Telework Implications on Work-Life Balance, Productivity, and Health of Different Generations of Romanian Employees
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sustainability
Article
Telework Implications on Work-Life Balance, Productivity, and
Health of Different Generations of Romanian Employees
Ioana Simona Ivasciuc , Gheorghe Epuran * , Daniela Roxana Vut, ă and Bianca Tescas, iu
Faculty of Economic Sciences and Business Administration, Transilvania University of Brasov,
500036 Brasov, Romania
* Correspondence: epuran.gheorghe@unitbv.ro
Abstract: The purpose of this article is to analyse the impact of telework on the work-life balance,
productivity, and health of different generations of Romanian employees. Qualitative and quantitative
methods provide the means to exploit the richness of data and deepen the understanding of the
phenomenon studied. The quantitative data derived from a research instrument was associated
with qualitative data collection. Quantitative research was conducted to achieve the stated purpose
using the survey method, the number of respondents being 1098 persons. The research tool was an
online questionnaire. Results highlight how telework affected each generation of employees. The
satisfaction towards teleworking achieved by Generation Z and Baby Boomers is, on average, higher
than that of Generation Y and X. The differences between the age groups (Generation Z, Y, X, and
Baby Boomers) in terms of telework satisfaction levels were also tested, considering each of the three
aspects examined and presented in the article’s title. At the conceptual level, research brings a new
methodological approach as an element of originality that can be used for similar future research.
Moreover, new concepts on the effects of telework on employees were connected and analysed
simultaneously: work-life balance, productivity, and health of employees during teleworking. At
the operational level, this type of research can determine the degree of satisfaction of employees in
Citation: Ivasciuc, I.S.; Epuran, G.;
Vut, ă, D.R.; Tescas, iu, B. Telework
different companies/organizations and identify solutions to increase employee engagement.
Implications on Work-Life Balance,
Productivity, and Health of Different Keywords: telework; work-life balance; productivity; health; employee engagement; generations
Generations of Romanian Employees. of employees
Sustainability 2022, 14, 16108.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
su142316108
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Guy Hochman
Throughout 2020, the spread of SARS-COVID-19 has led to the manifestation of new
Received: 30 October 2022
facets of working life, such as the unprecedented amplification of telework. Since it was
Accepted: 30 November 2022
first introduced in the scientific literature by Allen et al. [1], the concept of telework has
Published: 2 December 2022
been expressed in various interchangeable terms, namely: telecommuting, remote work,
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral distributed work, virtual work, flexible work, flexplace, work from home, home office, and
with regard to jurisdictional claims in distance work. In most of the definitions found within the literature, telework is considered:
published maps and institutional affil- (1) work carried out using information and communication technology (ICT) outside the
iations. employer’s premises [1–5] and (2) work carried out from the employee’s home [6,7].
A broad definition is provided within the European Framework Agreement on Tele-
work, which depicts telework as “a form of organizing and/or performing work, using
information technology, in the context of an employment contract/relationship, where
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
work, which could also be performed at the employer’s premises, is carried out away from
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
those premises on a regular basis” [8]. The Romanian National Institute of Administration
This article is an open access article
defines telework as “a form of work organization through which the employee, voluntarily,
distributed under the terms and
performs his/her specific duties, tasks or occupation, in a place other than the working
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
place organized by the employer, at least one day per month, using information and other
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
means of communication technology.” In addition, the Romanian legal framework for tele-
4.0/). working, provided by [9], states that telework is established through a working schedule
Sustainability 2022, 14, 16108. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142316108 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainabilitySustainability 2022, 14, 16108 2 of 24
agreement between employee and employer, it has a temporary nature, and its features
should grant the opportunity to be conducted remotely.
According to Eurofound [10], almost 4 in 10 employees in Europe started teleworking
during the pandemic, while 56% of employees have previously and sporadically worked
from home. As noted by Contreras et al. [5], “teleworking was imminent, but the pandemic
has made it a compulsion” (p. 2), turning it into a “measure to combat the spread of the
COVID-19 virus” [11]. Eurofound [10], reconducted in 2022, concluded that the return to
the workplace has continued across the EU as public health restrictions were lifted and
12% of respondents still worked exclusively from home in spring 2022. However, there is a
clear preference for teleworking with over 60% of both women and men expressing their
preference to work from home at least several times per month, implying that the return
has not been complete [12].
