Sojourner Truth and Her Contemporary Media: Reports of Truth's Identity, Intelligence, and Eloquence
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Sojourner Truth and Her Contemporary Media: Reports of Truth’s Identity, Intelligence, and Eloquence Karis Blaker | University of Michigan – Ann Arbor Late nineteenth-century news reporters struggled with depictions of Sojourner Truth. There was tension between her obvious influence and dominant ideologies at the time, but the acknowledgments of her power, regardless of how mediated, were enough to solidify her place in American history. People were incredibly fascinated by her, even if they were not quite ready to accept her message. While they were sure to mention her race, gender, and lack of formal education in derogatory ways, the fact that the media reported on her so heavily reveals the novelty status of Truth, and the platform that this gave her in a time when people like her were not readily listened to. Their interest in her might have more to do with the sensationalized aspects of her identity (her status as a former slave, an uneducated black woman, her presumed old age), but that interest made sure her reputation as an effective advocate of abolition and women’s rights lived on long after she did. This says a lot about how people of marginal- ized identities find a platform from which to speak and are remembered for their insistence on such a platform, despite attempts to mediate their influence. This article examines historical newspapers for how mediated these reports were and explores the impact that mediation may have had on Truth’s rep- utation in her own time. Today, Sojourner Truth is regarded as an find platforms from which to speak anyway. inspirational figure in American history, cel- What do reports on Truth reveal about her ebrated for her contributions to the causes of authority, or what people perceived her abolition and women’s rights. The general authorization to be? perception of her in her own time, however, In order to answer these questions, I is not well known. Her life and work are researched historical newspaper articles now thought of as importantly representing printed between the years of 1850 and 1885 formerly enslaved women in that time that mention Sojourner Truth, either in the period, but was she taken seriously by her title or in the full text, using the ProQuest own media and audiences? This article Historical Newspapers database. I looked for attempts to uncover Truth’s contemporary any depictions, positive or negative, of public image by researching representations Truth’s identity, personality, style, and ideas. of her in the press of her time. In looking at Of the twenty articles my research located, Sojourner Truth’s media representation in I chose to analyze eight that demonstrate her own time, I am investigating who is clearly contradictory reports of Truth, authorized to speak in social justice move- either between two articles printed by the ments, and how those who are unauthorized same newspaper, or within a single article, 18 | Young Scholars in Writing
and best represent the tension between Women Speakers and Writers in the North
Truth’s revolutionary influence on abolition (1830–1880), which details the work of
and women’s rights and news media’s desire activists and rhetors, including Sojourner
to maintain dominant cultural hierarchies Truth, in the same time period my research
of race and gender. is focused on. Peterson’s work aims to under-
In these articles, I noted three themes in stand Northern African American women’s
depictions of Sojourner Truth. The first is discourse in this time period “as generated
identity: reports of Truth tend to indicate both from within their culture and as a
her race and her age, no matter the topic of response to the dominant discourses of rac-
the article. In some cases, her identity is the ism and sexism” (6). Additionally, Lindal
topic of the entire piece. Truth’s intelligence Buchanan’s book Regendering Delivery: The
is the second theme heavily reported on in Fifth Canon and Antebellum Women Rhetors
these articles, mostly in regards to her per- focuses on the collaboration with men and
ceived lack of intelligence, or the fact that with white women that was necessary for
she had no formal education. The final Truth’s words to be heard and then to be
theme I noted is Truth’s eloquence: reporters remembered. This research deals with the
focused on the way Truth talked, often process of Truth’s gaining a public presence.
attributing her methods to her identity and/ Meredith Minister does similar work in
or intelligence. her article “Female, Black, and Able:
Representations of Sojourner Truth and
Literature Review Theories of Embodiment,” where she points
There exists a significant amount of scholar- out how Sojourner Truth’s rhetoric often oper-
ship regarding Sojourner Truth’s activism ates within an ideology of ability when
and rhetoric. Much research on Truth advocating for women’s rights and abolition,
focuses on her historical legacy. Nell Irvine maintaining that women and African-
Painter, for example, in Sojourner Truth: A Americans are strong, capable, and most
Life, A Symbol, aims to explain the most importantly, able. Minister draws on Truth’s
well-known Truth anecdotes, including her most famous speech, 1851’s “Ain’t I a Woman?,”
best-known speech, in terms of their histor- in this analysis to demonstrate how and
ical context and their influence on her where she employs this ideology of ability.
