SPORT & SOCIETY The Summer Olympics and Paralympics through the lens of social science www.bl.uk/sportandsociety
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SPORT & SOCIETY
The Summer Olympics and Paralympics through the lens of social science
www.bl.uk/sportandsociety
Photography, Writing, Race & Sport: Material memories of Tom Longboat
By Philip John Hatfield (Curator for Canadian and Caribbean Studies, The British Library)
Introduction
Tom Longboat was a runner in the truest sense, not just a professional sportsman but someone whose existence
was underpinned by his ability to run: he ran not just on the marathon courses of England and North America but
on the streets of Toronto, the open land of his Six Nations reservation and the battlefields of the First World War.
Born in late nineteenth century Canada, Longboat was an Onondaga who initially lived on the Six Nations of the
Grand River reserve near Brantford, Ontario. 1 Longboat’s life changed dramatically in 1907 when he won the
Boston Marathon, a surprise to the media and pundits who oversaw this fixture of the North American long-
distance running calendar. 2 From this point on his life intertwined with pundits, sports capitalists, the media and
Canadian nationalist discourses in ways which fundamentally changed his life. As such Longboat’s life provides
an interesting case study in how understandings of an individual’s biography are constructed and reformulated
across time through the use of various visual and textual media. In turn, this intersection of various forms of
media provides an opportunity to consider how social attitudes to sport and race converged and affected how
Longboat was perceived in Canada.
While there is a significant amount of textual information to draw upon and discuss on the biography of Longboat,
this paper will actually hinge on two photographs produced of Longboat during his career. These two images
were taken by the Toronto photographer Charles Aylett after Longboat’s successful Boston Marathon, one
depicting Longboat and his trophies (Figure 1) while the other depicts Longboat in a faux running pose (Figure 2).
The paper will show that the relationship between Aylett’s photographs and the many texts and opinions
articulated during Longboat’s life and career serves to assert the fluidity of biography and the care which must be
taken when evaluating sporting and cultural legacy, especially when race and nationalism are significant factors.
1
For a deeper view on Longboat’s biography, see; Kidd, B. (1980), Tom Longboat, Don Mills, Ont.: Fitzhenry and
Whiteside; Zeman, B. (1988), To Run With Longboat: Twelve Stories of Indian Athletes in Canada, Edmonton,
Alberta: GMS Ventures Inc.
2
This was noted at length by the press of the time, with Toronto’s Daily Star running the headline, “Canadian
Won Big Race”; Toronto Daily Star, 19th April 1907 (page 1)., British Library Newspaper Collections. The use of
the word ‘Canadian’ will be discussed later in the piece
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That photographs are objects which imprint partial and contested meanings is well discussed. 3 Particularly for this
piece, Sontag’s thoughts on photography as an imperfect witness, 4 Berger’s commentary on the relationship
between mechanical reproduction and context, 5 and Barthes’s concept of the punctum, innocuous details which
grab the viewer’s attention under certain conditions, 6 are important when considering images of Longboat. This is
because engaging with photographic partiality and the relationship between image, text and mass communication
allows a consideration of wider perspectives on Longboat, as well as what these media can tell us about
Canadian society and race relations in the early twentieth century.
Longboat as ‘Canadian’
Before continuing it is important to highlight the particular relationship Tom Longboat and other Onondaga had
with eastern Canadian society. As noted above, Longboat was an Onondaga and resident of the Six Nations of
the Grand River reserve during the early part of his life and he was bound into a particular socio-political
relationship with Canada at large as a result of this fact. To be clear, Longboat and his compatriots were not
viewed, related to or treated in the same way, at this point in history, as Native American groups to the west of
Canada, where the colonial expansion of the state was still occurring. In Toronto this phase of the geopolitics of
Native-Settler relations was long passed. Therefore, Longboat and other members of his society were viewed and
depicted in different ways from those groups currently at the vanguard of Canadian expansionism (such as the
Blood Indians or the Inuit of Fullerton Bay), whose depictions can now be understood as referring to a narrow set
of Native American stereotypes. 7 Instead these groups formed a largely ignored fringe of the everyday reality of
Ontarians.