Like most EU countries, Romania has statutory definitions and specific legislation on
telework. Romania implemented a state-centred governance model whereby telework is
regulated through statutory legislation. Thus, in the Official Gazette no. 1042/2020, the
Government Emergency Ordinance no. 192/2020 for the amendment and completion of
Law no. 55/2020 was published, as well as to amend letter a) in art. 7 of Law no. 81/2018
([13]). In 2021, Ordinance no.36/2021 supplemented the legal framework [14].
According to statistics [15], Romania was one of the European countries with the
smallest number of employees who worked remotely before the pandemic. For this reason,
the global transition to telework in the country can be seen as a large-scale social innovation.
Thus, investigations of the range of telework in Romania and similar countries such as
Lithuania, Greece, Croatia, Cyprus, Hungary, and Bulgaria where the practice of telework
has not been widespread so far are promising in terms of originality of insights.
The interest in teleworking increased in the context of the challenges of COVID-19.
Moreover, the scope of scientific research on teleworking increased during the pandemic.
To illustrate, Google Scholar provided 1910 papers on various issues of telecommuting in
2019 and as many as 17,100 scholarly papers until October 2022. Although research on
telework has advanced in recent years, some knowledge gaps remain. Firstly, studies on the
association between teleworking practices, and work-life balance, health, and productivity
are still scarce and inconclusive [16,17]. Telework arrangements affect workers in diverse
ways. On one side, telework offers workers more autonomy and flexibility, which usually
leads to better work-life balance [1,18,19], health [20], and work productivity [21–24]. On
the other side, there can be disadvantages: it can lead to an intensification of work, longer
working hours, and the overlapping of work and home life, which may be particularly
harmful to their work-life balance [25–28], health [25,29–32] and work productivity [33].
Therefore, the present study aims to explain these contradictory findings considering the
different approaches to telework between diverse generational of teleworkers.
An intensive study of the literature revealed another research gap. There are no
studies that address the influence of telework on all three considered aspects (well-being,
productivity, and health). To examine work-life balance, productivity, and health of each
employee involved in telework, this research provides a score-based evaluation system.
Moreover, one of the objectives of this study is to check whether there are differences
between generation groups (Baby Boomers, Generation X, Generation Y, and Generation Z)
when evaluating telework, considering the scores they reached for each of the three areas
affected by teleworking.
Examining recent studies on telework, it was found that the influence of socio-
demographic characteristics of workers on their attitudes toward telework continues to
raise questions. The second research gap is the strong need to understand the current
characteristics of teleworkers. Most current studies are focused on gender differentia-
tion [28,29,34–37]. Although some studies address this age differentiation topic [36,38–41],
they do not consider all generations of teleworkers and the differences between them.
Considering the age criterion, this study contributes to the debate on the micro-level con-
sequences of these arrangements of work, providing a qualitative and quantitative, moreSustainability 2022, 14, 16108 3 of 24
nuanced understanding of the implications of telework on different work generations of
employees [36,38,42–44].
Lastly, an important research gap is the yet insufficient understanding of telework
in Romania. Several studies address the socio-economic impact of telework in Roma-
nia [45–48]. Other studies discuss the teleworkers’ well-being [49–51], job satisfaction [52],
productivity [49], but a shortage of studies about the generational characteristics of Roma-
nian teleworkers was noticed. Nedelcu [53] studied the perspective of young people on
the effects of telework on the quality of life at work. Therefore, this scientific approach is
oriented towards a better knowledge of the effects of telework on Romanian employees, to
identify its advantages and disadvantages, and the perceived benefits and disruptions on
their well-being, productivity, and health considering the generational division.
This study aims to contribute to the elimination of these identified gaps. To support
this scope, the following objectives are stated:
1. Determining the impact of telework on work-life balance, individual productivity,
and employee health.
2. Exploring the characteristics of teleworkers considering the experiences of each gener-
ation with telework.
The paper has a structure divided into four sections. A review of the literature was
carried out in the first section. The research methodology is widely described in a separate
section, followed by the main results and discussions overview. The last part of the
paper concludes and highlights the implications of our research results, presenting study
limitations and further research directions.
2. Literature Review
Since research efforts have focused on specific manifestations of different generations
in telework processes, the literature is explored in direct connection with the proposed
objectives.