legacy. Painter’s book operates under the Many scholars have analyzed “Ain’t I a
same assumption my research does, which Woman?,” attempting to deal with the prob-
is that what we know about Truth comes lem of not knowing the exact words she
from the accounts of other (usually white) used and instead only having access to its
people. Painter analyzes primarily the tran- two drastically different transcriptions.
scriptions of Truth ’s speeches and Michael Phillips-Anderson of Monmouth
interactions with notable historical figures. University, for example, explains these com-
Truth has also been noted by rhetorical plications in his work for the “Voices of
scholars whose work is focused on antebel- Democracy” United States Oratory Project,
lum women and African American rhetors concluding that it is clear Truth defended
and activists. For example, Carla Peterson her identity as a woman and a citizen, which
wrote “Doers of the Word”: African-American is consistent between these transcriptions,
Blaker | 19but her words cannot be fully understood than none?” (289). This is the starting point
due to a lack of an authentic account of her of my research, which is concerned with the
remarks (21). inconsistencies between Truth’s contempo-
This scholarship has done much to estab- rary public representation and her notable
lish what we know about Truth’s life and legacy in American history. I do not deal
how we can begin to understand her rhetoric with what we know of Truth’s words, but
when we are left with only the accounts of rather with how she was represented in the
other people. However, these scholars do not press during the time she was making these
take up an examination of Truth’s contem- speeches. I pay attention to similar themes as
porary public perception. To this end, Peterson, Buchanan, and Mandziuk, partic-
Roseann Mandziuk has significantly contrib- ularly power dynamics, but in the sense of
uted to research of Truth’s rhetoric, the how these complicated dynamics might have
politics behind depictions of her, and the influenced both the ways the press reported
way that historians and the American public on Truth in her own time and her resulting
remember her. In her article “‘Grotesque and historical legacy. I also discuss Truth’s best-
Ludicrous, but Yet Inspiring’: Depictions of known speech, paying attention instead to
Sojourner Truth a nd R hetorics of the fact that this speech exists in two drasti-
Domination,” Mandziuk looks at descrip- cally different versions.
tions of Truth’s delivery, and depictions of While Mandziuk’s work benefits my
her as both grotesque and as the “African understanding of Truth’s contemporary
Sybil.” In “Commemorating Sojourner media persona, my own analysis of depic-
Truth: Negotiating the Politics of Race and tions of Truth and their implications raises
Gender in the Spaces of Public Memory,” the question of how Truth’s positive and
Mandziuk describes how modern methods impactful reputation has survived through-
of remembering Truth as a historical icon out history despite, or maybe because of,
raise questions about reconstructions and the contradictory and often degrading
shifts in cultural values, and how issues reports of the day. In light of these findings,
of race and gender are negotiated in public I argue that depictions and reports of
memory. Lastly, “The Rhetorical Construction Sojourner Truth in the media of her own
of Sojourner Truth,” coauthored with Suzanne time show a very different public figure
P. Fitch, tracks the transformation of Truth’s than the modern, wholly positive one. As
image as it is represented by historians. Mandziuk points out, Sojourner Truth is “a
These three articles argue that contempo- figure known only through the accounts of
rary media depictions of Truth, while others” (“Grotesque” 467). Newspapers
acknowledging her influence, also under- were inconsistent in reporting her speech
mine it so as to maintain certain power patterns and the impact, or significance, of
dynamics pertaining to race and gender, her ideas. Her contemporary media were
hence the contradictory reports of her in the more concerned with anecdotes surround-
nineteenth century. In the conclusion of ing her perceived negative identities and did
“Grotesque and Ludicrous,” Mandziuk asks, not take her authority as a lecturer or
“Is any representation of an African American preacher as seriously as today we might
female in the public consciousness better think they had. However, Truth remains an
20 | Young Scholars in Writingimportant figure in the history of women’s for black troops and encouraging young
rights and the abolition of slavery. I argue men to join the Union, Truth was invited to
further that the public’s fascination with the White House for a meeting with
Truth as a novelty, and the undeniable President Abraham Lincoln in 1864. From
power she exuded, regardless of how heavily there she helped former slaves find jobs with
mediated, was enough to cement her repu- the Freedmen’s Bureau and continued advo-
tation in American history. cating for gender and racial equality as long
as her health allowed (Michals). After a long
Background life of touring and engaging with contempo-
Sojourner Truth was born Isabella Bomfree rary activists, she eventually settled in Battle
in the state of New York in 1797. Truth was Creek, Michigan, near three of her daugh-
born into slavery, and was bought and sold ters, where she died in 1883 (Michals).
