Science-based ecosystem restoration for the 2020s and beyond - Science Task Force for the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration
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Science-based ecosystem restoration for the 2020s and beyond Science Task Force for the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration
Science-based ecosystem restoration for the 2020s and beyond Science Task Force for the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration
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The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or other partnering organisations.
This report was produced under the Decade on Ecosystem Restoration Consortium Project with the support of the International
Climate Initiative (IKI) under the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety (BMUB),
Germany.
Published by: IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
Copyright: © 2021 IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
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Citation: Science Task Force for the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021). Science-based ecosystem
restoration for the 2020s and beyond. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 60pp.
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CONTENTS
Acknowledgments vi
Executive summary vii
Introduction 1
Why we need the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration 4
Fundamental questions to achieve the goals of the Decade 5
What does it mean to undertake ecosystem restoration? 6
Why have many previous restoration efforts been only partially successful
and what needs to change? 10
How can individuals, groups and sectors contribute to effective ecosystem
restoration actions? 11
What are good starting points to implement long-lasting ecosystem restoration? 14
Key messages to inform the framework for the reversal of ecosystem degradation 17
1. Ecosystem restoration offers multiple benefits though they may be
unevenly distributed 18
2. Key enabling conditions, particularly local norms and governance,
can tip the balance towards restoration 19
3. Effective ecosystem restoration requires managing trade-offs equitably 23
4. Finance and market infrastructure is critical for scaling up and sustaining
ecosystem restoration 25
5. Adaptive management and monitoring are keys to effective and long-term
restoration actions 28
Recommendations: building the ecosystem restoration movement 31
Case studies and examples linked to key messages 35
Glossary 48
Literature cited 50
SCIENCE-BASED ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR THE 2020S AND BEYOND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The IUCN-led Science Task Force provides an authoritative scientific reference for the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, bringing together scientific experts and organisations working on terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystem restoration. It offers an overarching coordination and scientific rigour function in the production, collating and conveying of scientific information in support of the implementation of the UN Decade. IUCN convened the Science Task Force to lead the production of this think piece through the development of concise and relatable key messages and supporting explanation on implementation of science-based ecosystem restoration for the Decade. IUCN expresses its deepest thanks to the members of the Science Task Force for their dedication and contributions to the production of this think piece. Through an active discussion and exchange they provided honest, science-based reflections about the topic. The wealth of their combined expertise and knowledge made it possible to identify the most critical aspects that need to be tackled for the Decade to succeed. For 2021, the following members form the Science Task Force: 1. Luc Gnacadja, Founder and President, Governance and Policies for Sustainable Development (Benin) and Chair of the Science Task Force. 2. Mike Acreman, UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology (United Kingdom). 3. Angela Andrade, Senior Climate Change and Biodiversity Director at Conservation International Colombia and Chair of IUCN Commission on Ecosystem Management (Colombia). 4. James Kairo, Chief Scientist, Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (Kenya). 5. Gam A. Shimray, Secretary General, Asia Indigenous Peoples Pact (Thailand). 6. Priya Shyamsundar, Lead Economist, The Nature Conservancy (USA). 7. Bernardo Strassburg, Executive Director, International Institute for Sustainability (Brazil). The Science Task Force of the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration would like to thank the following experts for their contributions to the preparation of this think piece: Drafting team: Robin L. Chazdon (lead), Daniella Schweizer, Victoria Gutierrez, Sarah J. Wilson, Renato Crouzeilles, Katherine N. Suding and Pedro H.S. Brancalion. Peer reviewers: Angela Arthington, Rene Zamora, Ruchicka Singh and Nicole Schwab. Coordinator of the Science Task Force and oversight for this publication: Adriana Vidal and Carole Saint-Laurent, respectively. vi
SCIENCE-BASED ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR THE 2020S AND BEYOND
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Actions that sustain and restore diverse and functioning How can individuals, groups and sectors contribute to
ecosystems are essential for human safety, health and prosperity. effective ecosystem restoration actions? Agents of change
With 2021–2030 declared as the United Nations Decade on from different sectors of society, both rural and urban, need to be
Ecosystem Restoration, efforts are scaling up to halt, reverse empowered to take actions that reverse degradative cycles and
and prevent future degradation of ecosystems worldwide, promote socio-ecological restoration actions and outcomes. The
including natural, semi-natural, managed, production and urban impetus for restoration can come from individuals, communities,
ecosystems. Sustaining and restoring ecosystems requires governments, non-governmental organisations or the private
public support and leadership from nation-states and civil sector. Restoration can be implemented under a wide range of
society, underpinned by sound science, and is driven by the governance mechanisms and financing arrangements. Local
collective action of multiple actors whose actions impact and action is essential as community engagement in ecosystem
are impacted by ecosystems. To move the goals of the UN restoration can boost social capital and livelihood security, in
Decade on Ecosystem Restoration forward, the Science Task addition to providing direct economic benefits. Thus, restoration
Force of the Decade presents this think piece, which addresses that incorporates local knowledge or cultural traditions and
four fundamental questions, presents five key messages to bring legitimises the role of communities as stewards of land and
effective and long-term action, and provides recommendations water is likely to be the most successful. Corporate sectors
on how to build the ecosystem restoration movement. and industry leaders can also be powerful champions of
ecosystem restoration by developing net positive practices in
What does it mean to undertake ecosystem restoration? their supply and market chains that halt negative impacts on
In short, restoration actions prevent further degradation and natural ecosystems and apply restorative action across their
promote the recovery of impacted ecosystems in landscapes, ecosystem-based operations. Entrepreneurship for ecosystem
freshwater systems and seascapes, while ensuring that restoration can bring about innovation, create jobs and increase
restoring ecosystems in one region does not displace pressures investment in local enterprises.
