Shaping Social Change with Music in Maputo, Mozambique
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Issue 173 February 2021
Shaping Social Change
with Music in Maputo,
Mozambique
In Mozambique, development programmes have traditionally drawn
on music as a means to promote social transformation by educating
citizens on key social development issues. Shifting the focus from
The
music as a teaching medium to music as a rich source of information composition,
can provide vital insights into public opinion and political ideas, performance,
and significantly impact the development of citizen engagement and shared
projects. Maximum gains for development and civil society agencies
can be achieved by mainstreaming gender into mutual learning
experience of
activities between singers, audiences, and academics. protest songs
constitutes
political action.
Key messages
– In dominant approaches to development programmes the use of
music for social transformation is often premised on the idea of
music as an educational tool for citizens, functioning merely as a
medium through which organisations can make pre-determined
complex messages more accessible.
– New analysis of protest songs composed in the past two decades
in Mozambique is highlighting the ways in which music can also be
interpreted to provide alternative understandings of demands for
public accountability.
– Through this broader approach to music, development and civil
society agencies can conceive and implement projects that
foster meaningful collaborations between singers, audiences and Kátia Taela,
academics, and promote empowering engagements with citizens. Euclides Gonçalves,
Catija Maivasse
ids.ac.uk and Anésio ManhiçaAn alternative approach to the arts
for social transformation
In the past two decades, national and To tackle the under- and
international development and civil society misrepresentation of women
agencies have increased the use of song
to build citizenship and to support public
in political song, female
demands for public accountability and songwriters and singers
political participation. This has entailed the must be proactively invited
commissioning of albums on citizenship,
to participate.
the integration of music and other cultural
expressions in debates about state–society
relations, and the creation of spaces for MASC (Civil Society Support Mechanism
public dialogue where musicians perform and Foundation) have been promoting citizen
discuss governance issues with audiences. engagement in service delivery and policy
However, collaborations with musicians are dialogue. Drawing on the power of the
limited to using music as a vehicle to pass on protest song, organisations such as these
already conceived messages. are increasingly including musicians as part
New research shows that issues raised of citizen awareness campaigns in a variety
in Mozambican protest songs are yet to of edutainment initiatives. Examples include
influence the definition of thematic areas of Fundação MASC’s Governance Festival and
work of the organisations that seek music to Parlamento Juvenil’s The Citizen’s Moon which
support social and political action. Rather incorporate arts and culture to contribute
than simply using music to pass on pre- to build citizenship and foster citizen
conceived messages, organisations and empowerment and political action. However,
institutions working on the promotion of citizen they rarely take into account the ways in
engagement should consider music as a which citizens communicate their political
source of knowledge to gauge ‘the pulse of views through expressions of popular culture
the street’. For instance, inadequate urban such as music.
transport has been a key topic in protest Music remains an important outlet for
people to communicate their political
songs over the past 20 years, yet very few
opinions and ideas. The composition,
organisations work in this area.
performance, and shared experience of
When examined as a collective body
protest songs constitutes political action.
of work, the messages and performances
Edutainment initiatives could be enriched
of protest songs can provide understandings
if programmers think beyond instrumental
of demands for public accountability and
approaches to music and consider listening
political action which expand the repertoire
to and learning from messages already
of the limited occasions when citizens’
contained in protest songs and how both the
views and action are expressed in public
musicians and audiences engage with them.
protests.
Citizenship through music The Maputo protest song
In Mozambique there are limited formal Protest songs are concerned with public
spaces for citizens to express their political affairs, particularly public policy and
views. In the past two decades, civil society how it affects citizens’ social, political,
organisations such as Grupo Moçambicano and economic life, and the relationship
da Dívida (Mozambican Debt Group), Fórum between citizens and the state.
Mulher (Women’s Forum), and Fundação
ids.ac.ukThe research that provided the basis for the general economic situation of the country,
this briefing investigated whether notions of in particular the high cost of living, hunger,
empowerment and accountability are present and unemployment. The songs describe a
in popular music; what existing notions reveal highly unequal society where people on low
about citizen–state relations in general and incomes must learn how to find dignity and
about citizen-led social and political action in happiness at times when economic hardships
particular; and how popular music has been are perceived as a result of the ruling elite’s
used to support citizen mobilisation. extravagance and growing appetite for
The analysis focused on protest songs public resources.
popular in Maputo city and province in The recent (2013–20) political–military
the past two decades. It revealed that conflict between the armed wing of
Mozambicans in Maputo have been quick to Mozambique’s main opposition party,
create and adopt new vocabularies aligned Renamo, and government troops was a
with the language of rights of the democratic theme across songs calling for peace,
dispensation and use them to express especially as the armed conflict imposed
demands for accountability. A large majority severe travel restrictions, displaced people,
of protest songs of the past two decades has and constrained service provision, bringing
been composed by young men, mostly hip- back memories of the civil war that ended
hop artists, who consider themselves to be in 1992. Politicians, and President Guebuza
expressing ‘the voices of the people’. more specifically, were largely blamed for
allowing the resurgence of the armed conflict
Key issues raised in the protest song in the country, for he was in power at the time
in Maputo and therefore in position to respond to and
Analysis of political songs in Maputo city and accommodate the demands of his political
province from 1998 to 2018, revealed eight opposition.
