Socio-Ecological NovElty - Frontiers in Sustainability Research - funded by: Global Young Academy
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Socio-
German-South African
Year of Science
Deutsch-Südafrikanisches
Jahr der Wissenschaft
Ecological
Novelty
Frontiers in Sustainability Research
funded by:
Contents Foreword 3 Opening Session Keynote Speech: “Ecological Novelty: The Ecology of the Anthropocene”, Dr. Christoph Kueffer 4 Discussion5 Session 1 Novel Ecosystems, Biological Invasion, Ecosystem Engineers 6 “Novel Ecosystems in the North: A Boreal Tipping Point – and then?”, Prof. Martin Wilmking 6 “Novel Ecosystems in South Africa: Geographic Extent, Value and Conservation Implications”, Prof. Mathieu Rouget7 “How does Ecological Novelty Challenge the Idea of Resilience and Sustainability?”, Prof. Anke Jentsch 8 “Novelty and Tree Health”, Prof. Bernard Slippers 10 Discussion11 Session 2 Health, Mindsets, Sustainable Health Systems 13 “Towards Sustainable Healthcare Systems: South Africa”, Prof. Aletta Schutte 13 “Of Broken Hearts: Cardiovascular Diseases in Africa – a Clarion Call for Action”, Prof. Philimon Gona 14 “Health and the Environment”, Dr. Caradee Wright 16 Discussion17 Session 3 Socio-Ecological Resilience and Sustainable Adaptation to Climate Change 18 “Heat Waves, Bats and Birds: Ecological Conservation Implications of Catastrophic Morbidity Events”, Prof. Andrew McKechnie 18 “Re-thinking Global Environmental Law and Governance in the Anthropocene”, Prof. Louis Kotzé 19 “Integrated Socio-Ecological Research of Tropical Coastlines”, Prof. Hildegard Westphal 20 Discussion22 Session 4 Green Utopia and Geo-/Climate Engineering 23 “Concepts of Adaptation in Architecture and Arts”, Prof. Friedrich von Borries 23 Discussion24 Session 5 Agricultural Food Production vis-à-vis Sustainability including Distribution Challenges 25 “Research in Sustainable Meat Production”, Prof. Voster Muchenje 25 “Linking Knowledge with Action for Sustainable Development”, Prof. Aldo Stroebel 26 “Legal Relevance of Collaborative Environmental Governance for the Pursuit of Food Security in South Africa”, Prof. Alida Anél du Plessis 28 “Sustainability Post Harvest: Ecological Consideration of Activities after Food Harvest”, Prof. John Muyonga 29 Discussion31 Session 6 Sustainable Energy 32 “Sustainable Energy Storage: New Materials and Methods”, Prof. Rapela Regina Maphanga 32 “Sustainability: Energy & Materials – Development in the Automotive Industry as an Example”, Prof. Jörg Müssig33 “Green IT Devices”, Prof. Mathias Kläui 35 Discussion36 Summary of Results 37 Panel Discussion 39 List of Speakers 42 Young and Senior Academies 44 Publishing Details 45 2
Foreword
The significance of sustainability is gathering momen- contains a summary of the presentations and discus-
tum in a wide range of scientific contexts reaching from sions amongst the young scientists during the sympo-
health, food and climate change to energy issues. The sium and panel discussion. Some articles are contri-
concept of ecological novelty has achieved a significant butions by scientists from neither Germany nor South
status in debates over the earth’s future. How is this con- Africa. These scientists, the majority of whom are mem-
cept applied in various disciplines of science? How can bers of the Global Young Academy, were invited to the
science contribute to solving problems that could prove meeting to stimulate and enrich the discussions based
crucial to life on our planet? How can science, politics on their special expertise.
and society interact to promote essential changes? And
is there a particular role for young scientists to play? The symposium and the panel discussion took place in
the context of the German-South African Year of Science
These and other questions were at the centre of a two- 2012/2013, which was initiated by the German Federal
day symposium on “Socio-ecological Novelty – Frontiers Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) and the South
in Sustainability Research” jointly held in Berlin on 18 African Department of Science and Technology (DST).
and 19 March 2013 by the South African Young Acad- The central aim of this bilateral year was to strengthen sci-
emy of Science, the Junge Akademie, the Global Young entific cooperation between Germany and South Africa.
Academy, the Academy of Science of South Africa and
the German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina. The German-South African Year of Science 2012/2013
Most of the speakers at the symposium were members offered an excellent opportunity to collaborate and ex-
or alumni of the three young academies. tend networks and relations amongst young scientists.
As a result, cooperation between the participating acad-
The event was rounded off by the public panel discus- emies will be continued. Special thanks goes to the Ger-
sion “Bridging Two Hemispheres – Policy Advice and man Federal Ministry of Education and Research and
Sustainability Research in Germany and South Africa” the German Research Foundation (DFG) for providing
held at the Französische Friedrichstadtkirche in Berlin the funding for organising the academies’ symposium
on 19 March 2013. This conference proceedings report and panel discussion in Berlin.
3Opening Session
Keynote Speech:
“Ecological Novelty: The Ecology of the Anthropocene”
Dr. Christoph Kueffer, ETH Zurich, Institute of Integrative Biology, Switzerland
Introduction
Ecological Novelty requires an interdisciplinary approach in Underlying the concept of Ecological Novelty is the key
which both social and ecological processes need to be in- notion of a man-made planet, which, for instance, ap-
tegrated. Ecological Novelty bridges disciplines and feeds plies to the transition that Manhattan, in New York, USA
into society. According to Dr. Kueffer, scientists should ex- has undergone from a forest-clad island to an urban
pect the unexpected, apply a pragmatic, experimental ap- skyscraper landscape. Changes in the Anthropocene
proach and observe interdisciplinarity in research. are recent, rapid, accelerating, substantial and mani-
fold (Kueffer 2013a, 2013b). Such changes include the
Ecological Novelty can be defined as the wide range of vanishing of big fruit-eaters in many areas as well as
ecological changes that are happening or will happen in widespread increases in nitrogen deposition, leading in
the near future and the resulting new ecologies. The princi- turn to changes in vegetation. According to Dr. Kueffer,
ples of historic reference, ecosystems services, resilience, given that such developments are happening across the
and ultimate boundaries can be applied in addressing Eco- board, they render nature reserves, a core element of
logical Novelty, depending on the respective concept. nature conservation, insufficient.