and cause ecosystem degradation elsewhere. Different
solutions exist in a continuum of restoration actions to promote What are good starting points to implement long-lasting
the recovery and function of local and regional socio-ecological ecosystem restoration? Successful ecosystem restoration
systems to deliver nature-based services and support native outcomes are more likely when founded on a common
biodiversity. Change does not happen overnight – positive vision. Coalitions and partnerships that work towards this
impacts can be seen early on but whole restorative processes vision can support joint action to scale-up restoration efforts.
may take decades and require an intergenerational compact. Collaboration among sectors is also fundamental to realise
Multi-sector coalitions and integrated programmes have the ecosystem restoration. In a globalised, digital and connected
opportunity to take coordinated action at regional scales that world, online restoration platforms are likely to play a key role in
have a longer timeframe and broader ecosystem outcomes integrating restoration movements, connecting actors, finance,
than locally implemented projects. tracking progress and disseminating good practices. This is an
unparalleled opportunity for mainstream science to reach out to
Why have previous restoration efforts been only partially a larger audience, including implementers, decision makers and
successful and what needs to change? Many previous supporters.
restoration efforts have failed because of inadequate attention to
livelihood needs, limited consideration of trade-offs, inequitable
distribution of benefits and costs, limited or ineffective
Key messages to inform a framework
engagement with decision makers and planners, poor science for reversing ecosystem degradation
underpinning and focus on unsustainable short-term actions.
Future restoration efforts need to draw lessons from previous 1. Ecosystem restoration offers multiple benefits though
successes and failures and build on a holistic understanding of they may be unevenly distributed (Key message 1).
the drivers of ecosystem degradation and benefits of ecosystem Ecosystem restoration can produce multiple social and
restoration. Restoring ecosystems at the massive scale environmental benefits, including enhancing human health
needed will require redesigning multiple systems that enable and well-being, helping mitigate and adapt to climate
coordinated human use, financing of ecosystem goods and change, improving water quality and flows, reducing soil
services and developing new institutional mechanisms. Effective erosion and flooding, regaining soil fertility and preventing
restoration strategies need to accommodate the operational species extinction. The different outcomes, benefits and
needs and vision of decision makers and communities in unique costs of restoration actions become manifest over various
biogeographical contexts. Continued social and ecological temporal and spatial scales. Understanding the distribution
research will help ensure that ecosystem restoration is based of benefits and costs associated with restoration is critical
on the best scientific knowledge. as aggregate benefits can hide significant imbalances,
vii
SCIENCE-BASED ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR THE 2020S AND BEYOND
with benefits skewed towards a few stakeholders and 5. Adaptive management and monitoring are keys
costs borne by others. Inclusive engagement in restoration to effective and long-term restoration actions (Key
I
planning may enable more equitable distribution of net message 5). Transparent monitoring, evaluation and adaptive
benefit and increase the potential for long-term success. management are integral and cross-sectional components
of the ecosystem restoration process. Capitalising on
2. Key enabling conditions, particularly local norms and good practices for ecosystem restoration relies on learning
governance, can tip the balance towards restoration from both successes and failures. High restoration
(Key message 2). Effective restoration entails negotiating aspirations stimulate actions and motivate engagement
and balancing multiple objectives and forging enduring and and commitment, but failure to achieve ambitious goals can
meaningful partnerships with and across local communities discourage action, reduce investment and generate distrust.
and institutions. Secure tenure, property and use rights Incremental moving restoration targets are likely to be more
are critical foundations for local governance, resource effective than static targets. Baseline ecological and social
stewardship, livelihood development, benefit-sharing and data and analysis are key to producing robust restoration
the realisation of human rights. Government financing action plans. Local communities can be actively engaged
and incentives are particularly important for restoring non- in the design of assessment, management and monitoring
monetised public goods that do not attract to private frameworks and tools. Monitoring indicators should
sector investment. Scaling up ecosystem restoration incorporate information on broader societal outcomes.
may require the phasing out of counterproductive
policies and subsidies and the repurposing of resources
for conservation and restoration. Integrating and
Building the ecosystem
harmonising traditional and scientific knowledge is vital restoration movement
to foster effective restoration actions. Where key enabling
conditions are not present, it is critical that additional This think piece details specific actions for ecosystem restoration
resources be invested to create them, in order to build by different social agents, based on the following broad
local and long-term capacity, motivation and engagement. recommendations:
3. Effective ecosystem restoration requires managing n Restoration is a process that builds over a long period of
trade-offs equitably (Key message 3). To ensure success, time and opens up new opportunities for engagement,
it is crucial that the different perspectives, goals and needs learning and innovation.
of stakeholders are communicated and accounted for in n Local communities must be empowered to lead restoration
a spatially explicit manner, through participatory planning. movements.
Nature’s contributions to people and biodiversity vary over n Restoration requires fundamental shifts in economic and
time and space, and can be negative as well as positive, political institutions so that they pay attention to the long-
depending on which restoration actions are implemented; term and varied benefits of functioning ecosystems.
with different choices creating winners and losers and n The ideals of the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration –
inescapable trade-offs. Robust spatial planning to support partnership, inclusiveness and joint coordinated action –
decision-making can ensure that the actions taken are need to be based on shared core principles, good
ecologically sound and cost-effective, and address practices and practical approaches to monitoring and
compromises among restoration goals, demands from other evaluation.
development challenges and available financing. National n Ecosystem restoration actions create opportunities for
governments, international organisations, local communities multiple agents of change to work together.
and regional restoration stakeholders need to identify and
prioritise locations and restoration approaches that balance
benefits, costs and risks.
