Still left behind: Pathways to inclusive education for girls with disabilities - June 2017
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Still left behind: Pathways to inclusive education for girls with disabilities June 2017
Acknowledgements This report was prepared by a Leonard Cheshire Disability team led by Ola Abu Al-Ghaib (Deputy Director), Karen Andrae (Consultant) and Rachel Gondwe (Learning Impact and Quality Manager). The team is grateful to the UN Girls’ Education Initiative (UNGEI) for their support and guidance, in particular Nora Fyles (Head of the UNGEI Secretariat) and Paula Pönkänen (Intern). Photography credits Hamish Roberts, Planet Caravan, Arjun Kohli/Arete Stories/GCE UK
Still left behind:
Pathways to inclusive education
for girls with disabilities
Executive summary
Girls with disabilities are among the world’s out, more than boys, and often due to gender-
most marginalised groups of society, resulting related challenges. There needs to be more
from social norms and cultural bias around in-depth analysis of the interaction between
gender and disability. Those agencies gender and disability, and more attention to
committed to gender equity in education power relations on which gender roles are
overlook the specific situation of and added based. Child protection issues are recognised
barriers faced by girls and women with and addressed but need more rigorous
disabilities, and those who are committed monitoring of how policies are developed
to disability inclusion and equity fail to apply and implemented.
a gender perspective. As a result, girls
with disabilities have limited educational Inclusive teaching methods are shifting to
opportunities. more child- and learner-centred approaches
and classroom adaptations. However, girls
The aim of this research was to provide a with intellectual and profound disabilities
synthesis of the understanding of barriers continue to be marginalised due to a lack
to education for girls with disabilities and of policy clarity on how to provide education
bring together evidence of effective or for children with more severe disabilities, and
promising programme approaches that the gaps in resources and teacher capacities
address these barriers. to support these children. There needs to
be more in-depth impairment-specific and
Despite growing commitment to gender and gendered analysis, with documentation and
disability inclusive education by governments, sharing of applied and effective inclusive
donors and (inter)national development education practices.
organisations, there is still very little in the
way of documentation and robust evidence Collaboration among non-state actors is
on research and programmes that address important in reviewing and submitting
the intersectional marginalisation of girls recommendations on adaptations to legislation
with disabilities in education. and policies. It is especially critical to review
policies on inclusive education with a gender
The majority of the inclusive education lens and align policies on inclusive education
programmes on which documentation was and girls’ education. The intersection between
available were implemented by disability- gender and disability and the gendered
focused organisations. This may account for nature of marginalisation for children with
the greater emphasis on disability inclusion, disabilities needs to be analysed in depth
with gender as a secondary factor to exclusion. to help formulate and monitor policies
While there has been evidence of greater and programmes.
numbers of girls with disabilities enrolled
and retained in school, there is also consistent
reference to girls with disabilities dropping
3
The key findings and recommendations from the report are:
• The development of gender- and • Governments should develop national
disability-sensitive indicators will provide education policies to protect children from
a more consistent picture of educational abuse, neglect, violence and exploitation
inclusion and allow for comparison across both within and outside the school setting.
programmes.
• The integration of research and
• The application of an equity-focused gender documentation of good practice on
and disability lens to budgeting and resource education interventions for girls with
allocation will support (hidden) costs that disabilities into education plans and
disproportionately affect girls robust processes to monitor the impact of
with disabilities. interventions on girls with disabilities will
help build a much needed evidence base.
• Greater efforts to embed gender equality
principles in teacher training on inclusive • Greater collaboration between mainstream
education will promote more positive and disability-specific organisations and
attitudes towards girls with disabilities. Disabled People’s organisations (DPOs) is
indispensable in order to bring all relevant
• Donors and other development partners expertise together towards greater impact.
that invest in education programmes should
ensure programmes are both disability
inclusive and gender sensitive.
4
Contents
Introduction: the context 6
Section I: Background 8
Section II: Barriers to education for girls with disabilities 11
Section III: International frameworks and policies/position papers 21
Section IV: Programmes and practices addressing barriers 28
to education for girls with disabilities
Section V: Conclusions 39
Section VI: Recommendations 44
Bibliography 48
Annex 1: Organisations contacted 50
Annex 2: Guidelines and toolkits 51
Endnotes 52
5
6
Introduction: the context
Girls with disabilities are among the world’s most marginalised groups
of society, resulting from social norms and cultural bias around both
gender and disability. Yet their needs, and the double discrimination they
face, have largely been neglected and overlooked in education dialogue
and practice. This greatly limits their educational opportunities.1 Those
committed to gender equity overlook the specific situation of and added
problems faced by girls and women with disabilities, and those who
are committed to disability inclusion and equity fail to apply a gender
perspective.2 Both disability and gender are significant factors for exclusion
and are often treated separately.
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4 focuses on ensuring inclusive and
quality education for all and promoting lifelong learning. Gender equality
has been recognised as crucial for achieving the right to education for
all. It is also a critical element of a broader perspective on equity and
inclusion where gender inequality is heightened through additional factors
of exclusion, for example in situations of conflict, in rural areas, among
the poorest households and for children with disabilities and members
of ethnic minorities.3
This report explores the challenges faced by girls with disabilities in
relation to education, and what can be done to address them. Section
I explains the purpose and methodology of the desk research, and
clarifies the most important terminology. Section II starts from the
gender perspective and explores the additional layer of barriers added
by disability for girls. Section III gives a brief overview of relevant
international frameworks that relate to gender and disability in education.
It also looks at policies by government development departments, civil
society networks and organisations that seek to address gender and
disability in submissions to duty bearers, or in organisational strategies.