four times before she escaped in 1827, one Sojourner Truth’s historical legacy today is
year before the emancipation of all New that of a prominent abolitionist and women’s
York slaves went into effect (Michals). She rights activist. Truth was named one of
had five children, the first born in 1815. Her Smithsonian magazine’s “100 Most Influential
daughter Sophia escaped with her as an People of All Time” in 2014 (Frail). The
infant in 1827. Her son Peter was returned Episcopal Church’s calendar of saints remem-
to her with the help of an abolitionist fam- bers Sojourner Truth each year on July 20th
ily after being sold into slavery illegally. along with Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Amelia
Truth is known for her activism in abolition Bloomer, and Harriet Tubman (“Liturgical”).
and women’s rights. Her life was also dedi- Tina Allen’s twelve-foot bronze sculpture of
cated to her work as an evangelical preacher Sojourner Truth was dedicated in 1999, the
and lecturer in the nineteenth century. estimated bicentennial of Truth’s birth, in
By the 1830s, Truth had moved to New Battle Creek’s Monument Park (Singhania
York City, began working for a minister, and 31 ). In 2016 it was announced that Sojourner
participated in religious revivals. In 1843, Truth’s image would appear on the back of a
she renamed herself Sojourner Truth, claim- newly designed $10 bill along with Lucretia
ing that she had been called on to speak the Mott, Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady
truth (Michals). This is when her lecturing Stanton, Alice Paul, and the 1913 Woman
career began. In 1850, Truth dictated a nar- Suffrage Procession ( U.S. Department of the
rative of her life, which brought her national Treasury). On September 19, 2018, the U.S.
recognition (Michals). Truth is best known Secretary of the Navy announced the name
for her 1851 speech given at the Women’s of the last ship of six named in honor of U.S.
Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio, later civil and human rights heroes as USNS
transcribed and titled “Ain’t I a Woman?” In Sojourner Truth (“U.S. Navy”). All of these
this speech, Truth challenged beliefs of infe- tributes to Truth represent her notable histor-
riority having to do with gender and race by ical legacy as an activist.
prompting her audience to consider her
great strength and durability in conjunction The Identity of Sojourner Truth
with her status as a woman (Michals). For I begin my analysis with an exploration of
her Civil War work of organizing supplies how Truth’s contemporary news media
Blaker | 21wrote about her various identities. Readers This same article also expresses awe, or
maybe disbelief, that “a colored woman
today are often interested in how Truth rose
from such humble beginnings to promi- could address a white audience of a thou-
sand people, and be listened to with
nence, and audiences in her day were as well.
respectful attention” (“Article 11”). In con-
Truth’s identities pertaining to her age, race,
and gender are indicated in passing in mosttrast, this statement does suggest some sort
contemporary articles, and one or more of of remarkability, but it is more on the part
these components of identity are the central
of the audience than on that of Truth. The
topic of the article in some cases. In a fact that the audience did not react nega-
Chicago Daily Tribune article from tively to Truth’s presence and words is what
November 14, 1853, a reporter recounts one is presumed to be a remarkable victory here.
of Truth’s lectures in Anthony, New York. To continue the downplaying of Truth’s sig-
The reporter describes Truth’s demeanor nificance, the article notes that “Mrs. Truth
while lecturing, and writes about the hymn is something of a reformer in her way”
she sang and the experiences as a slave that
(“Article 11”). Again, the article acknowl-
she detailed. The reporter also references edges that Truth is doing something
her racial identity in terms of its signifi-
remarkable, reforming something, presum-
cance to the demographic of her audience: ably dominant ways of thinking about race
A respectable audience of colored peo- and gender. This writer does downplay
ple assembled at their church … to Truth’s significance by using vague (“some-
listen to an address from a woman of thing of ”) and qualifying (“in her way”)
their race, named Sojourner Truth. At language to make it clear that she still is, in
8 o’clock, Sojourner arose and asked fact, a woman of color. This language sug-
some person present who possessed gests there must be a limit to her
the spirit of prayer to give utterance toremarkability and to what she can reform.