4. Finance and market infrastructure is critical for scaling
up and sustaining ecosystem restoration (Key message
4). Restoration needs greatly exceed the budgets of
national governments, international donors and multilateral
development banks. Thus, meeting estimated large
shortfalls in available funding for restoration will require
drawing on both public and private sector resources. The
potential of restoration to address multiple global challenges
has stimulated the development of several innovative
financial instruments, including those that supply capital and
mitigate risk. Matching financial instruments to the scale of
opportunities available will require significant modifications
to private sector operations. A restoration economy can
mobilise local stakeholders through livelihood enhancement,
job creation and business development.
viii
INTRODUCTION
1
SCIENCE-BASED ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR THE 2020S AND BEYOND
Introduction
Ecosystem restoration has never been more relevant. deltas, surface ocean waters and deep-sea trenches.
The United Nations (UN) Decade on Ecosystem Deterioration of these ecosystems threatens critical life
Restoration 2021–2030 launched this year, setting support systems, making attainment of the Sustainable
out the grand aim of supporting and scaling up efforts Development Goals more challenging and potentially
to halt, reverse and prevent future degradation of more costly. Degradation in many of these ecosystems
ecosystems worldwide and raise awareness of the is driven by both direct human actions and indirectly
importance of successful ecosystem restoration (UNEP, by catastrophic weather events and shifting climatic
2020). As identified by the UN, restoration is a cross- regimes. Managed ecosystems that provide food, fibre
cutting strategy that can help achieve a wide range of and fuel are also susceptible to degradation from climate
social, economic and environmental outcomes. Globally, change and unsustainable farming practices. Ecosystem
case studies of successful restoration showcase good collapse or the tipping point is often irreversible, but
practice and enabling policies and institutions that can some ecosystems may recover over a long timeframe
motivate restoration (Woodworth, 2013; Hanson et al., with restoration effort (Keith et al., 2013). The IUCN Red
2015; Reij and Winterbottom, 2015; Besseau et al., List of Ecosystems, which allocates ecosystem types into
2018; Rakotoarisoa et al., 2020). In the next decade, different categories of risk, is enabling countries to assess
we urgently need to enhance and scale-up ecosystem risk across different ecosystem types (Bland et al., 2019).
restoration by promoting established science-based While restoring many degraded ecosystems is vital for
practices and creating the appropriate conditions to maintaining critical Earth systems, not all ecosystems can
drive ecosystem restoration as a critical response to or need to be restored to prior natural conditions (Hobbs,
multiple socio-environmental challenges. 2016; Coleman et al., 2020). In many situations with a
long history of anthropogenic stress it is important to be
Evidence shows that restoration actions contribute to realistic about the potential for restoration towards a near-
human society right now, as well as benefiting future natural ecological system state (Geist and Hawkins, 2016)
generations (Díaz et al., 2019). Ecosystems provide and intensively managed agriculture and urban systems
goods and services, ranging from production of are also essential to support humankind.
fuelwood, fodder and food to removing pollutants and
thereby improving air and water quality, as well as flood People are integral to restoring ecosystems and inhabit
mitigation services, allowing human populations to many areas to be restored. Successful restoration
thrive, though these benefits vary in space and time and requires partnerships and a shared long-term vision
between different members of society and can be positive (Ferwerda, 2015) with communities who use sea, land
and negative. Thus, sustaining diverse and functioning and riverscapes that need restoration actions (Walters
ecosystems, both natural and managed, is essential for et al., 2021). An estimated 1.87 billion people live on
human safety, health and continued prosperity (Sandifer 44% of the Earth’s terrestrial area identified as important
et al., 2015). Conversely, ecosystem degradation, by for conservation and restoration (Allan et al., 2021). An
contributing to the irreversible loss of species on land, additional 300 million people inhabit lands targeted for
in freshwater systems (Case study 9) and seas, risk of tropical forest restoration (Erbaugh et al., 2020) and over
ecosystem collapse, ocean acidification, diminishing 1.6 billion people live near forests – and likely depend on
freshwater, soil erosion and climate change, increases their resources (Newton et al., 2020). In all instances, the
the risks human communities face in their daily lives agents of change living on restoration priority territories
(UNEP, 2021b). Recent zoonotic disease pandemics, are predominantly from low or lower-middle income
such as the COVID-19 virus, illustrate the strong links countries. Thus, to realise the ambitious targets of the
between human well-being and ecosystem degradation UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, local peoples and
(Schmeller et al., 2020). local needs may need to be prioritised relative to other
restoration commitments (Holl, 2017).
A recent global IUCN typology describes 108 unique
ecosystem types, distributed across 25 biomes and five Ecosystems and human societies often operate at
realms of the biosphere (Keith et al., 2020). These include different scales, with ecosystems benefits accruing to a
natural, semi-natural, managed and urban ecosystems, multiplicity of people living in different geographies and
such as temperate deciduous forests, tropical savannas, time periods. For instance, degraded forest can lead to
annual croplands, rivers, wetlands and lakes, coastal river local reductions in fuel and food, and to global climate
2SCIENCE-BASED ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR THE 2020S AND BEYOND
change, with widespread and long-lasting impacts (Lamb, n Why have many previous restoration efforts been only
2011). Decisions regarding harvesting and management partially successful and what needs to change?
of ecosystems often result in changes that transcend n How can individuals, groups and sectors contribute
local spatial and temporal scales, creating a divergence to effective restoration?
between private and public needs at each of these n What are good starting points to implement long-
scales. Thus, the costs and benefits of restoration do lasting ecosystem restoration?