As a result, when Tom Longboat registered to compete in the Boston Marathon he was largely unmarked by the
press of Canada and the United States. He is noted in the race line up as a Native American runner but no details
or photographs are provided. 8 This therefore is the first thing to note about the publication of media regarding
Tom Longboat, that initially his cultural background and race made him invisible to the authors and photographers
of the day. Invisibility on account of a person’s race is not uncommon on the fields of amateur and professional
sport and neither is the attribution of individual limitations and failings to supposed racial qualities, 9 indeed this
3
A selection; Barthes, R. (2009, revised edition), Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography, London: Vintage
Classics; Berger, J. (1972), Ways of Seeing, London: B. B. C. and Penguin Books; Dali, S. (1927), “Photography,
pure creation of the mind” in L’Amic de les Arts (no. 18, Sept. 30th 1927), reprinted in Oui 12; Edwards, E. (2001),
Raw Histories: Photographs, Anthropology and Museums, Oxford: Berg; Sontag, S. (1973), On Photography,
London: Farrar, Straus and Giroux Publishers
4
Sontag, On Photography
5
Berger, Ways of Seeing
6
Barthes, Camera Lucida
7
Hatfield, P. J. (2011), Colonial Copyright and the Photographic Image: Canada in the Frame, University of
London, Unpublished Thesis
8
This is in contrast to the paper’s biographies of white runners. See, Kidd, Tom Longboat, p. 24
9
Carrington, B. (2010), Race, Sport and Politics: The Sporting Black Diaspora, London: Sage; Gems, G. R.
(2005), “Negotiating a Native American Identity Through Sport: Assimilation, Adaptation and the Role of the
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invisibility and hyper-visibility can often be linked. The following discussion of Longboat’s career and media image
will bear this out, firstly considering that Longboat could not remain invisible in light of winning one of the great
American races. The price, though, was that his success was rapidly appropriated into a white, nationalist
discourse.
“Canadian Won Big Race”
Canada makes no bones about gaining a little glory from an Indian. In other matters than footraces we have
become accustomed to leaders from the Six Nations. We give the Boston papers notice, one and all, that we
claim Longboat as a Canadian. 10
The quotation above hints at the way, Longboat’s media invisibility was removed by an attempted assimilation of
him into a sphere of white, urban Canadian society. This is affirmed by the photographs taken by Charles Aylett,
which were to act as accompaniments to various media promotions of Longboat’s victory. Figure 1
Trickster” in King, C. R. (ed), Native Athletes in Sport and Society: A Reader, London: University of Nebraska
Press, pp. 1 – 21; Springwood, C. F. (2005), “Playing Football, Playing Indian: A History of the Native Americans
Who Were the NFL’s Oorang Indians” in King, C. R. (ed), Native Athletes in Sport and Society: A Reader,
London: University of Nebraska Press, pp. 123 – 142
10
Toronto Daily Star, 19th April 1907, p. 1, British Library Newspaper Collections
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Figure 1: “Tom Longboat, Standing”. Copyright Charles Aylett, 1907
(Copyright Number 18314, Mounted Print, 140 x 100mm).
British Library Shelfmark: HS85.10
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Figure 2: “Tom Longboat, Running”. Copyright Charles Aylett, 1907
(Copyright Number 18315, Mounted Print, 140 x 100mm).
British Library Shelfmark: HS85.10
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provides the viewer with an image of Longboat standing formally by his trophies, the room and furnishings are
colonial in style and Longboat is adorned with a maple leaf across his chest. The image is constructed to
articulate and assert Longboat’s Canadian-ness, over-riding his cultural and racial background. Significant work
has been done in the past on reading the deeper context of photographs, such as who took them, who for, and so
on, and this is useful here. 11 In particular, there is something to be gleaned from who is taking the photograph.
Charles Aylett was a well regarded photographer in Toronto who had carved a particular niche producing portraits
of those in the city’s social and political circles. What we have here, therefore, is the use of a very specific sort of
photographer whose own reputation would also serve to underpin an assertion that the photographic subject was
of and belonged in Toronto’s white Canadian society. Such utilisation of the reputation and skills of the
photographer and artist has been common in Canada 12 and other Western societies for hundreds of years and
developed in intensity during the rest of the twentieth century.