2.1. Work-Life Balance
Work-life balance is a key factor in determining employees’ participation in company
goals. A proper work-life balance is important not only for health and relationships, but can
also improve employee productivity, and finally performance. The term “work-life balance”
was first used in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s, and in the United States in 1986, and
refers to the appropriate assignment of priorities between “work” (career and ambition)
and “lifestyle” (health, pleasure, leisure, family, and spiritual development [54]). Work-life
balance is even more of a struggle in the 21st century since many people work extended
hours, have additional part-time jobs, and have family responsibilities [55]. Therefore, any
organization’s managers need to learn how to help employees in balancing the boundaries
between work and home life. Eurofound study from 2017 [56] presents the factors which
can influence work-life balance: flexibility and autonomy, working hours and working
time quality, work intensity and workload, and the boundary between work and home. An
analysis of the existing studies about teleworking reveals some benefits and downsides for
work-life balance. The literature highlights several benefits such as higher job satisfaction,
more realistic perceptions of performance, reduced intentions to leave the organization,
and decreased levels of job-related stress for teleworkers [42–45]. Jamal et al.’s [57] study
found that job autonomy and family-supportive supervisory behaviors have significant
positive direct and indirect effects on work-life balance and job satisfaction. Work-life
balance also gives freedom for employees to manage their care responsibilities (such as
visiting a public authority or attending a medical appointment during core hours) [46–48]
and empowers employees to adjust the place and time of work to their individual needs.
For some individuals, remote working has provided a release from the restrictions of office-
based hours and more flexibility [58–60], saving commuting time [61,62], and a lower rate
of work-to-life conflict [63]. Sufficient technology resources positively influence employeesSustainability 2022, 14, 16108 4 of 24
work-life balance and further better productivity and performance and job satisfaction, as
Jamal et al. [64] found in their study.
Undoubtedly, teleworking gives workers higher levels of autonomy and flexibility,
but downsides for work-life balance should also be considered: time management and
scheduling can be an issue because there is no clear difference between weekdays and week-
ends [59], blurring of boundaries between working time and private time [65]. Separating
work from private life, missing out on or neglecting family activities because work interferes
with their personal life, and interruptions by children and family members can be challeng-
ing for teleworkers [1,56,60,66] and increased levels of work intensity [10,59], [67–69]. Some
studies mention that working from home determines higher levels of stress [70,71] which
affect satisfaction with life. Hayes [71] also presented work-related burnout as a negative
aspect of teleworking considering communication, collaboration, and time management
with colleagues via technologies as important challenges.
2.2. Productivity
OECD [72] agrees that telework has been an essential measure to sustain economies
and production during the COVID-19 crisis. A policy brief released by the European
Commission in 2020 highlighted that working from home under normal conditions has
the potential to boost employees‘ productivity, whilst benefiting from a healthy work-life
balance. Nevertheless, considering its widespread and fast extension among employees
and companies, not always prepared to effectively implement it during these exceptional
circumstances, the impact on productivity is still elusive. The Eurofound study from
2020 [10] suggests that productivity is influenced not only by the employee’s abilities
or attitude but also by some organizational peculiarities, such as communication, work
management, or technology upgrade and usage within its internal processes.
2.3. Health
The Eurofound study from 2013 [73] has shown that people’s working schedules and
level of work flexibility affect their health. The health outcomes are related to general
health, well-being, and psychosocial symptoms. Telework has recognized effects on health,
although the overall impact on health is neither well-known nor consensual [74,75]. Most
empirical work reports positive and negative consequences but there has been little analysis
of the trade-offs associated with telework and its net benefits or costs [65]. While avoiding
the office and staying socially distant was crucial to stopping the spread of the virus
during the pandemic and still is for regular diseases, working from home can bring along
other health concerns. According to Tavares [65], the health problems associated with
telework belong to four categories: musculoskeletal problems, isolation and depression,
stress and overwork, and others such as metabolic, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, or
fertility disorders. Despite all these health issues, positive effects on health accrue from
reducing the stress [76,77] of the daily home-work commute. People who work from home
are less likely to be overweight and are more active due to their better health habits. The
lack of commute leaves more free time for exercise and healthier meals.
2.4. Generational Groups and Teleworking
Generational researchers consider that people who grew up with similar environmen-
tal conditions, such as political events, economic situations, and technological changes,
will have related outlooks [78,79]. The literature establishes four generations in the current
workforce: Baby Boomers, Gen Xers, Millennials (Gen Yers), and Gen Zers with different
values and preferences. The differences between these groups influence attitudes which
may bring challenges in managing such a diverse workforce [80]. It is important to note that
different sources may have slightly varied timeframes that define the birth years (typically
a 15-year cycle) for each generation.
Baby Boomers (born between 1946 and 1964) are active in the workplace. Although
they are nearing retirement age, it is predicted they are seeking to stay in work thatSustainability 2022, 14, 16108 5 of 24
“provides satisfaction and fulfilment” [81]. Baby Boomers often hold respective leadership
roles as employees [39].