not always align or accrue to the same set of people,
which can paralyse action. Additionally, the impacts of We present a framework, centred on empowering agents
changes in ecosystem services, for instance, reduction in of change from different sectors of society, to reverse
pollination services, are challenging to quantify, let alone degradative cycles. We synthesise our learning on actions
understand their monetary value. Hence, many services needed to drive restoration in five key messages that focus
are unaccounted for in market-based decisions and in on: 1) ensuring that ecosystem restoration is designed
public allocations based on national indicators such as and implemented to attain multiple benefits and generate
Gross National Product (Dasgupta, 2021). Sustaining and long-term positive outcomes; 2) key enabling conditions
restoring ecosystems will, therefore, require public support to tip the balance towards restoration; 3) managing
from nation-states and global communities who benefit trade-offs when measuring costs and benefits in planning
from them. It will require collective action by multiple actors and implementing ecosystem restoration; 4) providing
in today’s societies and intergenerational compacts. finance and market infrastructure for scaling up and
sustaining ecosystem restoration; and 5) monitoring and
To identify a set of pathways that can help achieve the adaptive management to ensure long-term ecosystem
goals of the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, we restoration success (Figure 1). We conclude with specific
first address some fundamental questions: recommendations for action by different social actors and
to build partnerships to restore ecosystems together in
n What does it mean to undertake ecosystem local areas and all around the world.
restoration?
3SCIENCE-BASED ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR THE 2020S AND BEYOND
Why we need the UN Decade
on Ecosystem Restoration
F
Despite many examples of projects and programmes negative impacts on some stakeholder groups and
focused on restoration approaches of all kinds and disproportionate benefits to others (Example 2: Key
scales, restoration progress has been slow (Waltham et message 1). Such inequities often lead to project failures,
al., 2020), inadequately monitored (Lindenmayer, 2020), disengagement and lack of trust. Restoration cannot
and poorly funded (Liagre et al., 2015; Löfqvist and succeed nor persist without support and engagement
Ghazoul, 2019) and communicated (Jellinek et al., 2019; from local and regional governments, institutions, local
Mills et al., 2020). If restoration is truly the win–win–win communities and businesses. In large-scale restoration,
nature-based solution the world needs, why are we not the goals, needs and knowledge of local communities
overwhelmed by the massive scale of effective actions are often disregarded in project planning and
being undertaken? The reality is that restoration is more implementation, a key reason why restoration projects
complicated than most people envisage. As with most fail (Höhl et al., 2020). Failed projects and disappointed
interventions, restoration involves shared visions, trade- stakeholders lead to discouraged funders and decision
offs, negotiation among conflicting values and interests, makers. These cascading effects place a check on rising
and is often hampered by structural barriers that require restoration ambitions.
coordination and strong society support to overcome.
Where restoration progress has been strong and steady,
The global economy clearly does not value ecosystem the positive influence of multi-sector coalitions and
restoration sufficiently. Globally and nationally powerful implementation platforms is evident (Case study 2). But
entrenched economic interests drive habitat loss and strong and effective multi-sector policy platforms are
degradation, and they resist the systemic transformations lacking in most regions. Effective restoration actions
required to stimulate and sustain restorative actions. often span traditional government silos of conservation,
National governments have a poor track record for agriculture, forestry, water management, finance,
leading effective and consistent long-term restoration law enforcement and sustainable development. But
actions. National political agendas are generally focused governments and their policies, agencies and institutions
on achieving short-term goals that are quickly reversed continue to operate within these silos and fail to address
when there is a change in administration or policy. the integrated nature of socio-ecological problems and
These realities further compromise the effectiveness their solutions. Most of the time, one arm of government
of multinational agreements and resolutions, and the works to fix the problems created by another arm of
creation of policy and market incentives and disincentives government.
for tipping the balance towards restoration (Brancalion
et al. 2017). Strategies of international conventions and agreements
– based on multilateral agreements and focused on
Ecosystem restoration is not a simple ‘fix-it’ operation targets informed by science – have failed to generate
that can easily compensate for environmental damage the governmental and societal changes needed. Despite
done (Chazdon, 2020). This view reflects a lack of the promise of the Paris Agreement, the world is not
understanding of the spatial and temporal complexities on course to limit global warming to 2°C above pre-
of socio-ecological systems and the importance of industrial levels (UNEP, 2021b). Achievement of the Aichi
addressing key feedbacks (Chazdon and Brancalion, Biodiversity Targets has been limited, with none of the 20
2019; Liu et al., 2021). When ecosystem restoration targets fully achieved at the global level (Secretariat of the
interventions are undertaken, the socio-economic benefits Convention on Biological Diversity, 2020). These targets
often fail to reach all stakeholders, especially dispersed and agreements have been more effective in generating
and marginalised local communities. Documented hope and commitments than in generating real change
benefits are usually expressed as aggregates, obscuring and progress.
4FUNDAMENTAL
QUESTIONS
5SCIENCE-BASED ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR THE 2020S AND BEYOND
Fundamental questions
to achieve the goals of
the Decade
What does it mean to ecosystem restoration is deliberate human activity to
overcome the negative consequences of anthropogenic
undertake ecosystem degradation across all ecosystem types (Table 1, Figure
1). We recognise that full restoration of all ecosystems
restoration? to a pre-human intervention baseline is neither possible
nor sometimes desirable due to the need to maintain
intensively managed agricultural and urban systems in
Restoration actions focus on preventing further some places to support humankind.