Section IV describes selected programmes or projects that have
addressed or are addressing the education of girls with disabilities,
analysing their effectiveness and highlighting gaps and challenges in
tackling barriers. Section V provides conclusions and recommendations
based on the findings.
7
I Background 8
A. Purpose of the progress review
This progress review aims to contribute to and bring disability into discussions around SDG 4 by:
• providing a synthesis of the understanding of the additional barriers that girls with disabilities
face in education
• highlighting effective or promising approaches and programmes addressing these barriers,
including policies and legislation
• pointing to gaps in evidence
• providing recommendations on a way forward
B. Methodology
The research was broad in scope, aiming to interventions that were implemented since
provide a global perspective. An Internet the enactment of the UN Convention on the
search of relevant grey and academic literature Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD)
on gender-responsive inclusive education was in 2008. In the absence of, or in addition to
carried out. A search of websites of (inter) available documents that could be shared,
national non-governmental organisations, a number of interviews with relevant staff
donors, and research institutions on the were held to clarify details and/or elaborate
subject of gender-responsive inclusive verbally on education interventions aimed
education was conducted. In addition, requests at girls with disabilities.
for information on gender-responsive inclusive
education interventions were submitted to Academic articles were included when they
platforms such as the Pelican Initiative and explicitly explored or referred to interventions
the Gender and Development Network UK. for girls with disabilities. Grey literature
Subsequent referral to contact persons was consists of case studies, summary brochures of
followed up via email and phone with requests studies, and mid-line and end-line evaluations.
for sharing of studies, evaluations, progress Information on organisations’ websites may be
reports, and other relevant documents of mentioned but is not considered evidence.
9
C. Clarification of terminology
Disability is defined by the CRPD as ‘an Special education is when children with
evolving concept and that disability results disabilities are educated separately from their
from the interaction between persons with non-disabled peers, usually in special schools
impairments and attitudinal and environmental or institutions.
barriers that hinders their full and effective
participation in society on an equal basis Integrated education is when children with
with others.’ This definition is based on the disabilities are educated in mainstream schools
social model of disability, which highlights but either separately from other children in
the importance of interaction and the fact special classes or alongside non-disabled peers
that society is the main contributory factor in mainstream classes that have not been
in disabling persons. This contrasts to the adapted and/or modified to meet their needs.
medical model of disability where the focus is
on an individual’s impairment. Inclusive education refers not only to
disability but also to the concept that
Gender refers to the social attributes and education systems must include and serve all
opportunities, roles and responsibilities children effectively with the commitment to
associated with being male and female, and leave no one behind. All factors of exclusion
the relationships between women and men must be tackled by ‘addressing and responding
and girls and boys. Gender determines what to the diversity of needs of all learners through
is expected, allowed and valued in a woman inclusive practices in learning, cultures and
or a man in a given context.4 However, these communities and reducing exclusion within and
concepts are learned and can change over from education.’ 7 Inclusive education covers
time and vary within and between cultures. a variety of hard-to-reach and marginalised
children e.g. street children, working children,
Gender sensitivity refers to the ability to children from ethnic, religious and linguistic
recognise the impact of gender roles and minorities, nomadic and displaced children
expectations. A gender-sensitive programme and those living in informal settings. This
takes these roles, norms and relationships means that a variety of targeted interventions
into account. with attention to each child’s specific context
is necessary to ensure that the education
Gender-responsive policy and programming system is inclusive, ideally providing
goes beyond the identification of gender choices for parents and children to find the
issues and working with the specific needs educational environment most suited to each
under a ‘do no harm’ principle. Instead, it helps child’s needs.
address and overcome historical bias, actively
seeks to reduce harmful effects of unequal
gender roles and norms, and works towards
gender equality.5, 6
10II Barriers
to education
for girls with
disabilities
11The World Report on Disability (WHO, World Bank, 2011)
estimates that between 93 million and 150 million children
up to the age of 14 are living with disabilities.
They are less likely to enrol in education, and education for girls with disabilities, especially
have lower rates of attendance and completion, compared to boys with disabilities, and girls
making disability one of the most prominent without disabilities, reflects this. This makes
factors in educational marginalisation. This it difficult to clearly identify the intersectional
needs to be seen not only in the context of bias of gender and disability.12, 13
access but also with regards to the quality of
education in an enabling environment that is Barriers to girls’ education and gender
conducive to learning.8 parity in education are deeply entrenched
in social norms and reflected in institutional
Adding a gender dimension, the analysis of constraints and inadequate legislation and
51 countries included in the World Bank/ policies. Schools tend to mirror patriarchal
WHO report shows that ‘50.6% of males with structures and reinforce traditional gender
disabilities have completed primary school, roles and stereotypes. This perpetuates
compared with 61.3% of males without gender inequalities in each generation
disabilities. Females with disabilities report of school-going children.14
41.7% primary school completion compared
to 52.9% of females without disabilities, a • Inadequate legal frameworks and lack
difference of 8.9% between males and females of policy enforcement mean that girls are
with disabilities.’ 9 often not registered at birth. They are
therefore not eligible for school enrolment or
Comprehensive research conducted by Harilyn examinations.15
Rousso for UNESCO found that the literacy rate • Families often resist sending their daughters
for adults with disabilities is 3%. For women to school for fear of their safety and
with disabilities the literacy rate is even lower, protection from sexual violence, or because
at 1%.10 However, overall there is a dearth of they don’t see the value of education for girls
education statistics on women and girls with who are meant to marry and focus on care
disabilities. for home and families.16
• Other social norms around traditional
It is recognised that whilst the education division of labour expect girls to take on
of girls and women is of significant and far- unpaid care (e.g. for siblings) and domestic
reaching benefit for women, their families and work.