it. An elderly colored man responded The Chicago Daily Tribune printed a spe-
to her invitation. Mrs. Truth com- cial correspondence article from Battle
menced her discourse by singing a Creek, Michigan, where Truth resided, on
hymn. (“Article 11”) December 5, 1880. This report attached
generalized, stereotypical ideas to Truth in
This report suggests that Truth’s rele- terms of her racial identity. The headline
vance is reserved for people of color. The read “Further Reminiscences of the Career
report acknowledges the respectability of of the African Sybil,” foregrounding the
the audience, and Truth by extension. article’s attempt to acknowledge Truth’s
However, by noting the racial identity of many accomplishments and great impact in
Truth and her audience as a commonali- the realms of her spirituality, oratorical
ty—“assembled at their church … to listen career (Sybils are both ancient Greek ora-
to … a woman of their race”—the report cles, whose prophesies are received via
suggests that Truth is only impactful to divine inspiration from deities, and divinely
members of her own race, and is therefore empowered speakers), and social reform.
unremarkable, or at least presumably less The writer notes that Truth had been hon-
interesting to white audiences. ored by the city during its 1876 Centennial
22 | Young Scholars in Writingcelebration: “It was generally desired by all dynamics happening at the foreground of
that Sojourner should occupy a prominent depictions such as these. While I agree the
place at an exhibition to be given in the city. concern of upholding power dynamics is
She was to represent the ‘Freedman’ coming certainly present, I think we can also see in
from the shackles of Slavery into Freedom” this case a writer struggling to reconcile
(M.E.B., 5 Dec.). On the one hand, the their racial beliefs with what seems to be
writer reveals that most people believe genuine admiration for Truth, even if the
Truth belongs on a platform where her only language they have to describe the hor-
words can be heard. In contrast to the 1853 rors of slavery is “demoralizing influences.”
article, however, this writer suggests that In addition to race, contemporary writers
Truth’s authorization as a speaker is that she focus on Truth’s identity as a woman as it
stands in as a representative of all former related to her audience. For example, a
slaves. In honoring Truth, this report also Chicago Daily Tribune article, published
diminishes her and her cause by making August 13 , 1879, describes her thus:
Truth the voice of an entire group of people “‘Sojourner Truth,’ the aged colored woman
who are otherwise silenced. so well known throughout the Northern
The article above also marvels at the pos- States, spoke last night at the Langley
sibility of Truth having a platform at all, by Avenue M.E. Church to a very good audi-
saying that “It hardly seems possible that a ence, mostly composed of ladies.” Similar to
person who has been on a level with the cat- the way other articles depicted her position
tle and swine, and for so many years as only relevant to African Americans, or to
subjected to such demoralizing influences, former slaves specifically, this tactic depicts
should have retained her moral integrity to her as only significant to audiences com-
such an extent, and cherished so success- prised of women. Here too we see a
fully the religious sentiment in her soul” contradiction in her depiction. By layering
(M.E.B., 5 Dec.). This statement demon- indicators of her novelty identities (“the
strates a reluctance to explicitly praise aged colored woman”), the writer represents
Truth. The comparison to cattle and swine her as a person who should have limited
is degrading and devalues her presence as impact, but is instead “so well known
only representative of an insignificant group throughout the Northern States.” Even
of people. However, it commends her for though she is an aged colored woman
her extensive “moral integrity” and refers to speaking to an audience “mostly composed
her as “successful” in her convictions. Also, of ladies,” the conviction of the press to
the writer admits to Truth having been sub- note her widespread reputation is telling of
ject to demoralizing influences, indicating her great and lasting influence.
some level of agreement regarding Truth’s Truth’s age is another identity of great
cause for equality. Many of these reporters, concern to her contemporary media. In a
presumably white and definitely literate, are Chicago Daily Tribune article from November
writing about her from a position that is not 26, 1880, also a special correspondence from
completely against Truth and her beliefs. A Battle Creek, Michigan, the headline “Over
common theme discussed in a lot of 100 Years of Age—The Oldest Living
Manzdiuk’s work is the upholding of power Lecturer in America” appears. The article
Blaker | 23reports that “‘Sojourner’ has been described education, and assuming her unintelligence
so often that her appearance needs no com- based on that background, is a way to
ment. She looks more like 60 than 103 years minimize her impact. The report further
old, as she is claimed to be” (M.E.B., 26 attempts to maintain these contemporary
Nov.). Here, her age is a topic of speculation, power dynamics regarding race and gender
which happens frequently in contemporary hierarchies that Truth constantly threat-
reports of Truth. Reporters are fascinated by ened, but also serves to tell another aspect
the prospect of a centenarian, but this is of her life story worthy of regard. Many
another example of news media’s tendency to writers are fascinated with Truth’s abilities
discuss Truth’s various novelty identities despite a lack of education, but this percep-
rather than her message. tion is inconsistent. Some reports explicitly
In contrast to the speculation about her state her unintelligence; others simply mar-
age, an article from the Chicago Daily vel at how far she came with no education;
Tribune printed on December 5, 1880 , while many imply that there is some limit
reports on this part of her identity as a sort to her ability to succeed to ensure that she is
of a triumph against all odds. The headline still a non-threat.