Case Study: The Seychelles
The Seychelles, a group of islands in the Indian Ocean, First, there are the lowlands, with hotels, residential ar-
exemplify the application of pragmatic approaches and eas and gardens, but also with palm plantations dating
adaptive management to cope with changes (Kueffer et back to colonial times. Plants growing in weed-covered
al. 2013). The islands’ origin dates back to the old Gond- areas are mostly alien. The second ecozone comprises
wana continent over 65 million years ago. Their original areas at middle elevation consisting of abandoned for-
inhabitants include giant tortoises and the coco de mer est plantations originally intended to fight erosion and
plants with their huge seed pods. Humans entered the is- produce timber. The third ecozone is now dominated by
lands about 250 years ago, bringing dogs, cats and rats forests of cinnamon spice trees, but also contains most
with them and deforesting the area within just a hundred of the Seychelles’ remaining endemic vegetation. These
years. Today, the ecology of the Seychelles has changed forests form mostly part of protected areas. Finally, tiny
almost completely, and now consists of four distinct an- remnants of the islands’ original vegetation exist as part
thropogenic ecozones (Kueffer & Kaiser-Bunbury 2013). of mountain cloud and palm forests.
References “Ecological Novelty: The Ecology of the Anthropocene”:
Kueffer, C. 2013a. Ökologische Neuartigkeit: die Ökologie des Anthropozäns. ZiF-Mitteilungen 1/2013, 21-30.
Kueffer, C. 2013b. Ecological Novelty: towards an interdisciplinary understanding of ecological change in the Anthropocene. In: Greschke,
H.M. & J. Tischler (eds.) The challenges of global climate change. Locally-grounded interdisciplinary approaches. Berlin: Springer, in press
Kueffer, C. & Kaiser-Bunbury, C. 2013. Reconciling conflicting perspectives for biodiversity conservation in the Anthropocene.
Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, in press
Kueffer, C., Beaver, K., Mougal, J. 2013. Management of novel ecosystems in the Seychelles. In: R.J. Hobbs, E. Higgs & C. Hall (eds.).
Novel Ecosystems: Intervening in the New Ecological World Order. Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 228-238.
4Opening Session: “Ecological Novelty: The Ecology of the Anthropocene”
In the Seychelles, new approaches adapted to the spe- The ecosystem of small offshore islands has under-
cific characteristics and needs of each of these four dif- gone a radical change. However, in recent years, some
ferent ecozones are being applied to conserve nature of these islands have been transformed into nature re-
based on bringing in humans (Kueffer & Kaiser-Bunbury serves and biodiversity reserves. These islands are at
2013). In situ parks have been created that are visited by once in an endemic, novel and artificial state. The case
birds coming down from the highlands to use them as of the Seychelles demonstrates that flexibility and the ad-
“restaurants”. aptation to Ecological Novelty are of major importance.
In the second ecozone, sustainable forestry might be Historic reference is appropriate in the case of the Sey-
practised to keep alien creepers at bay. In the third ecoz- chelles mountain cloud forests. Such systems should
one, small patches of native vegetation are planted with- be preserved in their present location, but they are not
in cinnamon forests, which serve as a barrier to other self-sustaining. For example, cloud cover could lift in the
and often more problematic alien species. But higher up course of climate change. In contrast, applying resilience
in the mountains, intensive care is required to preserve as the guiding principle, small offshore islands could be
the native species against cinnamon and other aliens. coupled to ecotourism to provide funding for conservation.
Discussion
The discussion addressed more general topics in the While the selective forces at work might be very new and
context of Ecological Novelty, evolutionary patterns ver- need to be clearly determined, the principles underlying
sus Ecological Novelty patterns, models used in labora- the processes are always the same, even though they
tories versus the “real world” and social systems versus need to be seen in the light of the respective stresses.
ecological systems.
Prof. Slippers inquired about the general use of model
Dr. Kueffer mentioned a publication by Hairston and systems and, in particular, the development of model
coauthors, who in the 1960s addressed the very basic novel ecosystems to study fundamental questions. Prof.
issue in ecology of whether large herbivores were con- Kassen maintained that there is an urgent need for new
trolled by predators or by the availability of resources. models and also for a greater degree of ecological real-
They concluded that the predators had to be in control. ism in these models. Only a handful of model systems,
However, the examples they showed were of landscapes such as those based on E. coli, are currently being used
in which all the top predators had already been erased in the laboratory. Prof. Jentsch inquired whether there
by humans. Here, the scientists were using anthropo- could be any predictability of adaptation in the face of
genic landscapes as a model for natural processes with- novel systems. Prof. Kassen noted that the laboratory
out necessarily being aware of doing so. situation involving microbes was not the same as e.g.
that of the Seychelles. The rules might be the same, but
However, according to Prof. Kassen, an evolutionary different stochastic effects applied.
biologist who has also done work on predators and how
they are involved in governing diversification, their role Prof. Jentsch then contrasted social systems with eco-
is context-dependent. If there are very few resources for logical systems. In an ecological system, individuals can
the prey, then the predators play an immense role in gov- be replaced without this necessarily having an effect on
erning diversification. But if there is an abundance of re- the system’s stability, which will not be the case in a so-
sources, their role will differ. Although they reduce prey cial system. If thousands of individuals have died and are
density, they do not change the dynamics of diversity. replaced by novel migrants, the system’s stability will not
be maintained. The new individuals play a different role.
While Dr. Kueffer insisted on the significance of consid- According to Prof. Jentsch, this example shows that dif-
ering novelty in ecological theory, Prof. Kassen main- ferent rules have to be applied to social and ecological
tained that there are no “new” evolutionary principles. systems.
5Session 1
Novel Ecosystems, Biological Invasion, Ecosystem Engineers
Chair: Prof. Anke Jentsch, University of Bayreuth, Department of Disturbance Ecology, Germany
“Novel Ecosystems in the North: A Boreal Tipping Point – and then?”