Members of Generation X (born between 1965 and 1980) are the first generation of
computer-literate workers since most have used technology since grade school [82]. As [39]
mentioned, they may be senior employees in an organization or play a significant role in
the succession plan of boomers who are retiring. Gen Xers are less loyal and committed,
“feel that making money is not as important as experiencing life” [82] (p. 42), and want
flexible work schedules [83]. Global insight firm [84] found that, even if they are most
concerned about the financial impact of COVID-19, more than half of Gen Xers think it is
more convenient to work from home during these times, enjoy the freedom of being able to
work anywhere, and do not mind staying inside their homes for long periods of time.
The Millennials or Generation Y (born from 1981 to 1999) is the largest cohort group in
the working world [81,85]. Millennial generational groups may acquire different viewpoints
toward new means of working [42]. For example, Strauss [86] described Millennials as
being more positive than Gen Xers, cooperative team players, and accepting of authority.
They anticipate having to work over 40 h a week to maintain their lifestyles [80] but showed
the desire for balance between work and family life, meaningful work, and autonomy [87].
Nearly half of employed Millennials, said they have never worked remotely before the
pandemic [88].
The youngest workforce generation is Generation Z (born after 2001) [40]. Generation
Z is the first digital generation entering the labour market and will cause an important
generational shift within the workplace [89]. Exponents of this generation are used to being
very skilled and practical when considering technology [1]. In terms of working skills, they
could learn faster and be more efficient than their colleagues because of their flexibility
and autonomy [41]. Global insight firm [84] found that Generation Z exponents are less
productive when they work from home compared to coming into the office because they
are more distracted. They would like to attend the office because they enjoy interacting
with their co-workers and find it far easier to communicate and share ideas in person.
3. Research Methodology
This research includes qualitative and quantitative components. Bryman [90] argued
that integrating quantitative and qualitative research can be used for instrument devel-
opment. This refers to contexts in which qualitative research is employed to develop a
questionnaire and the scale items. This study used qualitative research before quantitative
to better word more comprehensive closed answers.
In the qualitative stage, researchers investigated the effects of teleworking on different
generations using in-depth semi-structured interviews. Based on the respondents’ answers,
a questionnaire was developed for the quantitative part of the research to investigate the
impact of telework on work-life balance, productivity, and health, using a larger sample.
Figure 1 reveals the plan for both stages. In the following, the two methods will be explained
separately.
3.1. Stage 1, the Qualitative Research
3.1.1. Participants in Qualitative Research
For the qualitative research, participants had to fulfil at least one of the following crite-
ria: (1) having experienced teleworking for at least 2 years, (2) coordinating employees who
telework, (3) being a high-performing teleworker rated by their supervisors. Participants
were recruited through publicity among the researchers’ network and on social media.Sustainability
Sustainability 2022, 14,2022,
x FOR14,PEER
16108REVIEW 6 of 25 6 of 24
•Stage 1
•in depth,
Qualitative semi-
structured
interview
•Stage 2
Quatitative •online
questionnaire
Results and
discussions
Conclusions
Figure Figure
1. Study
1. design.
Study design.
3.1.2.
3.1. Stage Procedure
1, the of Qualitative
Qualitative Research Research
The qualitative
3.1.1. Participants in Qualitative research took place in March–April 2022. In this study, 16 people
Research
arethe
For selected as interviewees
qualitative and after 14had
research, participants interviews,
to fulfil attheleast
researchers
one of theconcluded
following that the
criteria: (1) having experienced teleworking for at least 2 years, (2) coordinating employ- sam-
data collection reached theoretical saturation. Theoretical saturation was a basis for
ple selection [91] although saturation is no longer considered important in qualitative
ees who telework, (3) being a high-performing teleworker rated by their supervisors. Par-
research [92]
ticipants were recruited through publicity among the researchers’ network and on social
In-depth semi-structured interviews were used to generate data. Interviews lasted for
media.