communities, barriers to education for girls in • School-related gender-based violence
developing countries remain. Interventions on is a major reason for children dropping
girls’ education have often concentrated on out of school, with girls experiencing
enrolment and attendance, and less on their predominantly sexual violence, and boys
meaningful participation and empowerment.11 more often physical violence from teachers,
staff and peers. School-related gender based
Both disability and gender are significant violence can occur during travel to and from
factors for exclusion, yet the focus of attention school and at school (empty classrooms,
(and this is reflected in the available literature) toilets, playgrounds).17
has mostly been on either one or the other. • The lack of appropriate sanitation, especially
Internationally, little attention has been paid to in the context of menstruation, accounts for
exploring and addressing gender issues among girls dropping out or regularly interrupting
children with disabilities in education sector their education.
plans. The lack of research and literature on
12• The consequences of sexual violence and Enrolment
harmful practices such as early marriage and Cultural bias and rigid gender roles are the most
Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) frequently mentioned barriers to education for
coupled with an inflexible curriculum prevent girls with disabilities. It is often assumed that
girls from returning to education, especially girls with disabilities will not marry. This can
when they are pregnant or have small children. contribute to further devaluation of a family in
• Teachers’ expectations are often gendered societies where girls are clearly of lesser value.
and reinforce gender stereotypes and As a result, girls with disabilities are often hidden
patriarchal structures. Curriculum material and to avoid the associated shame and ostracism.22
learning and teaching processes reflect male- A study in rural Iran, where farming is the
centred perspectives and power hierarchies.18 primary activity, emphasises the intersection
• Learning outcome differences (numeracy, between gender, disability and rurality where
literacy) between girls and boys are dependent educational opportunities are limited to begin
on location, poverty/wealth level, type and with, and traditional patriarchal gender beliefs
severity of disability, and ethnicity. Disparities further reduce educational chances for girls
are often reinforced by gender stereotyping. with disabilities. Education is seen as having
• In some countries girls’ education is the purpose of getting a job. As girls in general,
deliberately targeted, e.g. in Afghanistan, and girls with disabilities in particular, are not
Nigeria, and Pakistan. This results in girls being expected to work, there is no perceived need
physically harmed or removed from school for for education. Their role will be entirely focused
their safety.19, 20 In regions of conflict and where on unpaid care and domestic work while being
people are displaced and separated from their financially dependent on fathers and brothers.23
homes and families, girls are at even higher
risk of losing out on an education. Economics are therefore connected to gender
roles. In impoverished families, resources have
It is well accepted that gender interacts with to be carefully managed. The value of education
other factors based on, for example, age, (and subsequent investment) is most often
ethnicity, location (rural/urban), and disability. reserved for boys as they are expected to return
All of the above barriers apply to girls with the investment at some point by supporting the
disabilities. However, the disability bias adds family. Boys with disabilities may still be expected
another layer of obstacles and risks, thereby to marry and become breadwinners, and are
intensifying their exclusion. Furthermore, therefore more likely to be sent to school than
the community of girls with disabilities is girls with disabilities (and sometimes girls without
not a homogenous group. Different types of disabilities).24
impairments carry different levels of stigma
and diverse needs, which require a variety of A study in the Middle East found that with
accommodations and modifications. more resources available at family level, and
precisely because they are not expected to marry
Research findings from Education for All (EFA) and fulfil the traditional roles of mothers and
in 2003 into the educational opportunities and wives, girls with disabilities are given greater
outcomes for girls with disabilities come to freedom and have therefore greater access to
the conclusion that little is known about how education and vocational training. Because of the
girls with disabilities have fared. What can be perceived lack of traditional value, there is no fear
extrapolated from the research points to rather for her safety as it is assumed that the disability
disappointing results.21 Unfortunately, it seems renders her invisible or undesirable.25 However,
that almost 15 years on, there is still scarce there is not enough global research on how and
research into girls with disabilities in education, in which contexts wealth influences the freedom
and many barriers remain in place. of girls with disabilities to establish if the study is
an isolated finding or representative of access to
education for girls with disabilities from middle
and upper class families.
13In (post-) conflict areas, girls with disabilities Distance and transport
often do not access education. In Northern In rural areas, schools are more likely to be
Uganda, for example, women with physical at a considerable distance from home, which
disabilities said that during the conflict they would either require boarding, long walks or
were never sent to school by their parents. This costly transport. Overprotection of girls with
was because of long distances from rural homes disabilities often means that they are kept at
to schools without transport, inaccessible WASH home because parents want to keep them
facilities, and the constant threat of violence. close by.
Adolescent girls with disabilities who have
remained in camps for internally displaced In some countries, such as Tanzania and
people – because they have been separated Uganda, girls with Albinism are at high risk
from families and have no means or further of violence based on the myth that a body
connections to return to their homes – are often part from a person with Albinism can bring
forced to choose a relationship with a man good fortune. Residential settings are often not
for protection and financial support, thereby trusted because of the high risk of abuse; or
forfeiting opportunities to get an education.26 there may not be enough affordable boarding
facilities that are available and accessible for
A study on education and disability in countries girls with disabilities.