Prof. Martin Wilmking, University of Greifswald, Institute of Landscape Ecology, Germany
When considering changes in ecosystems, a distinction bifurcation could be reached by changes in the Earth’s
has to be made between historic, hybrid and novel eco- surface. Changes in terrestrial ecosystems might reach
systems. A historic ecosystem is the natural ecosystem a global threshold after which a completely different
that either currently exists or is known to have existed in stage is attained. The boreal forest ecosystems of the
the past. A hybrid ecosystem retains characteristics of North represent the largest terrestrial biome. While they
the historic system, but species composition and function contain only a few tree species (about eight in Alaska, for
reach beyond the historic range of variability. In a novel example), huge amounts of carbon are stored, with 10-
ecosystem, species composition and function have been 20 percent of the Earth’s carbon contained in the boreal
completely transformed from the historic system. system itself and more than 30 percent captured as soil
carbon. Sometimes the soil is permanently frozen. Fire
Three different scenarios may occur when a system acts as a very natural disturbance factor. Huge fires may
moves from one state to another. First, given large ex- occur every 80 to 100 years in Siberia and every 160
ternal changes, a system may switch at some point, but years in Alaska, representing a perfectly normal feature
the change will be almost linear. This is the case that of the ecosystem.
ecologists are usually confronted with. Second, a rela-
tively stable system might be forced towards a new state Radical changes in the biome could have global conse-
but initially retain its ability to buffer changes. Acid en- quences. The tipping point regarding permafrost and the
tering a lake is an example of such a case. The system tundra in such an area is reached when temperatures
would first stay in its original state, but at some point, attain zero degrees Celsius and the permafrost starts
referred to as the critical threshold, there might be a to melt. As massive collapses of soil occur, the carbon
change. This has been termed a “bifurcation across a stored is disturbed.
non-catastrophic threshold”.
Projections of June temperature levels in Alaska sug-
In the third scenario, the system is buffered against a gest a significant rise over the next 50 to 100 years. The
small force for a long time, but by internal oscillations or climate in the interior, especially in the east, would be
further changes in condition, such as warming or nitro- warmer and drier, and would differ considerably from
gen deposition, it may switch to a new state. However, if that in the western parts of Alaska.
the conditions are ameliorated, aimed at returning to the
previous state, the system will merely stabilise in its new In the fires in Alaska, the mature white spruce burns, and
state. The term used to describe this scenario is “bifurca- this starts a sequence of events that is repeated as a
tion across a catastrophic threshold”. There could be a 160-year cycle. After the fires, forest growth starts with
shift of state in the Earth’s atmosphere. A catastrophic the aspen, a deciduous tree. White spruce then grows
References “Novel Ecosystems in the North: A Boreal Tipping Point – and then?”:
Chapin, F.S., III et al. 2010. Resilience of Alaska’s boreal forest to climatic change. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 40(7):1360-1370.
Johnstone J. et al. 2010. Fire, climate change, and forest resilience in interior Alaska. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 40: 1302–1312.
Scheffer M, et al. 2001. Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature 413(6856):591-6.
Scheffer M et al. 2009. Early warnings of critical transitions. Nature 461: 53-59
6Session 1: Novel Ecosystems, Biological Invasion, Ecosystem Engineers
in the shade provided by the aspen. The white spruce ground could further melt permafrost. This would enable
reaches canopy and gradually takes over after about 100 more CO2 and methane to escape, with hemispheric and
years. even global consequences.
But new climate conditions could lead to different suc- Such developments are comparable to the “non-cat-
cessional trajectories, with fires already returning after astrophic threshold condition”, and could perhaps be
60 to 80 years, not giving the white spruce enough time reversible. The Pleistocene mammoth steppe in the in-
to reach canopy, resulting in a possible disappearance terior of the area when the land bridge between North
of these trees from the system on the southern slopes of America and Asia still existed is a historical analogy in
mountain ranges. Climate change may result in very dif- Alaska to that scenario. However, this steppe was due to
ferent permafrost conditions, with permafrost shrinking drier conditions, and permafrost was abundant as well.
but still remaining in many areas. Developments could
give rise to historic, hybrid and novel systems existing While hybrid and novel ecosystems would certainly
side by side, with dark needle trees still attaining canopy emerge in such a scenario, some historic systems will
in the north, broad-leaf and a small number of dark nee- also remain. Transitions would likely be non-linear, and
dle trees growing in hybrid systems on the upper slopes perhaps even catastrophic. Spatial differentiation be-
of the mountains, and novel systems developing further tween historic, hybridand novel ecosystems could buffer
down consisting of boreal steppe devoid of any trees. planetary consequences, and the possible planetary ef-
fects of such a hemispheric phenomenon are yet to be
In turn, this might then imply a very low carbon storage determined. Regarding Alaska, it is expected that forests
capacity as well as rapid changes in reflectivity on the will undergo significant functional and structural changes
southern slopes. There would be no tree canopy to buff- within the coming decadesthat have had no precedent
er sunlight, and the large amounts of heat entering the within the last 6,000 years.
“Novel Ecosystems in South Africa: Geographic Extent, Value and Conservation
Implications”
Prof. Mathieu Rouget, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Research Chair in Land Use Planning and Management,
Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
Novel ecology has been at the centre of many debates in The total extent and value of the country’s novel ecosys-
recent times, also resulting in a shift in the focus of con- tems is unclear. Alien tree species such as the eucalyp-
servation. Novel ecosystems account for more than 40 tus have invaded regions where they never used to grow.
percent of the world’s ecosystems (Hobbs et al. 2009). Such species may take a lot of water out of an ecosys-
Such systems emerge when habitats are seriously modi- tem, reducing both water quantity and quality (van Wil-
fied. As a habitat moves e.g. from an uncultivated condi- gen et al. 2008). There may also be changes in the fire
tion to intensive agriculture, soil may be degraded, and regime. Cases have been recorded of towns being burnt
invasive species may enter the system. Abandoned ag- down by fires, and crime incidence appears to be higher
ricultural areas may then appear as novel ecosystems. in areas affected by invasive species, too. On the other
hand, alien species may serve as a source of energy by
South Africa covers around one million square kilome- providing firewood and they can also act as bee floral
tres, and it comprises a wide range of different land- resources. Alien species, moreover, are of potentialuse
scapes, such as grassland systems, thickets and de- in agriculture, a sector that depends on trees.
serts. It also has a huge biodiversity (Mittermeier et al.
2005). In the Cape Region alone, there are around 8,000 South Africa’s National Biodiversity Assessment 2011 re-
plant species, compared to 1,000 to 2,000 in Europe. veals that some of the country’s areas are critically endan-
However, over the last few decades, the country has also gered, notably the wetlands, with almost 50 percent of this
seen rapid economic development. ecosystem type at risk (Driver et al. 2012). On the other
7Session 1: Novel Ecosystems, Biological Invasion, Ecosystem Engineers
hand, only ten percent of terrestrial ecosystems are under systems being neglected at local level. In South Africa,
a critical threat. Most of the terrestrial systems are still in a novel ecosystems are usually not critical regarding the
natural condition. Compared to Germany and Finland, for maintenance of biodiversity, and ecosystem services
example, abiotic conditions have had a much lower impact as well as the overall system are still relatively intact
in terms of historical versus altered biotic composition in (Scholes & Biggs, 2005).