about 55 min and were recorded by digital devices. To observe ethical considerations, at
the beginning of the interviews, the participants were provided with information about the
3.1.2. Procedure of Qualitative Research
purpose of the study, interview procedure, privacy, and their rights regarding participation
The
or qualitative research took
lack of participation. place
The timein and
March–April
place of 2022. In thiswere
interviews study, 16 people are
determined with the
selected as interviewees and after 14 interviews, the researchers
coordination and agreement of the participants so that there is no disturbance concluded that theindata
their daily
collection
life. reached
Most of theoretical
the interviews saturation. Theoretical saturation
were administrated by phone.was Theaprinciple
basis for of
sample se-
confidentiality
lectionof[91] although saturation is no longer considered
all information was strictly implemented at all stages. important in qualitative research
[92] The first questions were designed to ‘warm up’ the participants. There were discus-
In-depth
sions about semi-structured
how the teleworkinginterviews wereinused
activity to generate
general. data. Interviews
The discussion topics werelasted
established
for about 55 min and were recorded by digital devices. To observe ethical
considering the presented literature review. For the work-life balance topic, the following considerations,
at the beginning of the interviews,
themes, excerpts the participants
from the Eurofound 2017 were
reportprovided
[56], were with information
considered: about and
flexibility
the purpose of the study, interview procedure, privacy, and their
autonomy, working hours and working time quality, work intensity and workload, andrights regarding partic-
ipationtheorboundary
lack of participation.
between work Theand
time and The
home. placeinterviews
of interviews were determined
continued with about
with discussions
the coordination
productivity and agreement
during of the participants
teleworking, consideringso that
the therethat
factors is no disturbance
influence in their in the
it presented
daily life. Most of 2020
Eurofound the interviews
report [10]: were administrated
organizational by phone. Thework
communication, principle of confiden-
management, and tech-
tiality nology
of all information
usage within wasitsstrictly
internalimplemented
processes. As at for
all stages.
the health component, the respondents
The
hadfirst questionstheir
to evaluate werestate
designed to ‘warm
of health duringup’ the participants.
teleworking There the
and present were discus-health
possible
sions about
problems howthey
the had
teleworking
due to this activity
type ofinwork.
general. The discussion topics were estab-
lished considering the were
Interviews presented literature
listened review.
to as soon For the work-life
as possible and written balance
wordtopic, the fol-
by word. For data
lowinganalysis,
themes, the content
excerpts analysis
from method was
the Eurofound 2017used. These
report [56],stages
were included
considered:theflexibility
following steps.
First, the entire
and autonomy, workinginterview
hours wasand written.
workingThe timeentire interview
quality, worktext was read
intensity andtoworkload,
obtain a general
and the understanding.
boundary between Basic work
units and codes
home. were identified. continued
The interviews Similar codes withwere classified and
discussions
about productivity during teleworking, considering the factors that influence it presentedin the Eurofound 2020 report [10]: organizational communication, work management, and
technology usage within its internal processes. As for the health component, the respond-
ents had to evaluate their state of health during teleworking and present the possible
health problems they had due to this type of work.
Interviews were listened to as soon as possible and written word by word. For data
Sustainability 2022, 14, 16108 7 of 24
analysis, the content analysis method was used. These stages included the following steps.
First, the entire interview was written. The entire interview text was read to obtain a gen-
eral understanding. Basic units and codes were identified. Similar codes were classified
placed in more
and placed in general classes.classes.
more general The guidelines provided
The guidelines by Guestby
provided et Guest
al. [93],etwho propose
al. [93], who
topropose
focus ontoso-called
focus onhigh-frequency codes in data
so-called high-frequency codification,
codes followed when
in data codification, presenting
followed when
the final datathe
presenting coding
final structures
data coding (Figures 2–4).(Figures 2–4).
structures
Flexibility and flexible work
autonomy arrangements (11)
less collaboration and
communication with
managers/teammates (9)
Working hours and
working time quality working against time
(different timezone than
teammates) (3)
difficulities in taking
WORK-LIFE BALANCE vacation time (2)
not being able to unplug
(5)
Work intensity and
workload
lack of motivation to
work (4)
distractions at home (10)
tiredness after work to
do household work (10)
The boundary between
work and home
conflicts with family
members (7)
loneliness/isolation (6)
Figure2.2.Results
Figure Resultsofofdata
datacoding:
coding:Implications
Implicationson
onteleworkers
teleworkerswork-life
work-lifebalance.
balance.Sustainability 2022,14,
Sustainability2022, 14,16108
x FOR PEER REVIEW 88 of
of 24
25
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 25
efficient meetings
(8)
efficient meetings
(8)
Organisational minimal office
communication politics (5)
Organisational minimal office
communication politics (5)
fewer interruptions
(4)
fewer interruptions
(4)
no commuting (12)
no commuting (12) arrangement of
PRODUCTIVITY workspace (10)
comfortable clothes arrangement of
PRODUCTIVITY Work management workspace (10)
(11)
comfortable clothes
Work management lighting (6)
(11)
conditions of lighting (6)
telework place
conditions of
telework place noise level (3)
support from noise level (3)
employer
supportin the case
from personalized office
Technology usage of the malfunction
employer in the case environment
personalized (3)
office
Technology usage ofofthe
themalfunction
hardware or
software (13)or environment (3)
of the hardware
software (13)
Figure3.3.Results
Figure Resultsof
ofdata
datacoding:
coding:Implications
Implicationson
onteleworkers
teleworkersproductivity.
productivity.