reads, “A Centenarian Who Has Played a The same November 26 , 1880, article
Stirring Part in the Country’s History,” and from the Chicago Daily Tribune mentioned
in it is stated that Truth “still lingers on the earlier explicitly targets Truth’s intelligence,
verge of time, presenting to the world the while a continuation of the article published
extraordinary spectacle of a woman who, by about one week later praises her knowledge.
native force, rose from the dregs of social life The first article states, “Sojourner is often
to become the defender of her race. Her par- asked her age. She is as ignorant of its date
allel exists not in history. She stands by the as the fossil in the limestone rock” (M.E.B.,
closing century like a twin sister” (M.E.B., 5 26 Nov.). It also says that Truth “is very
Dec.). This newspaper sensationalizes a part ignorant,—does not even know her letters,
of her identity that is called into question in and cannot read a word. What she knows is
a previous article. Contemporary reports of nearly all intuitive.” In the December 5,
Truth characterize her by using her identi- 1880 Chicago Daily Tribune article previ-
ties to generate interest. Though they are ously mentioned, two relevant descriptions
certainly concerned with her threat to dom- of Truth’s intelligence appear. The first is
inant ideologies, as scholars have suggested, “Through all scenes of her eventful life may
the press is also fascinated by her life story, be traced the energy of a naturally powerful
which must have granted her some sort of mind; the fearlessness and childlike simplic-
notoriety, however underwhelming. ity of one untrammeled by education or
conventional customs” (M.E.B., 5 Dec.).
The Intelligence of Sojourner Truth The second description reads, “Her memory
Truth’s intelligence, or perceived lack is a vast storehouse of knowledge. … True to
thereof, is another theme heavily reported the character of Sibyl which genius has
on. Most of these reports are negative, and awarded her.”
assume her unintelligence based on her Both the November and December 1880
identities. Targeting Truth’s lack of formal Chicago Daily Tribune articles discuss Truth’s
24 | Young Scholars in Writingintelligence, but the language is very differ- when Sojourner Truth spoke. … It
ent. The first explicitly states that she is had been announced that Sojourner
unintelligent (or perhaps a different kind of Truth would lead the meeting, but
intelligent) because she has no education, she was unable to do so, since she can-
and implies that her old age is a factor as well. not tell A from Z.
In the second, her lack of education is
framed as a good thing. She is strong- After all, no reasonable person could sup-
minded, free from traditional modes of port such “radical” ideas such as teetotalling
knowledge-making, and her intelligence is or abolishing capital punishment. Her sup-
completely natural and intuitive. These are posed lack of reason—“She cannot tell A
highly contradictory reports. Her lack of from Z”—is reason enough to discredit her
education is the focus in both, but the sec- ideas, which makes them unlikely to have
ond article establishes this as a better any impact on people who only know her as
alternative, as if she had been given the gift she is represented in the press.