South Africa. All in all, only very few systems have been
transformed, and the human footprint versus biodiversity is Overall policy implications for South Africa include rec-
relatively low on a world scale. Nevertheless, natural areas ognising natural ecosystems as the best option for biodi-
in South Africa are not necessarily in a stable condition, versity and ecosystem services. Novel ecosystems play
and better management and conservation are needed. a significant role in urban environments such as Cape
Town or Durban, where their value has yet to be further
According to Prof. Rouget, emphasis in scientific litera- assessed. Moreover, a more general assessment, based
ture on the significance of novel ecosystems in conserv- albeit on more local research, is needed of the extent and
ing biodiversity should not result in existing historic eco- importance of novel ecosystems throughout South Africa.
“How does Ecological Novelty Challenge the Idea of Resilience and Sustainability?”
Prof. Anke Jentsch, University of Bayreuth, Department of Disturbance Ecology, Germany
Resilience is a key aspect in connecting Ecological Nov- (Adger 2000). Communities that can come to terms e.g.
elty to sustainability (Brand & Jax 2007) and it provides with a novel ecology are resilient. Ecosystem service-re-
common ground for actors and scientists who are ready lated resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to main-
to overcome the notion that ecosystems ought to be kept tain desired ecosystem services in the face of fluctuating
in their original state. While possible changes in species environments (Folke et al. 2002).
composition are accepted, certain functions need to be
sustained to support ecosystem services. Finally, the sustainability-related definition of resilience
focuses on the maintenance of natural capital and flex-
Five definitions of resilience can be considered in the ibility in the long run (Ott and Doering 2004). As long
debate on novel ecology. In physics and ecology, resil- as a novel ecosystem does not reduce choices and op-
ience is understood as the rate and speed of return to tions and the power of diversity, it is sustainable. Hence,
a pre-existence system, so that a more resilient system resilience is seen as the ability of self-organisation and
would be one that recovers faster (Holling 1973). In dis- adaptation in the face of disturbance.
turbance ecology, the term focuses on the magnitude of
disturbance that can be absorbed by the system (White Certain influences can drive a system away from its ref-
and Jentsch 2001). Systems that are resilient are able to erence dynamics, but after a time, it may return to these
return to their pre-existing dynamics. dynamics without having retained its species composi-
tion. In the debate on resilience, a fundamental approach
Sociology concentrates on the actors, on the ability of taken is to ascertain whether, despite novel members in
groups or communities to cope with external stresses the community, a system can come back to providing its
as a result of social, political and environmental change original ecoservices.
References “Novel Ecosystems in South Africa: Geographic Extent, Value and Conservation Implications”:
Driver, A., Sink, K.J., Nel, J.N. et al. (2012). National Biodiversity Assessment 2011: An assessment of South Africa’s biodiversity and
ecosystems. Synthesis Report. Pretoria.
Hobbs, R. J., Higgs, E., & Harris, J. A. (2009). Novel ecosystems: implications for conservation and restoration. Trends in Ecology & Evolution,
24(11), 599-605.
Mittermeier, R.A., Hoffmann, M., Pilgrim, J.D., Brooks, T.B., Mittermeier, C.G., Lamoreux, J.L. & Fonseca, G. (ed.) (2005).
Hotspots revisited: Earth’s biologically richest and most endangered ecoregions. Cemex, Mexico City.
Scholes, R. J., & Biggs, R. (2005). A biodiversity intactness index. Nature, 434(7029), 45-49.
Van Wilgen, B. W., Reyers, B., Le Maitre, D. C., Richardson, D. M., & Schonegevel, L. (2008). A biome-scale assessment of the impact
of invasive alien plants on ecosystem services in South Africa. Journal of Environmental Management, 89(4), 336-349.
8Session 1: Novel Ecosystems, Biological Invasion, Ecosystem Engineers
Rapid changes such as those occurring in the climate or whether it can be incorporated into local livelihoods, and
the introduction of invasive species point to an unclear how the negative effects appearing now can be associ-
picture of the future. A position has to be found regarding ated with long-term effects. In most of these areas, the
whether “novel ecology” is still in line with the traditional prosopis impact is seen as negative. However, people
notions of sustainability and resilience, or whether these are chopping it for charcoal, and to a degree, there has
concepts are becoming redundant in the light of emerg- been a shift from a nomadic to a sedentary life among
ing Ecological Novelty. the inhabitants.
Functional resilience has become a central theme in ex- Lupine species are also active as ecosystem engineers,
perimental biodiversity research, obviating the need to especially in Iceland, where the Nootka lupine was intro-
retain biodiversity patterns observed in the past as a ba- duced by foresters 70 years ago to improve slope stabil-
sis. Rather, a functional approach can be adopted, and ity and soil nutrient status. Now it is a pest in almost all
novel contexts can be related to ecosystem services. areas of the island and is even invading the country’s
small remaining forests. In Germany’s Biosphere Re-
Prof. Jentsch presented two case studies that she is in- serve Rhön, the garden lupine is causing concern be-
volved in examining the invasion of nitrogen-fixing species cause it is largely spreading into meadows in conserva-
into the ecosystem. Issues addressed in research here in- tion areas. Prof. Jentsch and her team are attempting
clude identifying the implications of such an invasion for to establish where the limits to invasion are, and what
biodiversity patterns, ecosystem services and the people possible invasion filters exist. The researchers are com-
concerned and establishing whether invasive species can bining biodiversity experiments with climate change and
alter a system towards a tipping point and whether the sys- invasive species research to assess the interaction of
tem will then have reached a new state from which it can various drivers of change and identify possible buffers
no longer return to the previous one (Jentsch 2013). (Jentsch 2013).
In lowland parts of Ethiopia, moist riparian areas have Ecosystem engineers often play a crucial role when eco-
traditionally been used by nomads tending their live- systems change. They interact with other organisms in
stock. Now, large numbers of these people have been an ecosystem but also alter its physical environment.
driven out of their cultural identity by a process of spe- Such alterations may be irreversible. For example, ni-
cies invasion. Around 20 years ago, the prosopis, also trogen-fixing species charge the soil with nitrogen (Arfin
known as the “devil tree”, started taking over the river Khan accepted with revisions). Even if these species are
valleys (Ayanu et al. in review). driven out, changes to the physical environment may
persist. Modifications brought about by invasive species
Scientists are now trying to analyse the impact of this may lead to a stable system with reference to the origi-
tree on the people living in the area with the aid of sci- nal dynamics, or they may result in an alternative regime
entific data and questionnaires. They seek to assess that cannot shift back to the original dynamics.