A significant point which can be developed from the composition of this image and the appropriation of Longboat
by the media is the importance of sporting success for national pride. However, the construction of this message
(both written and visual) illustrate clearly that this nationalism had particular and narrowly defined boundaries,
where whiteness was of extreme importance, as were largely British defined colonial aesthetic sensibilities and
attitudes towards behaviour and manner. Therefore, Longboat could not be held as a beacon of Canadian
success as an Onondaga, instead he needed to be appropriated as a Canadian and photographed in a way
which articulated his adherence to white, colonial norms. 13 As such, any of Longboat’s successes or lifestyle
choices which were considered to represent progression towards these colonial values were celebrated in the
media. An example is provided by Longboat’s marriage to Lauretta Maracle, which was roundly applauded by the
Toronto Star,
She does not like to talk of feathers, war paint and other Indian paraphernalia. She is ambitious for Tom and if
anybody can make a reliable man and good citizen of that elusive being, Tom Longboat, it will be his wife. 14
Stemming from this are two issues, however: firstly that a significant proportion of Longboat’s ways of being (even
the way he ran and trained) were at odds with many of these sensibilities and secondly that Longboat himself had
11
For more on the methods of this see, Edwards, Raw Histories; Lutz, C. A. and Collins, J. L. (1993), Reading
National Geographic, London: The University of Chicago Press; Rose, G. (2007, 2nd Ed.), Visual Methodologies:
An Introduction to the Interpretation of Visual Images, London: Routledge
12
The exemplar for Canada is William Notman, one of the country’s earliest photographers, who became the
photographer of choice for visiting dignitaries to the country during the nineteenth century; Batchen, G. (2008),
William Henry Fox Talbot, London: Phaidon
13
For more on the relationship between Native American groups and colonial manners and aesthetics see,
Berkhofer, R. F. (1979), The White Man’s Indian: Images of the American Indian from Columbus to Present, New
York: Vintage
14
Toronto Daily Star, 29th December 1908, p. 8, British Library Newspaper Collections
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of social science
no need or even intention of being assimilated as a Canadian. 15 As a consequence, interpretations of Longboat
and his actions emerged which were at odds with the depiction of Longboat articulated in Figure 1.
Longboat as ‘Indian’
The shadow of these negative articulations of Longboat is visible in the first quote from the Toronto Star. The
disparaging air of ‘Canada makes no bones about gaining a little glory from an Indian’ sets a tone for subsequent
press discussions and reports of Longboat. Notably, Longboat accrued a large amount of negative press
commentary on the occasions in which he lost a race and disappointed those nationalist hopes which were
heaped on him after the 1907 Boston race. This was illustrated by the 1908 marathon for the London Olympics,
which Longboat competed in with a weight of expectation heaped upon him. Needless to say, Longboat did not
win. Indeed, he did not finish the race.
It has been argued widely that the reasons for this were climatic. The day of the marathon was
uncharacteristically hot for Britain and the race started in the heat of mid-afternoon, resulting in a large part of the
field not even starting, almost half of the starting field not finishing and the initial winner being helped across the
line by officials in the stadium. 16 Unfortunately Longboat was in the half of the field which failed to finish, having
collapsed during the race. 17 The disappointment at this lack of success was palpable and many negative
commentaries were written on Longboat in the media during the aftermath, something which would become a
theme in subsequent years. This negative commentary revoked Longboat’s Canadian status, arguing that his
failures, whether they be competitive or personal, were down to his ‘Indian’ characteristics.
The consistency of these commentaries is notable, being mobilised whenever Longboat lost a race. A particular
source of tension between Longboat and the press were his races against the British runner Alfred Shrubb, whom
he raced ten times losing all races which were less than twenty miles in distance. 18 However, when Longboat lost
these races attention was turned on his method of preparation, which revolved around a personal training system
of hard days, easy days and rest days. This was derided as ‘lazy’ by many, especially dissatisfied members of the
press, and was characterised as being part of a slovenly Indian manner. It is worth noting, however, that later in
the twentieth century Longboat’s method became an accepted routine of competitive athletic training and race
preparation. The willing identification of Longboat as ‘Indian’ by members of white Canadian society abutted their
parallel social desire for Longboat to be ‘more’ Canadian, as represented by the photographs of Charles Aylett
discussed above and other written commentaries.