of no education. It even gives her the status Some reporters tried to attack the veracity
of a genius, but the previous description of of Truth’s claims, often including a mock-
her “childlike simplicity” undermines this ing reference to her name. An article from
and implies there is no reason to believe the Franklin Files Letter section of the
Truth’s intelligence could threaten dominant Boston Daily Globe, published on December
customs in any significant way. To disarm a 23 , 1883 , begins with the headline,
threat by saying it is not one, or has no power, “Sojourner Truth a Humbug” and claims to
is another way of reinforcing dominant hier- have uncovered Truth’s real age. The
archies of late nineteenth century. reporter states that they had received con-
Another method of targeting Truth’s vincing evidence that proved Truth’s claim
intelligence is to report on her ideas in ways to be over one hundred years old when she
that establish their radicalness or inaccu- died was false, and that she was a “con-
racy. A Chicago Daily Tribune article from scious humbug” (or a liar, essentially), which,
October 21, 1881 uses the headline, “Her in the writer’s opinion, is why her ideas
Radical Definition of What Coercive regarding religion were not taken seriously
Temperance Means: It Includes Abstinence by prominent religious leaders. The article
from Tobacco and Abolition of Hanging.” concludes with this statement from the
This article explicitly challenges her ideas, informant: “‘But she was eloquent in her
but it first introduces her as unintelligent uncouth way … and no doubt did a great
and unworthy of forming opinions about deal of good among ignorant people, whom
these topics, let alone of leading a discus- educated preachers could not have moved at
sion about them. all’” (8). This statement acknowledges her
A three-hours’ prayer-meeting was influence, but undermines its significance.
held in Lower Farwell Hall yesterday Here, Truth’s intelligence is acknowledged
afternoon under the auspices of the as a kind of strong-mindedness and intuition
Women’s Christian Temperance apparent only to unintelligent people, but it
Union. The attendance was very large, is made clear that those who are educated
especially between 3 and 4 o’clock, did not appreciate her, nor should they have
Blaker | 25bothered listening to her at all. after the convention, Reverend Marius
Despite the desire to discredit her, even Robinson published a transcription of
writers skeptical of her ideas acknowledge Truth’s speech along with context for
her eloquence and the positive, lasting Truth’s demeanor and the audience’s reac-
impact she had on her audiences. Looking tion in the Anti-Slavery Bugle. Thirty years
beyond the negative claims about Truth, later, Frances Gage published a new version
one recognizes the powerful historical fig- of the same speech, in which Truth’s words
ure the present day knows her to be. And are presented in such a way that evokes a
we might wonder if some contemporary Southern slave dialect (Truth “Address”).
writers would have felt compelled to dis- Phillips-Anderson explains the complica-
credit her with implicitly racist remarks and tions of understanding these depictions of
the desire to preserve existing hierarchies, Truth’s words due to the lack of an authen-
diminishing the perceived threat of Truth tic transcript of her speech (28-30).
as a smart black woman. An article from Detroit Free Press printed
in March 8, 1868, is one instance where I
The Eloquence of Sojourner Truth found a report of Truth’s words in which
Contemporary reports of Sojourner Truth they resemble Southern slave dialect. The
focused on the way she talked, often attrib- article supposedly quotes an entire conver-
uting her methods to her identity or sation between Sojourner Truth and a
intelligence. Depictions of her dialect are “temperance man,” Mr. Goodrich, about
inconsistent. Mandziuk and Fitch state that Truth’s beliefs regarding temperance and
“the very fact that no one knows what she tobacco use, but the tone and content sug-
sounded like has led to two variant views gest the writer took some liberties, if not
on how her language should be reported” making up the incident wholesale. The
(129). Her dialect is either misrepresented beginning of this “interrogatory” is as
as that of a Southern slave, which she was follows:
not, or she is quoted in perfect English, “Aunt Sojourner, do you think you
which is unlikely due to her language back- are a Christian?”
ground. She was raised speaking Dutch, “Yes, Brudder Goodrich, I speck I
and learned English from the various fami- am.”
lies under whose ownership she lived. “Aunt Sojourner, do you believe in
People who did know her, such as the chil- the Bible?”
dren of her last owner, reported that she “Yes, Brudder Goodrich, I bleeve
spoke similarly to an uneducated nine- the Scriptures; though I can’t read
teenth-century white person from her them as you can.” (“Sojourner Truth”
region (Mandziuk and Fitch 128-29). 8 Mar.)
Even Truth’s most famous speech, com-
monly referred to as “Ain’t I a Woman?” has And the conversation continues on in this
been subjected to rhetorical construction. style, so the article claims. This is a charac-
There are two vastly different versions of terization of Truth in which she is simple
this speech from the 1851 Women’s Rights and ignorant, yet endearingly and comically
Convention in Akron, Ohio. A few weeks so. By fashioning her dialect in this way,
26 | Young Scholars in Writingreporters can acknowledge her ideas without in Akron, Ohio on June 21, 1851, in which
asking the public to take them too seriously. the following statement appears:
The two previously mentioned editions of One of the most unique and interest-
the special correspondence from Battle ing speeches of the Convention was
Creek, Michigan, printed in the Chicago made by Sojourner Truth, an emanci-
Daily Tribune in 1880 offer contradictory pated slave. It is impossible to transfer
depictions of Truth’s dialect. In these arti- it to paper, or convey any adequate
cles, the following supposed quotes from idea of the effect it produced upon the
Truth appear: “Sisters, I ain’t clear what ye audience. Those only can appreciate it
be after. If women wants any rights any who saw her powerful form, her
more den she’s got, why don’t dey jes’ take whole-souled, earnest gesture, and lis-
,em, and not be talking about it?” (M.E.B., tened to her strong and truthful tones.