degradation, fostering recovery and preventing
future degradation of impacted ecosystems across Ecosystem restoration encompasses activities
the entire ecosystem spectrum. We define ecosystem carried out at different spatial scales. Restoration
restoration based on the central theme of the UN Decade actions can be undertaken within entire watersheds
on Ecosystem Restoration (UNEP, 2020) as: Preventing, or catchments (Paudyal et al., 2017), across diverse
halting, and reversing the degradation of ecosystems agricultural landscapes (Barrow, 2014; Case study 7), or
worldwide to regain their ecological functionality and to within more delimited sites (Table 1). Restorative practices
improve the productivity and capacity of ecosystems to can include enhancing the diversity and sustainability of
meet the needs of society (UNEP, 2021a). Depending on crop production; silvicultural interventions to enhance
objectives and socio-ecological context, the restoration sustainability of wood products and non-timber forest
of ecosystems can follow different trajectories and products (see Case study 1); aquaculture to enhance
apply different approaches (Table 1). The scope of sustainability of fish production; reforestation practices to
ecosystem restoration implicitly includes conservation restore forest cover lost through harvesting, conversion
and environmental protection – as well as actions to to farmland, or fires; or ecological restoration practices
reduce the degradation of land, waters and ecological to assist recovery of native terrestrial and aquatic
support systems. Consequently, to address the drivers of ecosystems and biodiversity (Table 1).
degradation and avoid further degradation in landscapes,
freshwater systems or seascapes, it is essential to ensure Restorative processes may take decades or centuries
that stakeholders understand where, when, how and to and require an intergenerational compact. Recovery
what degree ecosystem degradation has occurred, and of lost properties of ecosystems can be a slow process,
the potential for restoration. Under varied circumstances, including the re-establishment or recovery of native
a ‘wholescape’ approach may be needed (Maltby et al., species, populations, functional groups and species
2019) so that restoration of ecosystems in one region interactions that were constituents of the prior ecosystem
does not displace pressures and degrade ecosystems (Moreno-Mateos et al., 2020). Restoration actions are an
elsewhere (Mansourian and Sgard, 2021). investment in future generations of people and all forms
of biodiversity. Socio-economic benefits of restoration
Ecosystem restoration action is about changing actions may lag behind the environmental benefits,
the nature of the human footprint within and across requiring that planning and implementation focus on
ecosystems rather than removing the human footprint. rapid delivery of economic benefits to meet the needs of
Ecosystem restoration aims to promote the recovery and local communities (Gregorio et al., 2015). Multiple project
function of socio-ecological systems to deliver nature- phases and funding cycles are usually required to build
based services and support native biodiversity (see Table the momentum, leadership and governance for long-term
1 and Figure 1). It is a broad concept that encompasses restoration actions. Multi-sector coalitions and alliances
a continuum of restorative actions that combine human can generate coordinated activities at regional scales
engineered and ecological solutions to assist recovery of that have a longer timeframe and broader ecosystem
native ecosystems (Gann et al., 2019, Table 1). Notably, consequences than local projects (Case study 2).
6SCIENCE-BASED ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR THE 2020S AND BEYOND
Table 1. The scope of ecosystem restoration actions and objectives
This table is based on the Society for Ecological Restoration’s Restorative Continuum, which includes a range of activities and
interventions that can improve environmental conditions and reverse ecosystem and landscape degradation (Gann et al., 2019). The
UN’s broad concept of ecosystem restoration embraces all of these restorative actions.
Restoration context
Types of ‘Wild’ native Managed natural Damaged Managed Matrix of
ecosystems for ecosystems* or semi-natural ecosystem production ecosystems
restorative actions ecosystems ecosystems
Examples Terrestrial, Rivers, lakes, Open pit mines, Croplands, grazing Landscapes,
aquatic, coastal forests, wetlands, post-industrial lands, agroforestry watersheds,
and marine grasslands, coastal sites, landfills, systems, deltas, urban
ecosystems and marine areas polluted water plantations, areas, seascapes
bodies, drained fisheries
wetlands or
peatlands
Restorative Reduce human Increase Remove or Improve Restore
actions impacts; protect sustainability mitigate toxic management connections within
existing natural of ecosystem waste, replace and sustainable and across
ecosystems, management and topsoil, replace production, ecosystems;
reintroduce lost natural resource grey infrastructure reduce climate improve multiple
species, protect extraction, manage with green vulnerability, functions and
highly vulnerable for multiple social infrastructure, reduce negative integrity of multiple
species and environmental reconstruct impacts on ecosystem types
benefits hydrology adjacent
ecosystems and
native species
Terminology for Conservation, Rehabilitation, Land reclamation, Sustainable Landscape
restorative actions avoided invasive species land remediation, production, restoration,
degradation, control, sustainable land restoration sustainable land integrated
assisted natural forest management, management, landscape
regeneration, wetland land restoration, management
ecological management, climate-smart
restoration, coastal zone agriculture,
rewilding management, regenerative
fisheries agriculture
management
Objective Protect unique Sustain use and Reconstruction Recover and Recover multiple
and threatened functions of natural of a modified sustain ecosystems ecological and
biodiversity, or semi-natural ecosystem with managed for socio-economic
cultures and ecosystems and some natural production of food, functions and
ecosystems; fully enhance nature’s components that fibre, clean water enhance nature’s
regain ecological contributions to reduces health and and energy; contributions to
structure and people; avoid environmental support sustainable people
composition biodiversity loss risks in local livelihoods
communities
Scale Single or multiple Single spatial unit Single spatial unit Single or multiple Multiple associated
associated associated spatial units
spatial units spatial units
* Wild ecosystems are not managed for production and are targets for conservation and protection as intact or relatively intact
ecosystems. Humans have coexisted with ecosystems for tens of thousands of years, and few or no ecosystems exist that are
not influenced in some way by past or present human modification. A large extension of indigenous territories is located in these
ecosystems which have been used for centuries for local production, through sustainable use practices.
7SCIENCE-BASED ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR THE 2020S AND BEYOND
Effective restoration requires considering messages that are critical to achieving multiple outcomes
interconnected socio-ecological systems. and lasting benefits from ecosystem restoration.
