it is the financial returns available from
participation rates climb again for women with work. Or could there be status trade-offs
higher than secondary schooling. Data on the involved in joining the workforce that serve as a
reasons for school dropout suggest that girls’ deterrent?
families opt to marry them off rather than have
What factors drive dropout from secondary
them join the workforce, unless they have
school?
better than secondary education. Mahmud and
Surveys that focus on adolescents and children
Amin (2006) suggest that some schooling offers
routinely ask questions about the factors that
an advantage over no schooling on the
precipitate school dropout. The findings vary
marriage market, and that marriage may be
considerably by survey method, and experience
perceived as a better option than entering the
suggests that they are not very conclusive –
workforce. This dynamic changes once the girl
probably because the process is complex and
achieves better than secondary education. It is
the answers to categorical survey questions
possible that the status associated with the kind
often identify just the most proximate (and not
of work only available with a higher level of
7Schooling, Child Marriage and Workforce Participation in
Bangladesh: A scoping paper to identify gaps in evidence
Sajeda Amin
necessarily the most important) determinant. A on patterns of time use, learning outcomes and
longitudinal approach with a qualitative skill acquisition. As access to school improves
component could be more promising. and as demand for schooling increases, those
Important insights may come from studies more qualitative aspects of education are likely
aiming to understand positive deviance – i.e. to emerge as determinants of labour force
looking at those who do continue their participation and child marriage that are more
schooling, despite adversity, rather than important than mere school attainment. There
considering the majority of cases. is ample recognition of gender inequality in
schooling, and official policy has addressed this
Urban children and adolescents: Efforts to
issue by reducing school fees and offering
address gender inequity in schooling focus
subsidies and scholarships to disadvantaged
largely on rural children and adolescents. The
groups: namely, the rural poor generally at
programmes have reduced school fees and
primary school and rural girls at secondary
offered subsidies and scholarships to
school.
disadvantaged groups. As mentioned above,
these programmes have been particularly Within urban areas, it is important to identify
effective in reducing gender gaps in schooling. and address the needs of underprivileged
However, urban children and adolescents have groups. To date, most urban service provision
not received the same support and attention. efforts have focused on geo-spatial information
With a rapidly growing urban population, it is identifying informal settlements and urban
important to consider the needs of the urban slums. However, with increasing property
poor. One study shows that there continues to values and urban development, underprivileged
be a gender gap in educational attainment in groups are increasingly dispersed, and
urban areas, even while rural gaps have closed. strategies other than spatial targeting are
Child marriage is as common in poor urban needed. This presents a challenge, since the
communities as it is in those rural districts with placement of schools is a critical factor in
the highest incidence of child marriage (Amin, ensuring access to them. In metropolitan areas,
2015). commuting absorbs a significant proportion of
time for urban adolescents, and this should be
There is adequate evidence from the DHS and
taken into account when designing policy.
various household-level surveys that can be
Access to schools can be particularly important
disaggregated by urban–rural residence to
in ensuring that girls stay at school.
explore correlates of school attendance, child
marriage and child labour, but there is relatively Displacement due to conflict and climate
little evidence on the causal links between these change: Another area of focus for new data and
indicators. There is also relatively little evidence evidence should be the impact of migration and
8Schooling, Child Marriage and Workforce Participation in
Bangladesh: A scoping paper to identify gaps in evidence
Sajeda Amin
displacement on schooling, work and the The evidence base on factors that are positively
marriage of young people. While migration associated with the economic empowerment of
may be a critical element in any adaptation women and girls points to the importance of
strategy, the experiences and concerns of the development of ‘soft skills’. Much of what is
displaced populations are difficult to capture in offered in life skills education could be
standard household surveys. construed as being in the domain of soft skills,
to the extent that such curricula promote voice
5. Gaps in the literature on what works and agency, critical thinking and negotiating
There is some evidence that the creation of safe skills. The role of these skills imparted early in
spaces – providing girls with opportunities to life has not been studied adequately. Further to
gather, build social networks and forge this point, we need research approaches that
relationships with trusted adults and mentors – can identify specifically what it is about these
can offer important life skills (e.g. the BALIKA soft skills interventions that connects them to
project; the Kishori Abhijan project). Further the mechanisms of change. This evidence base
evidence suggests that cash transfers (e.g. the calls for qualitative research to understand how
Kishori Kontho project) can reduce the rates of community norms interact with household
child marriage; however, it is not yet clear what decision making about young adolescents, and
the causal pathways are. Also, it is likely that how that mechanism influences individual
what works is highly context dependent, and developmental cycles.
that the models that work for rural adolescents
Challenges of transit and transport
may not work for adolescents living in urban
In settings such as Bangladesh, where there are
areas.
strong cultural prescriptions governing
There is emerging global evidence on the women’s mobility, the location of educational
developmental importance of investing in girls and work opportunities can present significant
during early adolescence: it is likely that challenges. The restrictions on a girl’s mobility
experiences during this period shape and increase around the time of puberty, and this
predict what is to come. Focusing on the period coincides with the age at which school dropout
around puberty may be important in rates are at their highest. The high rates of
understanding and identifying both risk factors school dropout among girls at and shortly after
for and protective factors against child puberty suggest that concerns about girls’
marriage. Early intervention may help to pre- sexuality may be driving child marriage. These
empt negative trajectories during adolescence concerns may simultaneously affect decisions
that could have a long-term effect on mental about schooling, work and marriage. Several
health, aspirations and sexual and reproductive interesting local practices may be explored. For
health. instance, export processing zones outside
9Schooling, Child Marriage and Workforce Participation in
Bangladesh: A scoping paper to identify gaps in evidence
Sajeda Amin
Dhaka offer transport to workers, and this is and small towns to the large metropolitan areas
believed to be an important element in their is becoming increasingly common.
success in recruiting workers (Heath and
Mobarak, 2015). 6. Conclusion
Our review of the evidence on the linkages
Higher-status jobs may be more about non-
between child labour, schooling and marriage
wage benefits and conditions of work: detailed
has included looking at the covariation with
labour force surveys show that job security
important background variables across time
(contracts), health and maternity benefits are all
and space. The dominant pattern over time can
important, while flexibility of work hours and
be seen in increased schooling for girls and
mobility requirements are key.
boys; but there is relatively little association
Evidence of what works to create positive with the prevalence of child marriage, which
pathways that build aspirations and allow girls has remained high. The evidence base in terms
and women to venture into the uncharted world of child labour – both in the DHS as well as in
of work outside the home would be an localized surveys – is weak.
important contribution – provided it is
It is worth exploring the existing national data
generated and understood in a manner that is
sets and comparing the findings from the DHS
informed by contextual barriers and
with those from labour and household surveys,
programmatic challenges. What are some of
in order to confirm patterns and variations.
the soft skills and how might they be delivered
However, these explorations can, at best, be
at scale either through schools or in the
only good descriptions of the correlations and
community?
intersecting drivers: they are unlikely to yield
Another considerable void in the evidence insights into causal pathways, for which there
space is the question of risk-free mobility and needs to be investment in longitudinal data
migration – there is considerable evidence that collection and focused investigations. This
while migration for work is on the increase, it would address the gaps in the literature
can be treacherous and the risks can undermine regarding such puzzles as the nonlinear
the benefits. In Bangladesh, rural to urban association between schooling and workforce
migration by women for the purpose of work entry, and with regard to emerging trends
has increased considerably, and the migration associated with urbanization and climate
of young, unmarried women from rural villages change.
10Schooling, Child Marriage and Workforce Participation in
Bangladesh: A scoping paper to identify gaps in evidence
Sajeda Amin
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