affected by conflict found that in Darfur, non-
formal education structures and child-friendly Even transport to schools close to home may
spaces such as children’s clubs function both be necessary for a girl with limited mobility
to protect and educate children through play, or a visual impairment. Gender bias in access
learning and socialisation. In some cases clubs to rehabilitation and assistive devices such as
also provided extra food and information e.g. wheelchairs, prosthetic and orthotic devices,
vaccination campaigns. Girls were more often means that women and girls with disabilities
enrolled than boys because the latter were are referred and fitted out less often than
expected to help with agricultural chores and men and boys. Girls are dependent on family
minding cattle. However, few children with members to carry them, or provide escort for
disabilities were reported to attend, most often safety and cultural reasons, which is prohibitive
because of parents’ lack of understanding, in regard to time investment and costs,
shame over disability, ill health of children, lack especially when parents are poor, and need
of transport etc. These clubs were seen as a first to pursue livelihoods.
step to school, and UNICEF and other INGOs
were involved in lobbying the government of Research from Latin America found that boys
Sudan to formalise the clubs into official pre- with disabilities are more likely to ask for help
school education structures. At the time of the from friends e.g. being lifted into buses, or
study’s publication (2011) it was of particular use more dangerous forms of transport such
concern that no efforts were being made to as adapted motorcycles. Girls with disabilities
make these clubs inclusive so that children are seen as fragile and dependent and unable
with disabilities would not miss out on pre- to rely on peers, or find creative solutions to
school opportunities in preparation for problems of transport and support. This results
formal education.27 in girls being kept safe but isolated.28
14Inaccessible infrastructure, toilet facilities In addition, the myth (in many African
and assistance countries) that having sex with a girl with a
The absence of accessible school buildings disability who is a virgin will cure AIDS puts
and classrooms is a barrier for all children with them at an especially high risk of HIV infection,
disabilities. Lack of accessible and/or separate pregnancy and other consequences of sexual
toilets and washing facilities place a particular assault and rape – particularly in situations of
burden on girls with disabilities who may need conflict and displacement. Research conducted
assistance with toileting, and menstruation in the USA found that girls with disabilities
management. A girl’s need for help with had higher rates of adolescent parenting than
such personal tasks is of concern especially non-disabled girls, and that sexual abuse
in societies where modesty is emphasised. was often the cause for the pregnancy.33
Lack of provisions that may help girls with Girls with disabilities are also at risk of being
(and without) disabilities to manage trafficked or sold into prostitution because their
their periods in a safe way may reinforce impairments are assumed to limit their chances
stereotypical and negative attitudes about of escape.34
girls’ inability to function as students.29
A recent global study on school-related
Violence and harmful practices gender-based violence found that, especially
Whilst sexual violence is a potential risk for in sub-Saharan Africa, violence against girls by
all girls, and to some degree boys, girls with (older) male peers and teachers is common,
disabilities experience violence at much higher with sexual abuse by male teachers more
rates, and at more severe and chronic levels often in regions that experience conflict and
than their non-disabled peers within the in refugee settings. Children with disabilities,
family, institutions, and the community. Girls those from ethnic minorities and orphans
with disabilities are perceived as helpless, are at higher risk. School-related violence
asexual and powerless and are therefore at is often referred to in the context of, for
particularly high risk, especially in residential example, bullying, and gang violence, without
school settings.30 Girls with disabilities lack attributing violence to gender.35 Similarly, there
general education and sexual health education. is increased recognition that students with
They may not recognise risks or know how to disabilities face disability harassment. There
respond to sexual harassment or violence. is little attention to the combined sexual and
Girls with intellectual and hearing disabilities disability harassment that girls and young
are the most at-risk groups of girls to women with disabilities face. However, pilot
experience sexual violence. Girls with studies from the USA suggest that girls with
disabilities are less likely to report abuse, disabilities face higher rates of abuse than boys
and if they do they are often considered not who are disabled or girls without disabilities.36
credible, especially if they have a sensory, When violence is reported to management,
intellectual, or psycho-social impairment. institutional status and reputation take
The disability and gender bias exhibited by precedence over the rights of girls with (and
authorities, e.g. police and community leaders, without) disabilities.37
does not afford the girls enough importance
to take complaints of sexual violence and
other forms of abuse seriously.31, 32
15Early marriage Assistive devices, rehabilitation and special
Early marriage is both a cultural expectation education services
linked to gender roles, and a potential coping Girls with disabilities have less access to
strategy for economic survival. Many poor assistive technology and rehabilitation, and
families will try to marry their daughters with are less likely to receive additional educational
disabilities as soon as possible to transfer the support than boys.42 In industrialised countries,
burden of care and be assured that someone where school personnel identify ‘special
will take care of their daughter. This puts these educational needs’, boys tend to be on
girls at higher risk of ending up in abusive teachers’ radar with behavioural issues and
relationships and prevents them from accessing are subsequently identified with perceived
education.38 learning difficulties. Girls often don’t act out
at school due to cultural pressures. A study
Lack of positive representation and role models from Great Britain noted that particularly girls
Educational materials used by students with with emotional disabilities had limited access
disabilities show either a stereotypical or to education services. Girls with disabilities
under-representation of women and girls with in the USA often only received services after
disabilities. The lack of role models, i.e. women they showed behaviours typical for boys who
(and men) with disabilities, in educational were already receiving special education and/
material, in the media, and as educators and or presented with more significant levels of
mentors, underline their invisibility. Positive disability than boys.43, 44 Special education
role models are needed to shift attitudes and schools are most often located in urban areas
encourage girls with disabilities (and their and are less accessible to rural children with
families) to pursue education.39 disabilities, specifically to girls with disabilities.