15
Biographies written about Longboat have noted his persistent resistance to the trappings of Canadian culture,
such as school and church, contrasted to his attachment to his Onondaga heritage. For more see, Kidd, Tom
Longboat; Zeman, To Run With Longboat
16
This resulted in Dorando Pietri (Italy) being disqualified and Johnny Hayes (USA) being granted first place
instead
17
Kidd, Tom Longboat
18
Kidd, Tom Longboat
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Essentially the desires of the press were irresolvable for two reasons, firstly the racial and social prejudice of
those who found Longboat’s ‘Indian-ness’ insurmountable when he disappointed Canadian expectations would
not shift irrespective of how the athlete chose to live his life. This trait in the reporting of sport, in particular where
it converges with nationalist and racial issues, is still common place today. It is notable in the glib observation
about tennis player Andy Murray (that when he wins he is British but when he loses he is Scottish) and similar
sound bites about many other contemporary sports personalities. In the case of Native American and ethnic
minority athletes more broadly in North America, racial stereotypes as well as cultural differences regarding the
role and performance of sport remain divisive issues to this day. Whether the exacerbating factor is the inability of
reservation children to fulfil sporting aspirations because of the resources and social conditions surrounding
them; 19 the marginalisation of successful Native American athletes who refuse to conform to the westernised,
capitalist sporting values of modern North America; 20 or the reappropriation of sports such as basketball, baseball
and football to express Native American cultural values, 21 the relationship between mainstream sports and Native
American competitors remains an uneasy one and is poorly understood at a popular level.
The second, and possibly the most significant, reason this issue was irresolvable was that not only did Longboat
resist being understood and labelled a Canadian for most of his life, he actively asserted that his dominant
identity was that of the Onondaga. This makes press commentary and photographic depictions of Longboat all
the more incongruous, highlighting that they were both at odds with the reality of the individual and the politics of
relations between Canada and the population of the Six Nations of the Grand River in general. It is perhaps
helpful here to refer back to the images Aylett produced of Longboat and interrogate them for what they really
are. Bearing in mind the original invisibility of Longboat to the Canadian press and white Canadian society,
Aylett’s images attempt to articulate a white, Canadian depiction of Longboat, as highlighted above. However, the
trappings of this articulation, colonial furnishings, maple leaf vest, a society photographer and a neat metropolitan
coiffure, are at odds with the cultural background and intention of the individual photographed. As such what we
see is not a realistic depiction of Longboat, it is a visual imagination of the man and the role of Native Americans
in eastern Canada at the beginning of the twentieth century. 22 Later in the twentieth century Susan Sontag would
articulate that indeed all photographs are imaginations; that in spite of the desire for the camera to capture that
19
Simpson, K. (2005), “Sporting Dreams Die on the ‘Rez’”, in Eitzen, D. S. (ed), Sport in Contemporary Society:
An Anthology, London: Paradigm, pp. 259 – 265
20
Springwood, “Playing Football, Playing Indian”
21
Gems, “Negotiating a Native American Identity Through Sport”
22
There is much written about visual imaginations in literatures regarding the postcard, an area where fantastical
depictions of the Other are an important part of the popular and theoretical discourse. Longboat’s photographs
would also have been available for purchase in a format familiar to that of the postcard. For more on Native
American imagery and the postcard see; Albers, P. C. (1998), “Symbols, Souvenirs and Sentiments: Postcard
Imagery of Plains Indians, 1898 – 1918” in Geary and Webb (eds), Delivering Views: Distant Cultures in Early
Postcards, London: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp. 64 – 89; Edwards, E. (1996), “Postcards: Greetings From
Another World” in Selwyn, T. (ed), The Tourist Image: Myths and Myth Making in Tourism, Chichester: John Wiley
and Sons Ltd, pp.197 – 222
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which is real it can in fact only provide surreal interpretations of reality. 23 In the case of these photographs the
surreal element is further exacerbated because of the attempt to fabricate a reality through the image. It could
also be suggested that the disorientating effect of the image exacerbated the reaction of the public and media
whenever Longboat did not seem to adhere to the white, colonial values promoted by it.