References “How does Ecological Novelty challenge the Idea of Resilience and Sustainability?”:
Adger, W. N. 2000. Social and ecological resilience: are they related? Progress in Human Geography 24 (3): 347-364.
Arfin Khan MAS, Grant K, Beierkuhnlein C, Kreyling J, Jentsch A (accepted with revisions): Facilitative legume effect on productivity
of neighboring species decreases under annually recurrent drought but not under heavy rain spells in temperate grassland. Plant and Soil.
Ayanu Y, Jentsch A, Müller-Mahn D, Rettberg S, Romankiewicz C, Koellner C (accepted with major revision): Ecosystem engineer
unleashed–Prosopis juliflora causing threats to ecosystem services. Regional Environmental Change.
Brand, F. S., and K. Jax. 2007. Focusing the meaning(s) of resilience: resilience as a descriptive concept and a boundary object. Ecology
and Society 12(1): 23.
Folke, C., S. Carpenter, T. Elmqvist, L. Gunderson, C. S. Holling, B. Walker, J. Bengtsson, F. Berkes, J. Colding, K. Danell, M. Falken-
mark, L. Gordon, R. Kasperson, N. Kautsky, A. Kinzig, S. Levin, K.-G. Mäler, F. Moberg, L. Ohlsson, P. Olsson, E. Ostrom, W. Reid, J.
Rockström, H. Savenije, and U. Svedin. 2002. Resilience and sustainable development: building adaptive capacity in a world of transformations.
Scientific Background Paper on Resilience for the process of The World Summit on Sustainable Development on behalf of The Environmental
Advisory Council to the Swedish Government.
Holling, C. S. 1973. Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4:1-23.
Jentsch A (2013): Hidden secrets of ecology – biodiversity experiments, climate change research and invasion ecology join up to assess
European gradients of resilience in the face of climate extremes. Pan European Networks: Science and Technology 08:1.
Ott, K., and R. Döring. 2004. Theorie und Praxis starker Nachhaltigkeit. Metropolis, Marburg, Germany.
White PS, Jentsch A (2001): The search for generality in studies of disturbance and ecosystem dynamics. Progress in Botany 63: 399-449.
9Session 1: Novel Ecosystems, Biological Invasion, Ecosystem Engineers
Prof. Jentsch stressed that a definition of Ecological Nov- to embrace Ecological Novelty because there is no way
elty is needed clarifying whether or not it is associated back, as would be the case with sustainability or resil-
with irreversibility. If it is, it will be much harder for society ience, terms that always relate to historical concepts.
“Novelty and Tree Health”
Prof. Bernard Slippers, University of Pretoria, Department of Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology
Institute, South Africa
South Africa, a country with slightly fewer inhabitants tually adopted their original fungus species, so that the
than Germany but nearly three times as big, has only Sirex wasps from Europe are no longer carrying what they
very little closed canopy forest. Almost all of South Afri- originally came with, and vice versa.
ca’s wood comes from non-native plantations. Protecting
these resources is important for the country, and Prof. A few years ago, pines in Chile began to develop character-
Slippers works in both areas. istic bands on their needles. The needles then started dying
off. First, a thousand hectares of these pines were killed
The concept of Novel Ecology is well-recognised in off, and today, up to 60,000 hectares have been severely
tree health. Novel association between pathogens and affected. The novel aspect involved here is that the cause
trees that they work on are drivers of change in terms of the disease is a fungus-like organism which is known to
of tree health. This also holds more generally for plants grow on the roots of a very few conifer species, but never on
as new hosts and new areas come into play and existing their needles. A native host jump may have occurred here,
disease systems change. Developments among chest- or alternatively an introduction from another region.
nut trees in North America provide an example of novel
host-pathogen interactions. Chestnuts used to cover a big Examples of novel pathogens include hybrids of intro-
range in the east of the USA. But about 100 years ago, duced fungus species that attack trees along river sys-
a fungus arrived from chestnut trees in Asia. It infected tems. Also, in Germany, alder trees are succumbing to a
the North American trees, which had no resistance to this hybrid of two pathogens neither of which is as aggressive
fungus, and the tree species was virtually removed from on these trees as an individual species. To illustrate the
the forest. The only surviving remnants are shrubby and impacts of changing environments on pathogens, Prof.
no longer grow to tree proportions. In an attempt to rein- Slippers took the example of changes in pine forests in
troduce the large North American chestnut, these shrubs British Columbia, Canada, over the last century. Manage-
are now being crossbred with the Asian chestnut. Simi- ment changes have led to more uniform forests, with less
larly, the pinewood nematode, a native of North America, age diversity. Also, climate change conditions are better
has entered Japan and other parts of the world and is for mountain pine beetle survival, which infests pines, and
having a devastating impact on the pine trees there. also introduces a fungus. A severe outbreak of infection
started in the late 1990s and has been growing unabated
Novel pathogen-vector associations may also develop. to unprecedented levels, with 16 million hectares of pine
The Sirex woodwasp relies on certain types of fungi that killed (compared to Germany’s total forest cover of eleven
the female has to introduce into pinewood with its larvae million hectares).
for them to survive. The offspring then carry the fungus.
A European species of the Sirex woodwasp has spread to Another aspect is organisms that live in healthy trees.
South Africa, where pine trees are grown commercially. For example, in a certain group of fungi, the Botryospha-
The wasp has a disastrous effect on its new hosts, which eriaceae or sac fungi, which are found in all trees, a dis-
are killed off within about three months. This animal has ease system only occurs if the plants are under stress.
been introduced in South Africa several times and around Only a few species of these fungi were originally known,
the world, and with different strains of the fungus. It has but with the advent of molecular tools, up to 23 different
also spread to North America, which is already populated species have been detected in Eucalyptus trees. This di-
by another Sirex species. Analyses of the populations of versity could be due to cross-infection between related
fungi have revealed that the two wasp species have mu- trees, such as the Eucalyptus and the Syzygium, which
10Session 1: Novel Ecosystems, Biological Invasion, Ecosystem Engineers
grow in close proximity, or the mango and the Maroela. These little insects are not capable of flying across such
The next step will be to look at endophyte communities, distances. Rather, they are moved with plant material.
at the microbiomes inside the plants. Thousands of new The scale of changes is also formidable. A predomi-
endophyte types are being discovered with the new mo- nantly clonal fungus in South Africa has been shown to
lecular tools. Not only is there a huge diversity of species, be represented by several different types, and thus must
but species also differ vastly according to environments. have been introduced several times.