Figure 3. Results of data coding: Implications on teleworkers productivity.
musculoskeletal problems
musculoskeletal
(11)problems
(11)
stress and overwork (8)
stress and overwork (8)
Health problems during
HEALTH Health problems
HEALTH teleworkduring
telework metabolic, cardiovascular,
metabolic, cardiovascular,
and gastrointestinal
and gastrointestinal
disorders (6)
disorders (6)
isolation and depression (4)
isolation and depression (4)
Figure
Figure4.4. Results
4.Results of data
Resultsof
of data coding:
coding: Implications
Implications onteleworkers
teleworkers health.
Figure data coding: Implications on
on teleworkershealth.
health.
3.1.3.
3.1.3. Findings
3.1.3.Findings
Findings
The
The topics
Thetopics consideredduring
topicsconsidered
considered duringthe
during theinterviews
interviewscontributed
contributedto
contributed toformulating
to formulating
formulating the
the
the questions
questions
questions
from
from the
fromthe quantitative
thequantitative research,while
quantitative research,
research, whilethe
while theidentified
identifiedcodes
identified codesand
codes andsubcodes
and subcodesrepresented
subcodes represented
represented the
the
the
basis
basis for
for
basis for draw-up
draw-up the
the answer
answer variants
variants in
answer variants inin the
the quantitative
quantitative research
research questionnaire.
questionnaire.
quantitative research questionnaire.
Legend: Blue box presents the themes. Orange boxes present the sub-themes. Green
boxes present the codes. Light green boxes present the sub-codes. Figures in brackets reflectSustainability 2022, 14, 16108 9 of 24
the frequency of mentioning (number of times a specific code was mentioned by the study
participants).
3.2. Stage 2, the Quantitative Research
3.2.1. Participants in Quatitative Research
The quantitative research was based on a sample of 1098 respondents. The inclusion
criteria were as follows: 1. employees who worked full-time, part-time, or occasionally on
teleworking in the last three years; 2. interest in participation. Before the study, necessary
explanations about responding and the purpose of the study were provided, and by
emphasizing the privacy of information, they were asked to answer the questions honestly.
Sample determination used a convenience sampling method.
3.2.2. Procedure of Quatitative Research
A questionnaire made up of 19 questions, measured on different scales, was used
(Appendix A). The research team generated the questionnaire in Google Forms. A pilot test
was performed with ten persons to assure clarity and internal coherence. Following the pilot
test, the questionnaire was accordingly finalized. The questionnaires were administered
between May 15 and June 15, 2022. For the data analysis, the researchers used Microsoft
Excel 365, the Data Analysis module, and its extension the RealStatistics module.
In line with the first objective set in the introduction, determining the impact of
telework on work-life balance, individual productivity, and employee health, we issue the
following hypothesis:
H0 : There are no differences between age groups (Generation Z, Y, X, or Baby boomers) concerning
the satisfaction level towards telework, scored for each of the three areas under observation: work-life
balance, productivity, and health.
H1 : There are differences between age groups (Generation Z, Y, X, or Baby boomers) concerning the
satisfaction level towards telework, scored for each of the three areas under observation: work-life
balance, productivity, and health.
The second objective set in the introduction (exploring the characteristics of telework-
ers considering the experiences of each generation with telework) is a descriptive objective
that does not need a hypothesis [94,95].
3.2.3. Results and Discussions
Considering the descriptive statistics of our participants, of the sample of 1098 re-
spondents, 72.95.2% were female, and 27.05% male. Most of them were Generation Y
respondents (age group 26–40 years old), 15.57% were Generation X exponents (41–55 years
old), 6.56% were Generation Z exponents (18–25 years old), and 4.10% were Baby Boomers
(56 plus years old). Given the education qualification, 45.9% of the respondents had mas-
ter’s degrees, and 39.34% had bachelor’s degrees. Most respondents work in education
(22.95%), IT (17.21%), or industry/production (11.48%). A total of 10.66% of respondents
work in marketing/sales, the distribution of the other respondents being as follows: cus-
tomer service (9.48%), finance-accounting (6.56%), administration/management (6.56%),
human resources (4.92%), consulting (3.28%). Analysing the respondents according to their
family situation, 36.07% live with their partner and do not have children, 56.56% live with
their partner and one or more children, 6.56% are single parents with children, and 0.80%
live alone. There is no data available on the distribution of teleworkers in Romania during
the pandemic; therefore, it is impossible to tell if this sample reflects the characteristics of
the teleworkers’ population in Romania.