It is important to highlight how different this imagination is from that applied by white North American eyes and
lenses to Native American groups elsewhere in North America, something alluded to on page two. The
photography of Native Americans who still lived a somewhat traditional life is exemplified by the work of Edward
Curtis, whose multi-volume work, The North American Indian came to define popular visual understandings of
these groups; 24 in spite of the fact that many of the images were carefully composed, orchestrated and even
doctored to mask the complexity of the cultures photographed and their intertwining with white North American
society. 25 What is interesting in this context is the deliberate removal of the trappings of white North American
society (cars, clocks, etc.) from the subjects photographed by Curtis and his peers in the late nineteenth and early
twentieth century as compared to the furnishing of Longboat with material objects from the same visual register in
the photographs Aylett produced of Longboat.
As such we see that the visual register for Native American groups in general, as well as for Longboat himself,
bore a distinct similarity to the text and commentary which prevailed regarding Longboat during his professional
career. Individuals could exist in either sphere, one of distinct (and culturally homogenous) ‘Indian-ness’ or one of
complete assimilation into white Canadian, and North American at large, society. Hybridity, mixing of visual
registers or ways of being, however, was not an option. The bigotry deployed against Longboat in comments
such as those articulated when he lost a race or was deemed to train in a lazy way serve as an example of the
supposed superiority of white North American ways of being, which did not have anything to learn from the ways
and skills of the Native American cultures embedded within it. Overall then, what we see when contrast the initial
comment from the Toronto Star against a complex reading of the photography of Charles Aylett is that ‘Canada’
did make bones about gaining glory from an Indian, indeed it tried very hard through an Onondaga runner to
create a paragon of Canadian sporting achievement, attempting to train him and veil him in the manners and
appearance of a white man.
In spite of all of this, Longboat continued to compete for himself as an Onondaga, maintained an active life in
Ontarian society and was enlisted in the British Army during the First World War. You will not be surprised to hear
23
Sontag, On Photography
24
Curtis, E. S. (2005, 25th Anniversary Edition), The North American Indian, London: Köln. The work of Curtis and
others is understood to be heavily influenced by the romantic poem, ‘Hiawatha’, leading to the prevalent
nineteenth and twentieth century comment that producers of good Native American imagery ‘must have read their
Hiawatha’; Jackson, P. (1992), “Constructions of culture, representations of race: Edward Curtis’s ‘way of
seeing’”, in Anderson, K., and Gale, F., Inventing Places, Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, pp. 89 – 106. For the
poem ‘Hiawatha’, see; Longfellow, H. W. (1855), The Song of Hiawatha, London: T. Nelson and Sons
25
Jackson, “Constructions of culture, representations of race: Edward Curtis’s ‘way of seeing’”
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of social science
that he served as a runner on the front lines. 26 Subsequent to his retirement as a runner and death in 1949
Longboat has been remembered in many articles, books and is commemorated in a display at the Museum of
Civilization, Ottawa, meaning that perspectives of Longboat and his career have become more plural since the
time when he was a competitor. 27 As a result, the complexity and hybridity of the individual and his culture is
more widely acknowledged and deeply expressed now than it was in the past.
Conclusions: looking back at Longboat
This paper has considered the interplay of race and sport in early twentieth century Canadian society. Through a
consideration of the life and media coverage of the Onondaga runner Tom Longboat the paper has illustrated the
problematic space competitors from racial minorities, and in particular Native American groups, occupied. This
consideration of the interplay between textual commentary and photography produced about Longboat and his
sporting career has illustrated the attempted whitening of the individual and the duality of his position as an
Onondaga in twentieth century Canada. The photographs and writings both illustrate the desire for Longboat to
be identifiable as a Canadian while ultimately displaying that he could never be Canadian enough for those who
developed white Canada’s media.
In this regard Longboat’s story is far from unique, either in the scheme of experience of Native Americans in
sport, other minority groups, or those on the fringes of nationalist discourses around the world. Indeed the story is
still a familiar and too often accepted one. However, this piece has aimed to show two things; first reviewing
media coverage of Longboat’s life, highlighting its inaccuracies and how it unsettles today’s sensibilities, should
provide a caution against accepting similar contemporary discourses at face value. Secondly, the analysis of the
images and text which made up these commentaries highlights the interplay between written and visual media
even when pieces are produced over a significant expanse of time. Ultimately the piece highlights that the visual
and textual imaginations of Tom Longboat are no more real that the racial constructs which were – and still are –
developed around him and other successful minority athletes.