In India, eight out of ten schools for blind
Teacher training and attitudes students in New Delhi are boys-only schools,
Girls with disabilities can remain invisible even though there is a much higher rate of
in a competitive classroom climate when blindness among girls than boys.45
teachers have low expectations of children with
disabilities in general, and girls with disabilities Vocational training and careers advice
in particular. Even in special educational schools, Vocational training and careers advice
teachers may be more trained in teaching life for adolescent girls with disabilities are
skills and vocational skills to children with often gender stereotyped, guiding them
disabilities (for example embroidery for girls towards lower paying jobs with fewer career
or carpentry for boys) and don’t focus enough advancements, or are discouraging them to
on academic achievements.40 Teachers often continue education beyond the most basic
don’t have the skills to adapt their lessons levels. The lack of adequate and more diverse
and material to specific impairments and vocational training contributes to the higher
different levels of severity of disability. In unemployment rate among young girls with
developing countries, the move to universal disabilities after they have left school.46
free primary education has meant that the
number of enrolled children in classes has not
been matched by teaching staff. In classrooms
where the teacher- children ratio can be 1:100,
and education assistants or other support are
not usually available, there is little time and
opportunity for teachers to support children
with disabilities. Girls with disabilities are most
likely to be overlooked. Experiences of bullying,
being outnumbered by male peers and being
discouraged to succeed all contribute to low
self-esteem and a high drop-out rate.41
16Costing
A 2016 report #Costing Equity – the Case for The report states that child-friendly inclusive
Disability-Responsive Education Financing, education contributes to gender empowerment
coordinated by IDDC and Light for the World, and that gender-responsive budgeting has
calls for substantial additional investment in been crucial in understanding the impact of
systemic reform to achieve inclusive education. budgets on girls and boys. However, there is
This would mean governments taking into no further emphasis on making budgets both
consideration the higher costs associated disability- and gender-responsive.
with the additional needs of some learners.
However, investments in teacher training Barriers to education have multiple and
and child-friendly, safer, and accessible complex layers, all of which are interrelated in,
infrastructures would benefit all children. at times, complex ways. These include social
Adapted learning materials such as Braille, norms, attitudes and value systems, political
large print, audio and easy-read books, along will, institutional capacities and resources,
with improved and accessible Information and technical knowledge and skills, and attitudes.
Communication Technology, are often not The table on pages 18-20 summarises the
available in developing countries. This would barriers to education faced by girls with and
significantly increase educational opportunities without disabilities. The first column shows the
and achievements of children and young people shared obstacles that girls with and without
with various impairments. Assistive devices are disabilities both encounter. The second column
often not affordable for families of children describes the additional barriers for girls with
with disabilities, especially when they have disabilities. The last column encapsulates the
to be regularly adjusted for growth. Inclusive root causes of the barriers.
budgeting with an equity-focused gender and
disability lens is essential to ensure that funds
are available and appropriately allocated.47
17Shared barriers
Additional
for girls with
Issue
and without + barriers for girls Root causes
with disabilities
disabilities
Enrolment, Boys prioritised + Priority of non- Social norms/attitudes that girls with
completion when resources disabled siblings, disabilities have less value, based on
including are scarce. and boys with both gender and disability; resource-
costs disabilities poor families make choices based on
Early marriage, over girls with perceived return on investment and
harmful disabilities. gender roles.
practices;
unpaid care Hidden away due Misconceptions and stigma attached
and domestic to shame or fear to disability isolate families and girls
work over for safety; forced with disabilities; low status of girls
value of marriages. with disabilities and male dominance
education. don’t afford girls with disabilities
Refusal of schools decision-making power.
to enrol.
Attitudes and stigma extend to the
school authority and confirm the bias
at institutional level.
Distance of Safety concerns + No accessible Resource gap both at family and
schools and during travel transport – at institutional level – government
transport to and from depending subsidies often don’t cover real costs;
school related on availability transport infrastructures are not
to safety of of parents to designed with disability in mind.
transport and provide transport;
protection diminished access Lack of political will and resources to
from abuse, to mobility aids. provide adequate school places for
especially girls with disabilities.
sexual violence. Fewer secondary
schools for girls Gender inequality and power
with disabilities imbalances between men and
or accessible women put girls at high risk of
boarding schools, sexual violence. This is exacerbated
especially in by the even lower status of girls with
remote areas. disabilities, and the frequent lack of
consequences for perpetrators.
Higher risk of
sexual violence in Institutional gaps in providing
residential special protection and redress are based on
schools and higher a combination of lack of capacity in
risk of sexual understanding disability and negative
violence during attitudes towards girls (and women)
school journeys. with disabilities.
18Shared barriers
Additional
for girls with
Issue
and without + barriers for girls Root causes
with disabilities
disabilities
Teaching/ Girls + Poor learning Social gender norms that place
learning overlooked in outcomes result higher value on boys and lower
methods and classrooms, in girls pushed expectations on girls reflected in
material gender to repeat classes male perspective in pedagogy and
stereotypes beyond age- curricula.
reinforced appropriateness.
through Social norms on gender appropriate
curriculum and Limited availability behaviour in interaction with peers
male-centred of reasonable and teachers, and on perceived
pedagogy. accommodations suitable professions for women,
or learning reflected in unequal resource
Girls not materials. allocation and limited diversity in
included in professional offers for girls in higher
classroom No encouragement education.
discussions to transition
and pushed because of Teachers not motivated/not trained
into non- perceived lack of to adapt teaching material and
professional labour productivity, pedagogy, or don’t believe in
courses, pushed into low- inclusive education. This is based on
limited skill vocational poor incentives by government and/
transition to training. or limited resources, and attitudes
secondary that children have to adapt to the
education or Limited referral for school and fit into the education
vocational assistive devices system.
training and to and rehabilitation.
work. Misconceptions over capacity of
Lack of health/ girls with disabilities (including their
sexual education ability to learn), compounded by
and increased risk social norms that attribute low-paid
of HIV infection jobs to women, especially women
and pregnancy. with disabilities.