recurrent topics: the economic situation, Corruption features as both the cause and
corruption, political–military crisis/peace, consequence of the economic situation. It is
protests/popular action, police, public generally associated with public servants who
transport, progress, and donors. are described as overindulging themselves
The theme economic situation is a on the privileges of public office. ‘Big
category composed of sentiments related to corruption’ of opulent senior public officials is
Figure 1 Recurrent topics and percentage of songs referring to them
Economic situation
Political–military crisis/peace
Corruption
Protests/popular action
Police
Public transport
Donors
Progress
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35%
Per cent
ids.ac.ukcontrasted with ‘small corruption’ of frontline
workers whose low salaries and poor working
conditions often affect the quality of service It is important to also capture
delivery. The widespread corruption reaches
the justice system and the police and the
audiences’ viewpoints to
courts are seen as institutions that ‘arrest ensure that broader citizens’
chicken thieves, and [let] hashish dealers perspectives are taken into
pay bail’, as articulated in the song ‘País da consideration.
marrabenta’ by Gpro-Fam.
In response to economic hardships, intimacy barriers that results from the fact that
corruption and an imminent second civil war, standing passengers have to hold on to one
some musicians composed songs calling another to avoid falling from the overloaded
for popular action. The songs suggest that moving vehicle. Initially the government
citizens should not only see themselves as attempted to prohibit the circulation of ‘my
victims but also realise that they have the loves’ due to security and health concerns
power to vote public officials into office but ultimately not only has it allowed these
and remove them if they do not perform unregistered operators to circulate but also
well. In extreme situations, there are also introduced its own version of seated ‘my loves’.
different forms of public protest available to The idea of progress and economic
citizens who are the ultimate victims of poor development emerges in the songs and
governance. contrasts with consecutive unfulfilled promises
The phrase ‘we are investigating’, used in of a ‘better future’ made by the ruling elite.
police media briefings to respond to questions Songs that celebrate Mozambique’s progress
regarding new and old criminal cases has and economic development often build on
come to epitomise in popular culture the nationalistic rhetoric or official reports of
inefficiency of Mozambican police. In the economic growth in contrast to protest songs
protest song, police inefficiency is attributed where nationalistic rhetoric is used to speak
to limited human and material resources but ironically of the conditions of deprivation in
also to rampant corruption within the police which the majority of the population lives.
force, which at times makes it difficult to Since the structural adjustment
distinguish between police and criminals. The programmes of the mid-1980s, donors have
picture that emerges from the songs is one been a key feature of the Mozambican
in which citizens are ambivalent towards a political and economic scenes. Following the
police force from which they expect protection 1992 peace agreement, donors’ approaches
but more often than not face harassment and moved from the initial focus on post-war
repression, especially during public protests. reconstruction projects to the building of
The public transport system is probably multiple-party democratic institutions and
the most shared collective experience of poor social and economic development projects.
public services in Maputo. Ta Basilly’s song In the protest songs, donors are criticised
‘My love’ describes the shared challenge of for ‘supporting’ corrupt and unaccountable
high transport fares, unpredictable routes, governance as the mixing of aid and trade
and insufficient and overloaded buses. ‘My become more apparent to citizens.
loves’ are medium-sized trucks (of one to
four tonnes) used for public transportation Gender divides
and introduced by unregistered operators The composition and performance of protest
in response to the public transport crisis, songs in Maputo is largely dominated by
especially in the outskirts of Maputo city. young men. Gender relations feature in
The name ‘my love’ describes the erosion of their songs yet male singers often present a
ids.ac.ukmisogynist view of women, portraying them of lives due to the military conflict between
as ambitious people who sell their bodies Renamo and Frelimo or the problem of public
in exchange for money, school grades, jobs, transport. The lyrics also question Frelimo’s
or promotions. These negative references claims to being the sole legitimate ruler of
to women’s bodies are made in relation to Mozambique given its status as a colonial
the deteriorating socioeconomic situation liberation movement. Mistrust and scepticism
and the inadequate service delivery and over Frelimo’s willingness to protect the
corruption associated with it. Also present, interests of Mozambicans overall has resulted
but less prominent, are representations of in expressions of a desire for political power
women as mothers and heads of single- alternation. In the songs, invocations of late
parent households, usually in reference president Samora Machel draw a picture
to the artists’ own mothers. Songs that of an idyllic political past. While most of the
challenge unequal gender relations are commentary in the songs is addressed to
generally commissioned to female singers Frelimo, the only party who has governed
by organisations working on women’s rights the country since its independence in 1975,
as part of awareness raising and advocacy members of parliament from all political
campaigns. parties also feature in songs, as they are
perceived to have alienated themselves from
Singing as empowerment and their constituencies.