26
Kidd, Tom Longboat
27
Batten, J. (2002), The Man Who Ran Faster Than Everyone: The Story of Tom Longboat, Toronto: Tundra;
Kidd, Tom Longboat; Nabokov, P. (1981), Indian Running, Santa Barbara: Capra Press; Zeman, To Run With
Longboat.
Photography, writing, race and sport Page 10 of 12Sport and Society: the Summer Olympics and Paralympics through the lens
of social science
Select Bibliography
Primary material:
A collection of Canadian photographs received by the British Museum Library, 1895 – 1924, as a result of the
Canadian Copyright Act (for Figures 1 and 2). British Library Shelfmark: HS85/10
“Canadian Won Big Race”, Toronto Daily Star, 19th April 1907, p. 1. British Library
Newspaper Collections
“Longboat Married”, Toronto Daily Star, 29th December 1908, p. 8. British Library
Newspaper Collections
Secondary material:
Albers, P. C. (1998), “Symbols, Souvenirs and Sentiments: Postcard Imagery of Plains Indians, 1898 – 1918” in
Geary, C. M. and Webb, V. L. (eds), Delivering Views: Distant Cultures in Early Postcards, London:
Smithsonian Institution Press, pp. 64 – 89
Barthes, R. (2009, revised edition), Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography, London: Vintage Classics
Batchen, G. (2008), William Henry Fox Talbot, London: Phaidon
Batten, J. (2002), The Man Who Ran Faster Than Everyone: The Story of Tom Longboat, Toronto: Tundra
Berger, J. (1972), Ways of Seeing, London: B. B. C. and Penguin Books
Berkhofer, R. F. (1979), The White Man’s Indian: Images of the American Indian from Columbus to Present, New
York: Vintage
Carrington, B. (2010), Race, Sport and Politics: The Sporting Black Diaspora, London: Sage
Curtis, E. S. (2005, 25th Anniversary Edition), The North American Indian, London: Köln
Dali, S. (1927), “Photography, pure creation of the mind” in L’Amic de les Arts (no. 18, Sept. 30th 1927), reprinted
in Oui 12
Edwards, E. (2001), Raw Histories: Photographs, Anthropology and Museums, Oxford: Berg
Photography, writing, race and sport Page 11 of 12Sport and Society: the Summer Olympics and Paralympics through the lens
of social science
Edwards, E. (1996), “Postcards: Greetings From Another World” in Selwyn, T. (ed), The Tourist Image: Myths and
Myth Making in Tourism, Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Ltd, pp.197 – 222
Gems, G. R. (2005), “Negotiating a Native American Identity Through Sport: Assimilation, Adaptation and the
Role of the Trickster” in King, C. R. (ed), Native Athletes in Sport and Society: A Reader, London:
University of Nebraska Press, pp. 1 – 21
Hatfield, P. J. (2011), Colonial Copyright and the Photographic Image: Canada in the Frame, University of
London, Unpublished Thesis
Jackson, P. (1992), “Constructions of culture, representations of race: Edward Curtis’s ‘way of seeing’” in
Anderson, K., and Gale, F. (ed), Inventing Places, Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, pp. 89 – 106
Kidd, B. (1980), Tom Longboat, Don Mills, Ont.: Fitzhenry and Whiteside
Lutz, C. A. and Collins, J. L. (1993), Reading National Geographic, London: The University of Chicago Press
Nabokov, P. (1981), Indian Running, Santa Barbara: Capra Press
Rose, G. (2007, 2nd Ed.), Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to the Interpretation of Visual Images, London:
Routledge
Simpson, K. (2005), “Sporting Dreams Die on the ‘Rez’”, in Eitzen, D. S. (ed), Sport in Contemporary Society: An
Anthology, London: Paradigm, pp. 259 – 265
Sontag, S. (1973), On Photography, London: Farrar, Straus and Giroux Publishers
Springwood, C. F. (2005), “Playing Football, Playing Indian: A History of the Native Americans Who Were the
NFL’s Oorang Indians” in King, C. R. (ed), Native Athletes in Sport and Society: A Reader, London:
University of Nebraska Press, pp. 123 – 142
Zeman, B. (1988), To Run With Longboat: Twelve Stories of Indian Athletes in Canada, Edmonton, Alberta: GMS
Ventures Inc.
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