There has been a massive increase in reports of fungal Prof. Slippers expressed mounting concern regarding the
pathogen introductions as well as a rapid growth of novel future of forests. Economic value tends to outweigh con-
interactions in Europe. This could also be due to a bet- sidering the consequences of moving these fungi and other
ter ability to detect developments. Another aspect is the pests around. A sense of inability to control the moving of
speed at which changes are happening. A tiny wasp that fungi e.g. through quarantine has emerged, for just one to
lays eggs on young Eucalyptus tissue can cause it to de- five percent of all containers can be realistically inspected.
velop galls, reducing the Eucalyptus tree to a shrub. This A group of forest pathologists and forest entomologists have
species was not known until it was detected in Israel in therefore proposed the phasing out of all trade in plants and
2000. Now it has spread to wherever Eucalyptus grows. plant parts, given the rate of spread of such pests.
Discussion
The discussion focused largely on the human perspec- to be found. Prof. Muyonga emphasised that changes
tive in the context of Socio-Ecological Novelty. Dr. were taking place all over the world, and that differenc-
Wright raised the general issue of whether Socio-Eco- es between regions were often only in terms of scale.
logical Novelty assumed the principle that developments He therefore questioned whether a uniform definition of
should always result in a social benefit. Prof. Wilmking Ecological Novelty was appropriate.
argued that in studying an ecosystem, the human per-
spective need not always be considered. His research Taking up the issue of the global versus the local scale,
area in Alaska, for example, was so remote that fire- Dr. Klepp stressed the need for open debate on what
fighters were not deployed to tackle forest fires. the future should look like and local participation in this
debate. Only agreement among local people on how to
Prof. Stroebel countered that if the same principles of manage the future could really ensure social resilience.
research were applied in a more densely populated area, Prof. Jentsch suggested that novel ecosystems could
the social implications would be of direct relevance. One be mapped, also to establish differences between the
should always seek to extrapolate what the impacts on North and the South. Here, Prof. Kassen added, model
society might be like. Prof. Jentsch agreed that the systems could be used for novel ecosystems to raise
discussion about Ecological Novelty was an anthropo- predictability and enable forecasting.
centric one focusing on benefits for or threats to human
beings. However,many case studies in the natural sci- On the topic of invasive species, Prof. Muyonga sug-
ences were independent of value-driven questions, with gested that manipulating pathogens might be an option
scientists trying to understand the mechanisms and as- in dealing with invasive species, although Prof. Slippers
sess Ecological Novelty versus previous identities with- warned that great care had to be taken with such an ap-
out putting value to them. proach. Prof. Kassen added that the adaptation of path-
ogens to stresses had to be taken into account.
Prof. Muchenje returned to the issue of research im-
plications differing according to locations or circum- Referring to South Africa, Dr. Wright considered a Nov-
stances. This applied e.g. to genetic diversity regarding el Ecology approach to areas such as water or waste,
animal science, where considerably more genetic vari- which related closely to environmental issues. Prof.
ation occurred in developing countries compared to de- Rouget stressed the importance of not neglecting his-
veloped countries and more untapped resources were toric ecosystems in the country.
11Session 1: Novel Ecosystems, Biological Invasion, Ecosystem Engineers References “Novelty and Tree Health”: Anderson, P. K., Cunningham, A. a, Patel, N. G., Morales, F. J., Epstein, P. R., & Daszak, P. (2004). Emerging infectious diseases of plants: pathogen pollution, climate change and agrotechnology drivers. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 19, 535–44. Bertheau, C., Brockerhoff, E. G., Roux-Morabito, G., Lieutier, F., & Jactel, H. (2010). Novel insect-tree associations resulting from accidental and intentional biological “invasions”: A meta-analysis of effects on insect fitness. Ecology Letters, 13, 506–515. Bihon, W., Burgess, T., Slippers, B., Wingfield, M. J., & Wingfield, B. D. (2012). High levels of genetic diversity and cryptic recombination is widespread in introduced Diplodia pinea populations. Australasian Plant Pathology, 41, 41–46. Bihon, W., Slippers, B., Burgess, T., Wingfield, M. J., & Wingfield, B. D. (2012). Diverse sources of infection and cryptic recombination revealed in South African Diplodia pinea populations. Fungal Biology, 116, 112–20. Boissin, E., Hurley, B., Wingfield, M. J., Vasaitis, R., Stenlid, J., Davis, C., … Slippers, B. (2012). Retracing the routes of introduction of invasive species: the case of the Sirex noctilio woodwasp. Molecular Ecology, 21, 5728–5744. Brasier, C. M., & Buck, K. W. (2001). Rapid evolutionary changes in a globally invading fungal pathogen (Dutch Elm Disease). Biological Invasions, 3, 223–233. Brasier, C. M., Kirk, S. A., Delcan, J., Cooke, D. E. L., Jung, T., & Man In’t Veld, W. A. (2004). Phytophthora alni sp. nov. and its variants: designation of emerging heteroploid hybrid pathogens spreading on Alnus trees. Mycological Research, 108, 1172–1184. Dittrich-Schroder, G., Wingfield, M. J., Hurley, B. P., & Slippers, B. (2012). Diversity in Eucalyptus susceptibility to the gall-forming wasp Leptocybe invasa. Agricultural and Forest Entomology, 14, 419–427. Durán, a., Gryzenhout, M., Slippers, B., Ahumada, R., Rotella, a., Flores, F., … Wingfield, M. J. (2008). Phytophthora pinifolia sp. nov. associated with a serious needle disease of Pinus radiata in Chile. Plant Pathology, 57, 715–727. Durán, A., Gryzenhout, M., Drenth, A., Slippers, B., Ahumada, R., Wingfield, B. D., & Wingfield, M. J. (2010). AFLP analysis reveals a clonal population of Phytophthora pinifolia in Chile. Fungal biology, 114, 746–52. Engering, A., Hogerwerf, L., & Slingenbergh, J. (2013). Pathogen–host–environment interplay and disease emergence. Emerging Microbes and Infections, 2, e5. Fisher, M. C., Henk, D. a, Briggs, C. J., Brownstein, J. S., Madoff, L. C., McCraw, S. L., & Gurr, S. J. (2012). Emerging fungal threats to animal, plant and ecosystem health. Nature, 484, 