Ecosystems are interconnected within larger-scale
landscapes, freshwater systems and seascapes (Case 1. Ecosystem restoration (from degraded to restored
study 8). Terrestrial ecosystems, for instance, are tightly systems) is a means to attain multiple benefits
linked with freshwater, coastal and marine ecosystems and ensure nature’s contributions to people across a
through catchment, riparian and river systems, forming spectrum of ecosystem types (Key message 1).
‘wholescapes’ (Maltby et al., 2019). Ecosystems and
how they are managed are also closely tied to social and 2. Key enabling conditions tip the balance towards
economic systems. Changes in land and waterscapes are restoration by changing the relationship between
driven by economic and cultural demands placed on fish, people and nature to one based on interconnection,
forest products or coral reefs, for instance, and underlying cooperation and synergy (transformations within
governance systems that facilitate these needs. Thus, it socio-ecological systems, Key message 2).
is important to understand the nature of linked ecological
and socio-economic systems in undertaking restoration. 3. The specific goals and actions applied within each
Ecosystem restoration requires connecting inputs and socio-ecological system will vary across the
outputs in a positive feedback loop across spatial scales spectrum, making it essential to consider trade-offs
and actors (Chazdon and Brancalion, 2019; Fischer et when planning and implementing ecosystem
al., 2021). The most effective engagement pathways restoration to maximise synergies and minimise
depend on both local conditions and overarching policy negative outcomes (Key message 3).
contexts that create enabling conditions for restoration
(see Key message 2). 4. Finance and market infrastructure are enabling
conditions that are critical for scaling up and
Restoration can achieve a wide range of social and sustaining ecosystem restoration (Key message 4).
environmental outcomes. Degraded socio-ecological
systems (depicted in grey shading) occur across a range 5. Monitoring and adaptive management (feedback to
of biophysical and socio-economic contexts from natural restoration process) are an important part of the
areas to semi-natural and managed land and urban learning process that ensures long-term success of
and peri-urban systems. Figure 1 emphasises five key ecosystem restoration (Key message 5).
8SCIENCE-BASED ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR THE 2020S AND BEYOND
Figure 1. Key considerations to achieve lasting benefits from ecosystem restoration
9SCIENCE-BASED ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR THE 2020S AND BEYOND
Why have many massive scale needed to sustain and improve the quality
and diversity of life on Earth will require redesigning
previous restoration multiple systems that enable coordinated human use and
financing of ecosystem goods and services.
efforts been only Global economic and political systems can be
partially successful and unfavourable to restoration. Distant global and national
market interests often drive habitat loss and degradation
what needs to change? (for instance, deforestation driven by global markets
for products such as meat, fish, soy and timber) and
resist the systemic transformations required to stimulate
Ecosystem management is not new. However, the and sustain restorative actions. Externalities, such as
challenge for the UN Decade is mainstreaming biodiversity loss from land degradation or water pollution
ecosystem restoration into a broader global are not valued in the same manner as associated market
development agenda, whilst helping achieve the goods such as crops that may contribute to degradation.
aims of biodiversity conservation and climate change This precludes their inclusion in traditional cost–benefit
agendas. Many past restoration efforts have failed analyses. Lack of investment in ecosystem restoration
because of lack of attention to near-term livelihood needs, stems from systemic issues, such as entrenched
limited consideration of trade-offs, limited or ineffective institutions and policies that advance short-term gains,
engagement with decision makers and planners, poor differences between beneficiaries of degradation and
science underpinning and a dearth of institutions focused those who bear the costs of degradation and restoration,
on sustaining restoration efforts over longer periods (Suding, and spatial variation and uncertainties related to who
2011; Höhl et al., 2020). Furthermore, development gains or loses from changes in ecosystem services due
projects to improve agriculture, enhance water resources to degradation. Furthermore, the long-term nature of
or exploit timber or minerals have often lacked awareness restoration means it is invariably less favoured relative
of ecosystem benefits, and have thereby contributed to to land and water uses with higher short-term returns
ecosystem degradation and rarely involved restoration. on investment (Chazdon, 2020). Thus, for ecosystem
restorations to be successful, we need to develop new
Restoration often requires attending to multiple socio- institutional mechanisms that can help surmount these
environmental elements to restore different functions and challenges and alter incentives that drive degradation.
processes in ecosystems (Suding et al., 2015; Perring et
al., 2018; Chazdon and Brancalion, 2019). For example, National governments have a poor track record for
economic benefits, intergenerational fairness, inclusive leading effective and consistent long-term restoration
governance, indigenous knowledge, gender and social actions. Scaling up requires clear goals, resource
equity are some social considerations that may play a role mobilisation, technological expertise, inclusive and
in decisions about effective restoration actions suited for informed governance schemes and monitoring protocols,
different contexts (Osborne et al., 2021). Restoration in its which are often absent from ecosystem restoration efforts
next phase has to draw lessons from previous successes in many countries (Guariguata and Brancalion, 2015).
and failures and build on an understanding of what drives Political agendas are generally focused on achieving
development projects that degrade ecosystems without short-term goals. These realities can compromise the
addressing restoration needs. Additionally, restoration- effectiveness of multinational agreements and resolutions,
related information and guidance need to be delivered in a and challenge the creation of policy and market incentives
way that resonates with citizens, entrepreneurs, decision and disincentives for tipping the balance towards
makers, planners and actors. restoration (Brancalion et al., 2017).