26 Nov.); and “‘I’s not warthy to sit up yar: (Robinson)
but, if I can do any work or say anythin’ for
the people, I’ll do dat’” (M.E.B., 5 Dec.). In contrast, the November 26 , 1880
Other times, she is quoted with no dialect, article from the Chicago Daily Tribune has
or in perfect English. In the same article, on an account of the same event that reads
two separate occasions, her dialect is as follows:
depicted in two contradictory fashions. Slowly from her seat on the steps rose
Printing her words in this Southern slave Sojourner Truth, who till now had
dialect marks her identity and her back- scarcely lifted her head. “Don’t let her
ground in such a way that, at this time, speak,” gasped half-a-dozen of the lead-
could easily be used to disregard her signifi- ers on the stand. She moved slowly and
cance. The lack of consistency in the solemnly to the front, laid down her
transcriptions of her “dialect” suggests that old sun-bonnet at her feet, and looked
the writer may have been taking some liber- at Mrs. Gago with her great, speaking
ties with her speech, trying to rhetorically eyes. Mrs. G. rose and announced to
construct a generic, uneducated racial ste- the audience, “Sojourner Truth.” There
reotype to readers. was a hissing sound of disapprobation.
In addition to reports about her dialect, I Sojourner spoke in deep tones, and at
found numerous quotes regarding Truth’s the first words there was a profound
rhetoric. Contemporary reports made hush. (M.E.B., 26 Nov.)
inconsistent claims about which elements of
her rhetoric were intentional and which The difference bet ween these t wo
were intuitive, and about how her audience accounts shows the agendas of these two
received her at various lectures. Several arti- newspapers. The first quote is vague about
cles reference “Ain’t I a Woman?,” giving the audience’s reaction to Truth, yet is very
conflicting reports about Truth’s demeanor specific about her powerful and moving
during the speech, and about how the audi- speech. The second goes into great detail
ence reacted to it. about the audience’s reaction to her speech,
The Anti-Slavery Bugle published an and the backlash Truth received for stand-
account of the Women’s Rights Convention ing up to speak at all, but does not reveal
Blaker | 27much about her actual words. The report to the audience, her style was “rambling,”
from the Anti-Slavery Bugle suggests that incoherent, and impossible to transcribe.
this outlet is more apt to highlight the This implies a lack of intentional style on
strengths of Truth herself at this event, Truth’s part, which downplays her authority
while the Tribune’s interest is in how people as a well-known lecturer who is knowledge-
reacted to this person speaking on such a able of topics that this writer deems
platform. However, the contrast here also “peculiar.” The writer does, however, report
suggests the undeniable power of Truth’s the favorable reactions by the audience to
presence. The Bugle’s message is more posi- her stories.
tive, while the Tribune continues to struggle In the Chicago Daily Tribune article from
with Truth’s growing impact on audiences December 5, 1880, an article written with
of more and more people. the notion of paying homage to Truth’s life
Truth’s rhetorical style is heavily scruti- and work, appears another headline that
nized in many contemporary articles. reads “Interesting Sayings and Doings of a
Opinions regarding her style are inconsis- Very Remarkable Parsonage.” Under this
tent across publications in how she is headline appears the statement, “Because
depicted, and to what extent Truth is inten- many of the stories would be so unnatural
tional in her style. This often supports a that people would believe them untrue,
representation of Truth as intuitive and which would injure her name of ‘Sojourner
lacking formal education. For instance, the Truth.’ ‘And, honey,’ said she in her quaint
Chicago Daily Tribune published an article way, ‘I wouldn’t have people think I’d tell a
on August 13, 1879, stating that lie for all the world’” (M.E.B., 5 Dec.). This
The aged lecturer spoke for an hour or statement targets Truth’s storytelling as a
so in a rambling and discursive style. rhetorical method, by questioning the
Her utterances were marked by a deep authenticity of such stories and mocking
devotion, and evidenced her full belief her chosen name of “Truth.” Though this
in the somewhat peculiar ideas of the statement does not explicitly call Truth a
attributes of the Almighty and the liar, it does imply that some people have a
Savior which she holds. Anything like hard time believing her, which places doubt
a report of her discourse it would be in the minds of readers and future listeners,
impossible to give in such shape as to harming her credibility as a lecturer. It also
render it readable. Her story was suggests that she is being coy or ironic
entirely autobiographical, and was lis- rather than straightforward as her name
tened to throughout with great and reputation would indicate.