186–94. Garnas, J. R., Hurley, B. P., Slippers, B., & Wingfield, M. J. (2012). Biological control of forest plantation pests in an interconnected world requires greater international focus. International Journal of Pest Management, 58, 211–223. Gayathri Samarasekera, G. D. N., Bartell, N. V, Lindgren, B. S., Cooke, J. E. K., Davis, C. S., James, P. M. A., … Murray, B. W. (2012). Spatial genetic structure of the mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) outbreak in western Canada: historical patterns and contemporary dispersal. Molecular Ecology, 21, 2931–48. Giraud, T., Gladieux, P., & Gavrilets, S. (2010). Linking the emergence of fungal plant diseases with ecological speciation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 25, 387–95. Hurley, B. P., Slippers, B., & Wingfield, M. J. (2007). A comparison of control results for the alien invasive woodwasp, Sirex noctilio, in the southern hemisphere. Agricultural and Forest Entomology, 9, 159–171. Hunter, G. C., van der Merwe, N. A., Burgess, T. I., Carnegie, A. J., Wingfield, B. D., Crous, P. W., & Wingfield, M. J. (2008). Global movement and population biology of Mycosphaerella nubilosa infecting leaves of cold-tolerant Eucalyptus globulus and E. nitens. Plant Pathology, 57, 235–242. Jacobs, K., Bergdahl, D. R., Wingfield, M. J., Halik, S., Seifert, K. A., Bright, D. E., Wingfield, B. D. (2004). Leptographium wingfieldii introduced into North America and found associated with exotic Tomicus piniperda and native bark beetles. Mycological Research, 108, 411-418. Kurz, W. A., Dymond, C. C., Stinson, G., Rampley, G. J., Neilson, E. T., Carroll, A. L., … Safranyik, L. (2008). Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change. Nature, 452, 987–990. Langenfeld, A., Prado, S., Nay, B., Cruaud, C., Lacoste, S., Bury, E., … Dupont, J. (2013). Geographic locality greatly influences fungal endophyte communities in Cephalotaxus harringtonia. Fungal Biology, 117, 124–36. Liebhold, A. M., Brockerhoff, E. G., Garrett, L. J., Parke, J. L., & Britton, K. O. (2012). Live plant imports: the major pathway for forest insect and pathogen invasions of the US. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 10, 135–143. Nagel, J. H., Gryzenhout, M., Slippers, B., & Wingfield, M. J. (2013). Characterization of Phytophthora hybrids from ITS clade 6 associated with riparian ecosystems in South Africa and Australia. Fungal Biology, 117, 329–347. Nyeko, P., Mutitu, K. E., Otieno, B. O., Ngae, G. N., & Day, R. K. (2010). Variations in Leptocybe invasa (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) population intensity and infestation on Eucalyptus germplasms in Uganda and Kenya. International Journal of Pest Management, 56, 137–144. Perez, C. A., Wingfield, M. J., Slippers, B., Altier, N. A., & Blanchette, R. A. (2010). Endophytic and canker-associated Botryosphaeriaceae occurring on non-native Eucalyptus and native Myrtaceae trees in Uruguay. Fungal Diversity, 41, 53–69. Pavlic, D., Slippers, B., Coutinho, T. A., & Wingfield, M. J. (2007). Botryosphaeriaceae occurring on native Syzygium cordatum in South Africa and their potential threat to Eucalyptus. Plant Pathology, 56, 624–636. Pavlic, D., Slippers, B., Coutinho, T. A, & Wingfield, M. J. (2009). Multiple gene genealogies and phenotypic data reveal cryptic species of the Botryosphaeriaceae: a case study on the Neofusicoccum parvum/N. ribis complex. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 51, 259–68. Piškur, B., Pavlic, D., Slippers, B., Ogris, N., Maresi, G., Wingfield, M. J., & Jurc, D. (2011). Diversity and pathogenicity of Botryosphaeriaceae on declining Ostrya carpinifolia in Slovenia and Italy following extreme weather conditions. European Journal of Forest Research, 130, 235–249. Santini, A., Ghelardini, L., De Pace, C., Desprez-Loustau, M. L., Capretti, P., Chandelier, A., … Stenlid, J. (2013). Biogeographical patterns and determinants of invasion by forest pathogens in Europe. New Phytologist, 197, 238–250. Slippers, B., & Wingfield, M. J. (2007). Botryosphaeriaceae as endophytes and latent pathogens of woody plants: diversity, ecology and impact. Fungal Biology Reviews, 21, 90–106. Slippers, B., Burgess, T., Pavlic, D., Ahumada, R., Maleme, H., Mohali, S., Rodas, C., Wingfield, M. J. (2009). A diverse assemblage of Botryosphaeriaceae infect Eucalyptus in native and non-native environments. Southern Forests, 71, 101–110. Slippers, B., Stenlid, J., & Wingfield, M. J. (2005). Emerging pathogens: fungal host jumps following anthropogenic introduction. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 20, 420–421. Wingfield, M. J. (2003). Increasing threat of diseases to exotic plantation forests in the Southern Hemisphere: lessons from Cryphonectria canker. Australasian Plant Pathology, 32, 133–139. Wingfield, M. J., Slippers, B., & Wingfield, B. D. (2010). Novel associations between pathogens, insects and tree species threaten world forests. New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science, 40(suppl.), S95–S103. Wingfield, M., Slippers, B., Hurley, B., Coutinho, T., Wingfield, B., & Roux, J. (2008). Eucalypt pests and diseases: growing threats to plantation productivity. Southern Forests: a Journal of Forest Science, 70, 139–144. Wingfield, M. J., Roux, J., Slippers, B., Hurley, B. P., Garnas, J., Myburg, A. A., & Wingfield, B. D. (2012). Established and new technologies reduce increasing pest and pathogen threats to Eucalypt plantations. Forestry Ecology and Management, 301, 35–42. The Montesclaros Declaration. http://www.iufro.org/science/divisions/division-7/70000/publications/montesclaros-declaration/ 12
Session 2
Health, Mindsets, Sustainable Health Systems
Chair: D
r. Caradee Wright, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Natural Resources
and Environment Unit, South Africa
“Towards Sustainable Healthcare Systems: South Africa”
Prof. Aletta Schutte, North-West University, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hypertension in Africa
Research Team (HART), South Africa
As Prof. Schutte highlighted using data from a recent Prof. Schutte emphasised the significant and broadening
Lancet report, South Africa is faced with the challenge of divide between socio-economic classes in South Africa
having to address a quadruple burden of disease: infec- that is very clearly reflected by the present healthcare
tious diseases, such as HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis (TB), system. Public healthcare accounts for 84 percent of the
maternal, infant and child mortality, non-communicable population, and private healthcare for just 16 percent.