Systemic change is needed to bring ecosystem There is an urgent need to identify fit-for-purpose
restoration to scale. Ecosystem restoration requires ecosystem solutions. The Decade on Ecosystem
engagement and cooperation among different types of Restoration is partly a communication exercise to convince
social agents that work together towards a common resource managers, rights holders, planners, decision
vision (Table 2). Yet, achieving unity is elusive and may makers and engineers that ecosystem restoration and
require changing habits, questioning assumptions, healthy functional ecosystems can help meet their goals
and making personal sacrifices. Effective ecosystem (Table 1). This requires re-orienting restoration strategies
restoration actions require long-term thinking, planning, to accommodate the operational needs and visions of
policy alignment and social innovation, to provide at least decision makers in each biogeographical context. Today
some short-term benefits and ensure their equitable we have a better scientific understanding of the benefits
distribution (UNEP, 2021a). Restoring ecosystems at the and costs of ecosystem restoration; methods to help
10SCIENCE-BASED ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR THE 2020S AND BEYOND
develop strategic portfolios of restoration measures and require innovative institutional arrangements, supported by
to predict the responses of species and communities to critical financing (Kingsford et al., 2021).
individual and multiple-stressor configurations (Palmer
et al., 2005; Sabater et al., 2018). New tools, including Local actions are essential avenues for ecosystem
advances in remote sensing technology, enable low-cost restoration across urban and rural spaces. Local
monitoring of restoration progress (Reytar et al., 2021) community and landscape stakeholders will need to be at
and a better understanding of funding mechanisms, the centre of restoration movements, as they often have
participatory approaches and enabling conditions. the knowledge to guide and the motivation to proceed
These new approaches will need to be deployed to or block restoration if it does not benefit them (Valencia,
strengthen local social networks that can advocate for 2019; Gritten et al., 2018). Furthermore, decision-making
restoration because it meets their needs. For instance, processes that ignore local knowledge or cultural traditions
strengthening tenure could secure stakeholder benefits, and the legitimate role of communities as stewards of
through investments that facilitate business development land and waters, are unlikely to be successful (Reyes-
in sustainable supply chains and by triggering sustainable García et al., 2019). Individual restoration actions can
financing (Lovelock and Brown, 2019; McLain et al., 2021). be small-scale but when combined, within appropriate
Fit-for-purpose restoration will need to attend to both what landscape planning, can have a large-scale impact. Local
information is delivered and how it is delivered to multiple activities can include many different opportunities, such
decision makers and planners, whose background may as restoring community land or public areas (rural and
be in agriculture, economics, law or politics and who may urban), establishing community gardens and farmers’
have limited knowledge of biodiversity and ecosystem markets to support local production, sharing cultural
processes. Additionally, we need a continued research values and practices, and involving schools, clubs, youth
effort to develop, test and adapt tools to ensure ecosystem groups, women’s collectives, sport teams and religious
restoration is based on best scientific knowledge. organisations to establish or monitor plants, coral reefs,
animal populations or assist in natural habitat recovery
(Constant and Taylor, 2020). Community engagement
How can individuals, in restoration can boost social capital and livelihood
security in addition to providing direct economic
groups and sectors benefits (Valenzuela et al., 2020; Wainaina et al., 2021).
Restoring urban green spaces provides opportunities for
contribute to effective engagement of local governments (Case study 3). In both
rural and urban contexts, communities and institutions
ecosystem restoration can partner with groups in other regions to enhance their
knowledge of ecosystem processes, scale up their effort
actions? and maximise beneficial outcomes (Hall et al., 2021).
Some stakeholders may require scientific and technical
support to understand, visualise, design and implement
Different social agents, motivated by differing needs, best practice within their restoration plans and actions.
can all contribute to the restoration process. The impetus
for restoration can come from individuals, communities, Corporate sectors and industry leaders can be
governments, non-governmental organisations or the powerful champions of ecosystem restoration by
private sector, and its implementation can happen under changing market incentives. The risk to businesses
a wide range of governance mechanisms and financing from nature loss has become material and therefore the
arrangements (Mansourian and Sgard, 2021; Walters et incentive to engage in preserving and restoring ecosystem
al., 2021). In the restoration supply chain, farmers or land function has gained strategic importance particularly for
managers, for example, often provide critical knowledge, those companies directly relying on these services for the
labour, land and materials, while investors and financiers can products that they are sourcing. As a result, a growing
provide capital and promote restoration activities that yield number of coalitions and platforms suggest that corporate
a return on investment (see Key message 4). Government and industry leaders are recognising their pivotal role in
agencies are, often, involved in planning, assessment creating net positive practices in their supply and market
and policy development (see Key message 5), with chains, including the Net Positive Project and the 1t.org
research groups and civil society organisations providing Corporate Alliance. Corporate leadership has the power
data and tools, raising awareness, communicating and and the potential to meet the needs of both stakeholders
demonstrating restoration possibilities. Different actors (see and implementers. Commitment voiced by coalitions of
Table 2) will need to be aligned under the right set of enabling corporate as well as financial actors has led to optimism
conditions (Key message 2) for successful restoration. This in recent years (see Key message 4). For example, six
alignment is, however, not always easy to achieve and may Principles for Responsible Investment (UNEP, 2006) were
11SCIENCE-BASED ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR THE 2020S AND BEYOND
developed by investors to embrace environmental, social More than 20% of the world’s largest 2000 companies
and governance factors in global investment practice. now have net-zero targets, which heightens their interest
The number of signatories to these principles has in ecosystem restoration and increases the potential
increased significantly over the last few years, from under of interventions such as Natural Climate Solutions for
1,500 in 2015 to over 3,500 in 2021 (PRI, 2021). Moving unlocking investment from the private sector (World
from aspiration to action must be the next critical step. Economic Forum, 2021b).
Table 2. Different types of social agents and entry points
for their engagement in ecosystem restoration
Social agent Entry points for What has helped or What needs to change to ena-
engagement in prevented this happening ble this to happen more in the
ecosystem restoration before 2020? future?