Resource gaps at government service
level compounded by attitudes
that prioritise boys over girls in
the provision of services. Negative
attitudes and misconceptions
that girls with disabilities are
asexual, should not have sex and
are not capable of taking care
of children compounded by
lack of understanding of how to
communicate health and reproductive
information to girls with intellectual
or hearing disabilities.
19Shared barriers
Additional
for girls with
Issue
and without + barriers for girls Root causes
with disabilities
disabilities
Inflexible Competing + Health-related Social norms that prioritise the
structures demands with interruptions reproductive role of girls over
household without education reflected in lack of
work/care. opportunities supportive policies.
given to catch up.
Girls who are Institutional capacity and political will
pregnant or No resources to understand and accurately cost
have small (budget plans) and allocate the resources needed to
children are provided to support special needs.
not allowed to support special
return. needs.
Poor quality Modesty + Health issues Institutional capacity and prioritisation
environment, related issues around lack based on lack of understanding
including for sanitation, of accessible of accessibility needs, and lack of
WASH including WASH facilities, understanding or giving equal weight
facilities menstruation especially during to gender-sensitive infrastructures.
management. menstruation;
inaccessible Capacity gaps in supporting girls with
Overcrowded buildings/ disabilities according to impairment
classes favour classrooms (incl. and gender specific needs; negative
more vocal and light, sound). attitudes based on disability bias
assertive boys. (incapable of learning) and gender
Girls with bias (no value).
Girls called disabilities
out of class for ignored; higher Social gender norms that emphasis
cleaning, or risk of abuse by reproductive roles for girls.
fetching water. teachers, peers,
volunteers.
20III International
frameworks &
policies/position
papers
21Governments and international agencies have recognised the importance of developing
frameworks and policies to respond to the barriers experienced by girls with disabilities in
accessing education. The following table gives an overview of international frameworks
and initiatives that provide pathways towards education for girls with disabilities, with key
statements related to inclusion.
Table A: International frameworks and initiatives
supporting inclusive education and girls’ education
Consideration of gender
Framework Article(s) on education
and disability
UN Convention Art 10 refers to the elimination of The original treaty text does not
on the discrimination against women, and to refer to or mention girls and women
Elimination of ensuring equal rights and opportunities with disabilities. However General
Discrimination with men in the field of education Recommendation No 18 by the
Against throughout the entire education cycle. Committee on the Elimination of
Women Discrimination Against Women calls
(CEDAW) 1981 for measures to ensure girls and
women with disabilities have equal
access to education and employment
among other services.48
UN Convention Art 23 refers to the rights of mentally Within the definition of children
on the Rights or physically disabled children to access with disabilities, the gender-neutral
of the Child (among other services) education in lens provides no perspectives on the
(CRC) order to achieve the fullest possible specific situations of girls (and boys)
1989 social integration and individual with disabilities.
development.
Art 28 recognises the right to education
for all children on the basis of equal
opportunity.
Salamanca The framework encourages In this framework, special
Framework for governments to stop segregating educational needs are not just
Action 1994 educational provision for children with related to children with disabilities.
special educational needs (including The framework makes it clear that
children with disabilities) and to ensure a range of vulnerabilities, such as
schools ‘...accommodate all children poverty, ethnicity or language, could
regardless of their physical, intellectual, affect any child’s ability to learn.
social, emotional, linguistic or other Inclusive education is therefore
condition.’ conceived as a way to ensure
that the needs of all children are
being properly accommodated.
The framework calls for education
to become child-focused and to
acknowledge the heterogeneity of
children, even within their ‘assigned’
vulnerable groups, e.g. gender,
disability, ethnicity.49
22Consideration of gender
Framework Article(s) on education
and disability
Education Goal 1: Expanding and improving Throughout the framework, the
for All comprehensive early childhood care emphasis lies on gender-sensitive/
(EFA): Dakar and education, especially for the most responsive measures to ensure
Framework vulnerable and disadvantaged children. quality education for all with
for Action 2000 a focus on primary education,
Goal 2: Ensuring that by 2015 all including out-of-school and the
children, particularly girls, in difficult most disadvantaged/vulnerable
circumstances and those belonging to children. There is no direct mention
ethnic minorities, have access to and of disability in the framework, only
complete free and compulsory primary reference to special needs in the
education of good quality. context of the first two goals.
The 2001 EFA Flagship on the Right to
Education for Persons with Disabilities
states that ‘the goal of Dakar will only
be achieved when all nations recognise
that the universal right to education
extends to individuals with disabilities,
and when all nations act upon their
obligation to establish or reform public
education systems that are accessible to,
and meet the needs of, individuals with
disabilities.’50
UN Convention Art 6 recognises the multiple The general principles explicitly
on the Rights discriminations that girls and women with refer to gender equality. This applies
of Persons with disabilities face and calls for measures to all articles of the CRPD and
Disabilities to ensure full and equal enjoyment of therefore provides a framework
(CRPD) 2006 all rights, and the full development and with a consistently gender-sensitive
empowerment of women. approach to disability inclusion.
Art 9 sets out obligations to identify
and eliminate barriers to accessibility,
including education systems, so that
persons with disabilities can live
independently and participate fully.
Art 24 calls for measures to ensure an
inclusive education system at all levels
directed to:
• The full development of human
potential and sense of dignity and self-
worth.
• The development of their personality,
talents and creativity, as well as their
mental and physical abilities to their
fullest potential.
• Enabling persons with disabilities to
participate effectively in a free society.