attention. (“Sojourner Truth” 13 Aug.) In the same article are very real praises of
Truth’s rhetoric. Reports of her enthusiasm
There are no quotes from Truth’s lecture and fervor are mentioned. The writer mar-
in this article, only paraphrased accounts of vels at her confidence, and the bright, clear,
the topics she discussed and the writer’s positive, and ecstatic tones of her message.
opinion on her eloquence and impact. This The report says, “I cannot but think that
description suggests that while Truth’s lec- Sojourner, with the same culture, might
ture was impassioned and possibly moving have spoken words as eloquent and undying
28 | Young Scholars in Writingas those of the African saint Augustine or not widely recognized. Instead, she is typi-
Tertullian” (M.E.B., 5 Dec.). While this cally depicted as representative of a
claim may not harm Truth’s credibility as a marginalized people, and reporters pre-
lecturer, it does further essentialize and ferred to imply that her impact lay solely in
characterize her rhetoric in terms of her those spaces in order to maintain power
race. Still, she is compared here to powerful over that impact. Based on my analysis of
characters, and often likened to an “African these historical newspapers, I agree with
Sybil”—an often divinely inspired oracle or Mandziuk’s general argument that depic-
prophet—by various newspapers. Her signif- tions and reports of Truth in her
icance as a reformer, though somewhat contemporary press are inconsistent in con-
contained by the press’s intentionally con- veying her rhetorical strategies, her impact
structed reports, is undeniable by even on and significance to her audiences, and
those who wish to minimize it (Mandziuk the overall intelligence of her ideas. The
“Grotesque” 476). While suggesting that her focus, instead, is on characterizing her as
message was divinely inspired would seem representative of perceived negative identi-
to diminish her agency by giving credit for ties in order to maintain contemporary
her eloquence to God, it also suggests a power dynamics (“Grotesque” 468). Yet at
recognizable righteousness of her cause. the same time, I argue, these negative
Even as they might undermine her, writers reports did not have as much of an impact
could not help but confirm her power. on Truth’s lasting reputation as Mandziuk
suggests they do.
Conclusion The press’s fascination with Truth as a
Though Sojourner Truth is now remem- novelty (she was black, a freed slave, a
bered as an inspirational figure in areas of woman, and a supposed centenarian) that I
American history such as abolition and found in nineteenth-century newspapers
women’s rights, the general perception of help answer Mandziuk ’s question of
her in her own time does not reflect that whether any representation at all of black
not able i ma ge to it s f u l l e x tent. women in this time was notable. Indeed,
Contemporary reports of her life and work even unsupportive contemporary writers
struggle to acknowledge Truth’s impact, seemed to acknowledge her power as a
while also containing the threat she posed speaker or reconcile their feelings with her
on dominant discourses of race and gender. message, while more open-minded readers
In Mandziuk’s words, these reports “reveal admitted admiration for her cause.
the rhetorical means that were summoned Regardless of their feelings, almost all writ-
to preserve dominant power in the face of ers recognize that she would become—or
demands for gender and racial equality” was already—a notable figure in American
(“Grotesque” 468). history. Because Truth was such an undeni-
Contemporary reports on Truth reveal ably revolutionary, powerful figure, her
that her agency and authority to speak was legacy remains intact.
Blaker | 29Acknowledgements
Thank you to Dr. David Gold, Dr. Paige Banaji, and Vincent Longo; each round of revision gave me more
confidence in my research and writing abilities, and I’m incredibly grateful to you all for that. To Phil
Hallman, Dr. Abby Stewart, Dr. Matthew Solomon, and everyone else who makes sure to remind me at
exactly the right moments that my work is interesting and worthwhile, thank you so much.
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