To find out more about the previous and the present respondents’ experience regarding
teleworking, as well as the future intention to continue with teleworking, three questions
were introduced. The respondents had to evaluate their teleworking experience before
March 2020: 36.07% of them have never worked remotely before while 35.25% worked
occasionally remotely. A total of 28.69% of the respondents worked remotely on a full-timeSustainability 2022, 14, 16108 10 of 24
or part-time basis. If we consider the division into generations, 75% of Generation Z
respondents worked remotely on a full-time basis before March 2020, 41.11% of Generation
Y respondents worked occasionally remotely, and 23.34% worked remotely on a full-time
or part-time basis. Generation X respondents know better this kind of work arrangement:
57.9% of them worked occasionally, full-time, or part-time remotely. The percentage of
those who have never worked remotely is the highest for Baby Boomers respondents, 60%
of them did not experience teleworking.
Since March 2020, 20.16% of the respondents worked full-time teleworking and 39.84%
worked part-time teleworking (sometimes from home, sometimes from the office). A total
of 79.59% of the respondents who worked full-time on teleworking since March 2020 are
exponents of Generation Y. Regarding respondents’ expectation to continue the current
teleworking style over the next 12 months, 47.54%-of them say they will continue. A total of
36.89% of the 366 respondents who expect to continue the current teleworking style over the
next 12 months are exponents of Generation Y. Out of the 34.43% of total respondents who
do not know yet, 23.77% are also Generation Y respondents. The rest of the respondents
(18.03%) say they will not continue with the current teleworking style.
To examine the work-life balance, productivity, and health of each employee involved
in telework, a score-based evaluation system was introduced for a predefined set of areas
of interest (Table 1), with the reference elements derived from the qualitative research and
literature analysis presented above.
Table 1. Telework Satisfaction Assessment System.
Field of Interest Variables Response Category Score
Telework helped me to create more flexible work arrangements Strongly agree 1
I have more family conflicts during teleworking Strongly disagree 1
For me, teleworking mean loss of social and professional interaction Strongly disagree 1
The ability to work remotely makes me happier Strongly agree 1
Working remotely makes me better able to balance work with
Strongly agree 1
personal life
Work-life balance
Struggles with working remotely I find no struggle in working remotely 1
I worry about work when not working Never 1
I am too tired after work to do household work Never 1
My job prevents giving time to my family Never 1
Hard to concentrate on job because of family Never 1
Family prevents giving time to my job Never 1
Are you more productive working remotely from home or in a
More productive in a home office 1
traditional office space?
Arrangement of workspace at home (e.g., having a working desk,
the position of the desk, having a working chair, position of the Much better 1
computer, etc.)
Lighting in your home working space Much better 1
Productivity
Noise levels around your home working space Much better 1
Availability of a separate room for working at home YES 1
Receiving support from employer in the case of the malfunction of
YES 1
the hardware or software necessary for remote working
Job satisfaction during the teleworking period 5 1
I feel less motivated to work as a teleworker Strongly disagree 1Sustainability 2022, 14, 16108 11 of 24
Table 1. Cont.
Field of Interest Variables Response Category Score
Self-assess of health during the telework period (1-lowest grade,
10 1
10-highest grade)
Health The ability to work remotely makes me less stressed Strongly agree 1
Encourage others to work remotely YES 1
Rate current feelings toward teleworking I love teleworking! 1
Source: Data processed by authors.
The maximum number of points a respondent could have obtained according to the
calculation methodology presented above is 23, distributed as follows: work-life balance
category (11 points), productivity category (8 points), and health category (4 points). The
scores were analysed based on the respondents’ belonging to each age group (Generation
Z, Y, X, or Baby Boomers) (Table 2).
Table 2. Score analysis based on the respondents’ belonging to a certain age group (Generation Z, Y,
X, or Baby Boomers).
Sample Size
Total Score Work-Life Balance Score Productivity Score Health Score
midpoint.
midpoint
midpoint
midpoint
StdDev.