23Consideration of gender
Framework Article(s) on education
and disability
Sustainable Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and quality SDG4 reflects a strong commitment
Development education for all and promote lifelong to education that goes beyond
Goals (SDGs) learning. academic basics and skills but also
2015 looks at cultural diversity and values
Two targets specifically mention disability associated with global citizenship.
and gender together: This concept draws attention to the
need to tackle social inequalities in
Target 4.5: By 2030, eliminate gender and through education by aligning
disparities in education and ensure equal school education with other
access to all levels of education and policy areas (early childhood care,
vocational training for the vulnerable, vocational training, adult learning,
including persons with disabilities, etc), economic measures (e.g.
indigenous peoples and children in scholarships, cash transfer schemes)
vulnerable situations. and recognising particular needs
and situations of children due to
Target 4.8: Build and upgrade education gender parities, disability, ethnicity
facilities that are child, disability and and other at-risk groups.51 All of
gender sensitive and provide safe, non- these aspects and the emphasis
violent, inclusive and effective learning of learning along life cycles are
environments for all. reflected in the targets.
A recent systematic literature review of The other is the EFA approach, in which
education systems in low and middle income inclusive education was not part of the original
countries makes the point that the Salamanca agenda but rather emerged from debates
Framework for Action, and Education for All within the special education sector. The study
(EFA) developed two education agendas from argues that despite the many benefits that EFA
different starting points and with a lack of brought, there has been a slow uptake on the
alignment. inclusion of children with disabilities, alongside
the promotion of a broad concept of inclusive
One is the conceptualisation of inclusive education for children from a wide range of
education emerging from Salamanca, on: circumstances. This has led to an inconsistent
implementation of educational provisions for
1. How to move away from assumptions that children with disabilities, with a gap in quality
the needs of children with disabilities were assurance and/or monitoring over academic
entirely impairment-based and that children outcomes.52
needed to be placed into special education
based largely on medical reasoning; and The different interpretations of special
2. How to transform mainstream education needs and inclusive education are reflected
systems so that they become aware of the by an overall lack of clarity in literature
learning needs of all children. This should and programme documentation, which is
help to establish education systems that are particularly absent of clear references to girls
barrier-free. with disabilities. The SDGs, therefore, with clear
mentions of disability and gender in targets
and with specific indicators, represent a real
opportunity to move towards programmatic
approaches in which gender and disability
inclusion are evidenced.
24Policies and position papers Equality and Inclusiveness in Teaching and
Learning Materials in 2015 gives practical advice
on gender and disability in on representation, illustration, language and
roles to promote gender equality and inclusion
education of various marginalised groups such as children
with disabilities. Resulting projects that are
Based on government ratification of and
available on the website as examples still seem
commitment to international frameworks,
to focus on either disability or gender. This
a number of policies and position papers have
raises the question to what extent guides are
been developed to adhere to the principles
taken on board and are seen as binding in the
of inclusion.
development of projects.
I) Multilateral/bilateral agencies/donors
The UK Department for International
A review in 2010 of recent policies of major
Development’s (DFID) revised Disability
multilateral and bilateral agencies regarding
Framework (2015) commits to addressing
disability inclusion indicates that disability has
gender and disability disparities, especially
become a part of international cooperation and
in the context of gender-based violence, and
development aid. International cooperation
more work in the fields of education and
policies have often linked disability to the
livelihoods. Guidance notes that accompany
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (which
the grant application processes include
preceded the SDGs) – even though the MDGs
definitions of marginalised population, what
did not mention disability. The interest in
is meant by gender and how to measure
disability seems to have a strong focus on the
disability. On a practical level, it means, for
link between disability and poverty, and more
example, all new schools built with DFID
specifically, the link between disability and
funding have to be fully accessible - although
poor education, low employment rate, loss
on its own physical accessibility is insufficient,
of income and Disability-Adjusted Life Years
and should be but one of many interventions
(DALY). However, out of the 31 agencies and
to address the educational needs of boys and
organisations reviewed, only the Council of
girls with disabilities. Since July 2016 a new
Europe, AusAid, Austrian Development Agency
funding initiative within DFID’s Girls’ Education
(ADA), and NORAD specifically referred to the
Challenge, Leave No Girl Behind, calls for
interaction of gender and disability in either
organisations to deliver quality education
their priorities or guiding principles.53 AusAid’s
interventions for highly marginalised girls
2015-2020 Development for All Strategy
including girls with disabilities. These should
continues to include the gender and disability
improve literacy, numerical and life skills and
intersectionality in its guiding principles.
tackle harmful social and gender norms that
contribute to girls being out of school.
Following the signing of the CRPD by the USA
in 2009, USAID published a guide on how to
The Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender
integrate disability in gender assessments,
Equality at the European Parliament in 2013
recognising additional issues based on
presented a report on women with disabilities
disability that impact on the equitable access
with the motion for a resolution. This included
to development programmes.54 The USA
stressing the importance of adopting a
government’s Let Girls Learn initiative, launched
gender-sensitive approach to disability in
in 2015, recognises compounding barriers
the post-2015 agenda and addressing the
for hard-to-reach girls including those with
intersectional discrimination of women
disabilities. In its Global Strategy to Empower
and girls with disabilities in all spheres of
Adolescent Girls (2016) USAID states its
life including education, vocational training
intention to focus on extending interventions
and employment.55
and programmes to these girls. The publication
of USAID’s Guide for Strengthening Gender
25II) UN agencies At the NGO level, there is a mixed picture of
The East Asia Pacific UN Girls’ Education explicitly linking gender and disability related
Initiative released an e-publication reviewing barriers to education in policy briefs and
issues around education for girls with position papers:
disabilities. This found that in the majority of • ActionAid published a model national
reviewed countries in the EAP region special policy for the prevention, management
education schools are more widely in use. and elimination of violence against girls at
However, even where there are efforts to school. This included a section dedicated
include children with disabilities in mainstream to girls with special needs, including girls
schools, there is rarely a gender perspective with disabilities, outlining responsibilities of
applied. Traditional teaching methods of schools and governments to prevent violence
whole-class and rote learning and/or lack and assist survivors.60
of allocated resources to support specific • Plan International conducted research on
academic and social needs of boys and girls the inclusion of children with disabilities in
with disabilities pose major obstacles to quality child protection. This confirmed high levels
inclusive education.56 of violence experienced by boys and girls
with disabilities and made recommendations
UNGEI, together with UNAIDS and EFA Flagship to organisations and government, and for
on the Right to Education for Persons with research.