challenging unaccountability Musicians, producers, promoters, and
To musicians, the political song serves audiences highlighted that protest song
primarily as a platform to acknowledge contributes to raising awareness about
and put into perspective their political and socioeconomic and political problems,
economic position. The lyrics emerge as a awakens people to governance issues, and
vehicle to amplify subdued voices in a context therefore, in their view, serves an educational
where critique of those in government can purpose. However, there is also a desire
result in reprisals. to move beyond awareness raising and
Framing their work as ‘intervention music’, challenge what some perceive as passive
some musicians and music producers consider behaviour in the face of exploitation and
themselves to be expressing the ‘voices of injustices. Lyrics call for both individual and
the people’ and see writing and performing collective action rooted in a belief that
protest songs as a form of activism. This people-led political action is the pathway
view gives expression to a dimension of for social change. Individual action includes
empowerment that recognises the potential engaging with politics, voting wisely, and
of individuals to shape their lives and world denouncing injustices, while collective action is
and engenders the possibility of collective mainly enunciated in terms of unity and voice
action. However, some musicians believe in the street, through non-violent protests.
that they should do more: integrate with
social movements, engage in and mobilise
others for civic action, showing by example
that everybody has a part to play in solving
societal problems, thus underlining the There is a desire to move
importance of collective action.
beyond awareness raising and
The song lyrics analysed demand
explanations about the social, economic, and challenge what some perceive
political problems Mozambicans in Maputo as passive behaviour in the
face. They ask why the government is not face of exploitation and
addressing specific issues, such as the loss
injustices.
ids.ac.ukPolicy recommendations everyday expressions and citizen actions
that tend to be dismissed as apolitical.
1. Use music to inform and evaluate
4. Address gender inequalities and
citizen engagement initiatives. Music
misogyny. To tackle the under- and
can provide vital insights into everyday misrepresentation of women in political
forms of social and political action, and song, female songwriters and singers
is a valuable source of data for context must be proactively invited to participate,
analyses that can be used to inform and their participation enabled by
programming – from project baselines to dealing with gender-specific barriers.
the definition of areas of intervention. Training is needed for both female and
2. Promote music beyond entertainment. male artists to help challenge stereotypes
about women (and men) and foster more
Music can both shape and support
empowering narratives about women.
development and civil society agencies’
projects. Edutainment initiatives involving 5. Listen to audiences in all interventions
involving political song. Musicians are
musicians can be enriched if messages
citizens who sing and express themselves
in protest songs are used to influence
from specific positions in society. When
project activities.
working with musicians it is important to
3. Cultivate mutual learning on citizen also capture audiences’ viewpoints to
engagement strategies among singers, ensure that broader citizens’ perspectives
academics and civil society groups, on are taken into consideration.
Institute of Development Studies, Library Road, Brighton, This IDS Policy Briefing was written by Kátia Taela, Euclides
BN1 9RE, United Kingdom +44 (0)1273 606261 ids.ac.uk Gonçalves, Catija Maivasse and Anésio Manhiça from
IDS is a charitable company limited by guarantee and Kaleidoscopio and edited by Carol Smithyes, IDS. It was
registered in England. Charity Registration Number 306371. produced as part of the Action for Empowerment and
Charitable Company Number 877338. Accountability (A4EA) research programme, funded with UK
Aid from the UK government (Foreign, Commonwealth &
Further reading
Development Office – FCDO).
Manhiça, A. et al. (2020) Alternative Expressions of Citizen
Voices: The Protest Song and Popular Engagements with the The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not
Mozambican State, IDS Working Paper 541, Brighton: Institute necessarily reflect the views or policies of IDS or the UK government.
of Development Studies, DOI: 10.19088/IDS.2020.001 © Institute of Development Studies 2021.
Manhiça, A.; Maivasse, C.; Gonçalves, E. and Taela, K. (2018)
This is an Open Access briefing distributed under
Expressões alternativas das vozes dos cidadãos: Música e
the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
comentário social em Moçambique, Maputo: Kaleidoscopio
4.0 International licence (CC BY), which permits unrestricted
– Research in Public Policy and Culture
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
Djive, A. et al. (2018) Fortalecendo a Legitimidade das the original authors and source are credited and any
Organizações da Sociedade Civil para o Empoderamento modifications or adaptations are indicated.
e Responsabilização Social: pesquisa-acção com
organizações do movimento das mulheres em Moçambique, ISSN 1479-974X
Relatório de Pesquisa, Maputo: Fórum Mulher DOI: 10.19088/IDS.2021.020You can also read