Landowners, People and communities play Local communities have not More awareness raising and training
landholders, a critical role in ecosystem been consulted, nor local is required for planners and decision
managers and restoration, as they work and knowledge taken into account. makers to help them realise that local
workers that live in the ecosystems to Appropriate local organisations land user community involvement
own or manage be restored and are directly were not in place to involve can produce positive outcomes and
the areas to impacted by ecosystem them. Planners and decision local knowledge can strengthen
be restored, degradation. Local ecological makers were not sufficiently interventions and make them more
including knowledge generated by aware of the value of local sustainable. Training is needed for
Indigenous Indigenous Peoples and local community involvement. the communities on sustainable land
Peoples and communities forms the basis use/management. Install improved
local through which restoration governance structures and leaders
communities, decisions can be made to in the communities so that common
farmers and both leverage natural recovery problems can be raised. Local
fisherfolk processes and benefit local institutions (for instance, watershed
livelihoods (Reyes-García management organisations) may
et al. 2019). need to be strengthened to enable
collective action required for managing
shared ecosystem resources.
Private sector The private sector can Many private sector companies Planners and decision makers need to
companies and influence the actions of have not recognised the work in partnership with landowners
industries landowners and managers, benefits of ecosystem and managers in ecosystem
tipping the balance from restoration and not given restoration, to bring innovation, create
restorative/sustainable adequate incentive to jobs, and increase investment in
resource use to degradative/ support actions. The costs of local enterprises. Large companies,
unsustainable use. Companies ecosystem degradation have who are often large landowners,
influence the supply and not been internalised within need to be included as they have
market chains for the inputs private sector finances, though resources and power to implement
and the outputs of ecosystem this is changing. ecosystem restoration. Incentives to
restoration. Entrepreneurship encourage private sector engagement
for ecosystem restoration in sustainable or restoration practices
can bring innovation, create are required along with procurement
jobs and increase investment practices that support restoration and
in local enterprises. The regenerative practices, and enabling
agriculture, forestry, water environments for local regenerative
supply, energy and mining enterprises. The costs of ecosystem
sectors are major stakeholders degradation need to be internalised
in ecosystem restoration and more widely within private sector
can become engaged at finances. Global agreements related to
many levels. biodiversity and climate change, with
accompanying national policies, can
help shift the norms among private
companies, enabling them to attend to
restoration needs.
Government Governments are key agents Governments have tended to Governments need to direct the
agencies and of restoration at local, regional opt for development projects flow of more public finance into
organisations and national levels (Chazdon et based on built infrastructure as ecosystem restoration projects and
Continued...
12SCIENCE-BASED ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR THE 2020S AND BEYOND
Social agent Entry points for What has helped What needs to change to ena-
engagement in or prevented this ble this to happen more in the
ecosystem restoration happening before 2020? future?
al., 2020). Local governments safer options and have tended programmes, including construction
play a critical role in supporting to view ecosystem restoration of infrastructure, funding of incentive
ecosystem restoration, as a ‘nice to have’ rather than or compensation programmes,
particularly when they partner an essential element. and providing services and utilities
with local businesses and to communities. Natural capital
community organisations. accounting can help reflect the
Regulations and government contributions of healthy ecosystems
institutions mediate on a national level and price the
interactions among social risks associated with nature’s losses.
agents and influence who Clear incentive systems, such as
pays costs and who receives payments for ecosystem services and
benefits. These governance environmental safeguards for public
arrangements include legal procurement are required.
instruments and policies,
roundtables, market regulations
and cooperation among
countries. Governments control
the flow of public finance into
ecosystem restoration projects
and programmes, including
construction of infrastructure,
funding of incentive or
compensation programmes,
and providing services and
utilities to communities.
Finance and Private sector investors Investment opportunities in More opportunities need to be
investment play key roles in supporting ecosystem restoration were initiated to integrate private investors
sectors ecosystem restoration in ways limited or not attractive to in ecosystem restoration in ways that
that complement and enhance investors. complement and enhance public
public sector investments. sector investments. Reductions in
Private sector investment can barriers to growth in offset markets
take many forms and can also would also provide additional
involve partnerships with local financing.
governments and businesses
(Key message 4).
Civil society Civil society organisations Civil society organisations Involvement of civil society
(non-govern- can play key roles in resource were often not fully involved or organisations needs to be
mental organi- mobilisation, capacity building represented adequately and mainstreamed and support provided to
sation) and raising awareness on the did not have confidence that ensure they have essential information
degradation of ecosystems outcomes could work in their in a form they can understand and are
and the need to restore them. favour. represented adequately in planning and
These include women’s, decision-making. New global coalitions
youth and environmental (for instance, the Extinction Rebellion)
organisations. can galvanise civil society to support
restoration.
Research Researchers have a key Research results have been Research results need to be
groups role in identifying and employed in many projects, synthesised and made available
communicating the causes but ignored in others either in understandable form, such as
of degradation. They need to deliberately or due to lack the effectiveness of nature-based
design appropriate restoration of availability in readily solutions to water problems (Acreman
interventions based on understandable form. The et al., 2021). Further research and
scientific understanding of evidence base for restoration outreach efforts are required to
ecological processes, recovery practices is poorly developed enable the outcomes of ecosystem
potential and social, economic and communicated, despite restoration to be projected accurately
and political dimensions strong research, such as in and for adaptive management
of different restoration the positive and negative strategies to be defined. There are
approaches. influences of forests (Gilmour, also research gaps in identifying how
2014) and wetlands (Bullock short- and longer-term trade-offs can
and Acreman, 2003) in the be minimised.
water cycle.
Note: Specific restoration actions for each of these groups are listed in Table 5.
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