diseases (NCDs) like hypertension or diabetes, and in- The National Treasurer’s Fiscal Review 2011 states that
jury and violence. 49.2 percent (R122.4 billion) of GDP was spent on public
healthcare and 48.5 percent (R120.8 billion) on private
In South Africa, HIV prevalence is 23 times the global healthcare, with donors and NGOs contributing a total of
average (carrying 17 percent of HIV infected people in 2.3 percent (R5.3 billion).
the world), and its TB infection rate is among the highest
in the world. The co-infection rate between HIV and TB In 2011, the South African Government approved the
is 73 percent. National Health Insurance (NHI), which is supposed to
insure “universal healthcare access” to all residents re-
Maternal, peri-natal and neonatal mortality rates are gardless of their income. It is to be implemented over
much higher than those of countries of similar socio- the next 14 years. Payment towards the NHI scheme will
economic status. They are ascribed to HIV as the main be compulsory for higher income earners and employers
contributor, but are also due to non-AIDS and other pre- and will be collected by the South African Revenue Ser-
ventable causes. NCDs such as hypertension, heart dis- vices. However, higher income individuals will still have
ease, diabetes, cancer and lung diseases contributed to the option to additionally pay for and belong to private
28 percent of the total burden of disease in 2004. Impor- medical funds.
tantly, these diseases are mostly driven by risk factors
such as alcohol, smoking, poor diet, or lack of exercise. Although there is much criticism and concern regarding
Road accidents, but particularly also violence against the NHI in terms of sustainability, upgrading of poor infra-
women and children, are driven largely by alcohol con- structure and various other financial challenges (includ-
sumption and social factors such as poverty and unem- ing a relatively small percentage of South Africans carry-
ployment. ing the financial burden), the NHI document specifically
References “Towards Sustainable Healthcare Systems: South Africa”:
Coovadia H, Jewkes R, Barron, P, Sanders D, McIntyre D. The health and health system of South Africa: historical roots of current public health
challenges. Lancet 2009; 374:817-834.
Fourie CMT, Van Rooyen JM, Kruger A, Schutte AE. Lipid abnormalities in a never-treated HIV-1 subtype C-infected African population. Lipids 2010; 45:73-80.
Poulter NR. Current and projected prevalence of arterial hypertension in sub-Saharan Africa by sex, age and habitat: an estimate from population
studies. J Hypertens 2011; 29:1281-1282.
Schutte AE, Schutte R, Huisman HW, Van Rooyen JM, Fourie CMT, Malan NT, Malan L, Mels CMC, Smith W, Moss SJ, Towers GW, Kruger
HS, Wentzel-Viljoen E, Vorster HH, Kruger A. Are behavioural risk factors to be blamed for the conversion from optimal blood pressure to hyper-
tensive status in Black South Africans? A 5-year prospective study. Int J Epidemiol 2012; 14:1114-1123.
Sliwa K, Wilkinson D, Hansen C, Ntyintyane L, Tibazarwa, Becker A, Stewart S. Spectrum of heart disease and risk factors in a black urban
population in South Africa (the Heart of Soweto Study): a cohort study. Lancet 2008; 371:915-022.
13Session 2: Health, Mindsets, Sustainable Health Systems
states that there “will be a strong and sustained focus were treated and that if all were treated, the cost would
on the provision of health promotion and prevention ser- be increasing from a current $29.7 million to $283 mil-
vices at the community and household level”. Prevention lion a year. The figures for people suffering from hyper-
is especially important when considering the immense tension in England are: 11 percent treated successfully,
amount of public spending on treatment. For example, treatment unsuccessful with 16 percent, and 73 percent
HIV/AIDS treatment costs are expected to rise by $5.3 unaware and untreated. The ineffective treatment of hy-
billion each year. pertension is therefore a global phenomenon.
Another important aspect, pointed out by Prof. Schutte, The major factors driving the surge in high blood pres-
is the interplay between infectious and non-communica- sure levels in South Africa in recent years are a high in-
ble diseases. Anti-retroviral treatment is very effective to take of alcohol, a high percentage of smokers, and an
treat HIV/AIDS, but the main side-effect is increasing the elevated waist circumference. All this information indi-
risk for NCDs, such as metabolic syndrome (i.e. an un- cates the importance of moving the emphasis from treat-
favourable cholesterol profile, obesity). Aside from treat- ment to prevention, which is also an objective for the new
ment, untreated HIV-infected individuals also have an South African NHI.
increased inflammatory profile, resulting in an increased
risk for NCDs. Approaches towards such a shift include safer sex prac-
tices, although there is also the challenge of changing
Apart from the interplay between infections and NCDs, the behaviour of children in particular, e.g. in terms of
highly significant threats are arising from NCDs such as healthy eating and avoiding unhealthy foods, and that of
hypertension and diabetes to the South African Healthcare preventing the development of unhealthy habits such as
System, with two thirds of black South Africans presenting smoking, alcohol intake and drug use.
multiple risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD). This
is also reflected by the high stroke mortality rates. If South Africa does not succeed in changing healthcare
practices and lifestyle, the alternative will be to tolerate
Regarding treatment, statistics based on 1998 data indi- hypertension, knowing it would have been largely pre-
cate that only 19 percent of the hypertension population ventable, Prof. Schutte maintained.
“Of Broken Hearts: Cardiovascular Diseases in Africa – a Clarion Call for Action”
Prof. Philimon Gona, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Department of Biostatistics and Health
Services Research, USA
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the main causes damage, blood vessel damage (arteriosclerosis), heart
of death in industrialised countries, and are significant attack or heart failure and kidney failure, and early death.
causes of morbidity and mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. A haemorrhagic stroke occurs when a cerebral artery is
However, despite the high level of awareness in devel- blocked or ruptured.
oped countries, the level of CVD control is still poor.
In 2000, one billion people or around 26 percent of the
Furthermore, CVDs are more common in urban settle- adult world population had hypertension. There were
ments, possibly because of the gradual adoption of un- 333 million cases in developed countries, and 639 mil-
healthy lifestyles. Sub-Saharan Africa is said to be at an lion in developing countries. Overall, the disease was
early stage of “epidemiological transition” from commu- projected to affect 1.56 billion people by 2025.
nicable diseases like TB to non-communicable diseases
(NCDs) like heart diseases or cancer. The rates of hypertension vary by geographic regions,
and are as low as 3.4 percent in men and 6.8 percent
Blood pressure is the measurement of force applied to in woman in rural India, and as high as 68.9 percent in
artery walls. Left untreated, chronic high blood pressure, men and 72.5 percent in women in Poland. Hypertension
or hypertension, increases the risk of stroke and eye affects 76 million, or 34 percent, of US adults, with rates
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