Disabilities, piloted and published a manual • CBM presented a submission to the expert
on tools for education sector planning in 2010. committee on CEDAW on Art 10. This
This manual aims to support governments, highlighted the specific barriers of girls
development partners and other stakeholders with disabilities. It called on state parties
to address equity and inclusion in education to CEDAW to consider Art 24 and Art 9
sector planning.57 of the CRPD when implementing and
monitoring Art 10, and to include disability
III) NGOs and networks disaggregated data when reporting on the
In preparation for the Oslo Summit on implementation of Art 10.
Education in Development in 2015, an
international expert group (consisting of In their policy papers, a number of
specialists from DFID, World Bank, UNICEF, international development organisations
Global Partnership for Education and INGOs) refer to issues around education for children
prepared a paper on mainstreaming disability with disabilities without adding a gender
in education. They provided recommendations perspective. For example, a call for Education
to address the specific situation of girls For All initiatives to consider and monitor the
with disabilities with regard to costs, data implementation of various CRPD articles left
collection and analysis, sensitisation and out reference to Art 6. This therefore failed
safe school routes.58 to acknowledge girls with disabilities as a
particularly marginalised group of children.
The Girls’ Education Working Group of the Others, despite naming gender as an important
Gender and Development Network (GADN) UK principle in their strategy, don’t go much
published a paper in response to the UN’s High beyond a quantitative dimension of gender
Level Panel report on the post-2015 agenda. inclusion in projects. Other mainstream
They suggested post-2015 gender-sensitive and organisations that specifically address
responsive education goals, explicitly including marginalised and most vulnerable girls don’t
children with disabilities.59 seem to include disability in important issues
around girls’ education, despite the very
distinct barriers that girls with and without
disabilities share and additional barriers that
girls with disabilities face.
26Considering these examples, it is clear that
there are efforts to pay greater attention to
girls with disabilities in education. However,
there is little evidence of the uptake of
guidelines, position papers, and toolkits
that would translate into implementation of
interventions targeting girls with disabilities.
In the next section we look at the few
organisations that have implemented practical
initiatives using the above frameworks and
policies to support girls with disabilities
into education.
27IV Programmes and practices addressing barriers to education for girls with disabilities 28
The findings show that not to share documents, or projects are ongoing
and documents were not yet available) this
much has changed since the section provides an overview of the input of
programmes to: achieve access to schools;
2003 research with regards provide child-centred, inclusive and gender-
to the quantity of available sensitive teaching and learning; and to
contribute to the protection of girls with
research and evidence on the disabilities from violence and harmful practices
effective inclusion of girls with that affect retention and learning outcomes.
disabilities in education. Some projects were designed to explicitly
include or focus entirely on girls with
This is in spite of the introduction of the CRPD disabilities. Others were designed for children
and the post-2015 discussions on disability and with disabilities with a limited gender lens,
gender inclusive education. This is not to say i.e. certain aspects of the project addressed
that programmes do not exist. However, there the situation of girls with disabilities but did
is little documentation and robust evidence, not systematically analyse and respond to the
especially in terms of educational outcomes specific intersectional barriers for girls with
comparing disabled and non-disabled peers. disabilities. Published research on interventions
that tackle specific barriers was also included
This chapter describes selected project when it directly related to girls with disabilities
interventions addressing barriers to education or distinguished between experiences of boy
for girls with disabilities.61 The selection was and girls with disabilities.
based on records and/or oral accounts of
interventions explicitly aimed at girls with Projects that did not distinguish between girls
disabilities. Given the incomplete availability and boys with disabilities in their records were
of records (because there was no permission not included.
Description of interventions addressing barriers to education
Identification and enrolment identified children with disabilities, including
All reviewed interventions employed extensive some who were kept hidden at home. The
sensitisation campaigns involving families of success of identifying and enrolling children
children with disabilities, communities, school (including girls with disabilities) through this
staff and local government officials. These approach was attributed to the assumption that
campaigns raised awareness of the rights of children do not have the gendered perspective
all children to education, including girls with that girls should not go to school. Allowing them
disabilities, and made the case for inclusive to take the lead on identification with support of
education in mainstream local schools to address programme staff helped persuade parents of girls
social justice and equality. with disabilities to enrol them.63
Plan International in Sierra Leone and Leonard Sightsavers’ project on youth employment for
Cheshire Disability in Bangladesh used radio young people with disabilities in Uganda made
advertising, billboards and promotional videos a radio appeal to adolescent and young women
depicting girls with disabilities, which helped with disabilities to enrol for vocational training.
raise awareness around their rights and their Recognising their disadvantaged educational
ability to be at school and learn.62 situation, a point quota system was applied to
enable them to pass the enrolment criteria in
AbleChild Africa employed a child-to-child (CtC) Vocational Training Institutes.64
approach in which primary school children
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