StdDev.
StdDev.
StdDev.
Age
max
max
max
max
avg.
avg.
avg.
avg.
min
min
min
min
Group
Generation
72 2 16 9 4.26 9 0 9 4 2.25 3.5 1 8 3 1.74 3 1 4 2 0.98 1.5
Z
Generation
810 0 19 5 3.97 4 0 10 2 2.31 1 0 8 2 1.5 2 0 4 1 1.03 1
Y
Generation
171 1 15 4 3.92 3 0 7 2 2.19 1 0 6 2 1.46 2 0 2 1 0.77 1
X
Baby
45 1 14 7 4.37 5 0 7 3 2.39 2 1 4 2 0.99 3 0 3 1 1.03 1
Boomers
Total re-
1098 0 19 5 4.13 4 0 10 2 2.42 1 0 8 2 1.53 2 0 4 1 1.02 1
spondents
Source: Data processed by authors.
The highest total score is obtained by a Generation Y respondent (19 points) and the
lowest total score is also obtained by a Generation Y respondent (0 points). The average
total score is 5 points (SD = 4.13). None of the respondents reached the maximum number
of points (23). Further on, an α score was calculated, to indicate the positioning of the
gross score against the average, according to the number of standard deviations. In our
case, 35.25% of the respondents have overall scores lower than the average score (5 points),
while 64.75% have total scores higher than the average score. Given the four generational
categories considered, the average total scores are as follows: 9 points (Generation Z
respondents), 7 points (Baby Boomers’ respondents), 5 points (Generation Y respondents),
4 points (Generation X respondents). We can say that the satisfaction level regarding
teleworking of those from Generation Z (9 points) and Baby Boomers (7 points) is, on
average, higher than that of the other two generations (Generation Y-5 points and X-4
points). The standard deviation for the total score is high and indicates that there is more
variation in the data.
To broaden the analysis, one-sample t-tests were used to find if the average for each
generation is significantly higher or lower than the average or the midpoint (Table 3).Sustainability 2022, 14, 16108 12 of 24
Table 3. One-sample t-tests.
Total Score Work-Life Score Productivity Score Health Score
Age Group
Test Statistic t p-Value Test Statistic t p-Value Test Statistic t p-Value Test Statistic t p-Value
Generation Z −0.50 0.62 1.81 0.07 1.85 0.07 2.16 0.03
Generation Y 6.67 0.00 11.58 0.00 3.98 0.00 0.55 0.58
Generation X 4.40 0.00 0.00 1.00 −1.43 0.15 −3.57 0.00
Baby
2.46 0.02 2.81 0.01 −5.42 0.00 2.61 0.01
Boomers
An alpha level of 0.05 was considered for the data interpretation. We are therefore in a
situation where the average total score for Generation Z is statistically different than the
midpoint. The average of work-life and productivity scores for Generation Z and X are
statistically different than the midpoint and the average health score for Generation Y is
statistically different than the midpoint.
Next, the results were connected with three major areas of interest in relation to
telework, namely: work-life balance, productivity, and health. Regarding the work-life
balance results, the average work-life balance scores are as follows: 4 points (Generation Z
respondents), 3 points (Baby Boomers’ respondents), 2 points (Generation Y respondents),
and 2 points (Generation X respondents). The standard deviation for the work-life balance
score is high and indicates that there is more variation in the data. Calculating the α scores
we can say that 32.79% of the respondents have work-life balance scores lower than the
average score (2 points), while 67.21% have work-life balance scores higher than the average
score of the category.
Considering average productivity scores, these are 3 points (Generation Z respon-
dents), 2 points (Baby Boomers’ respondents), 2 points (Generation Y respondents), and
2 points (Generation X respondents) whereas the average score of this category is 2 points.
The standard deviation for the productivity score is low and indicates that there is lower
data variability, and the mean is more reliable. The determined α scores indicate that
34.43% of the respondents have productivity balance scores lower than the average score
(2 points), while 65.57% have productivity balance scores higher than the average score of
the category.
The average health scores are 2 points (Generation Z respondents), 1 point (Baby
Boomers’ respondents), 1 point (Generation Y respondents), and 1 point (Generation X
respondents) whereas the average score of this category is 1 point. The standard deviation
for the health score is low and indicates that there is lower data variability, and the mean is
more reliable. The α scores reveal that 25.41% of the respondents have work-life balance
scores lower than the average score (1 point), while 74.59% have work-life balance scores
higher than the average score of the category.
To check whether there are differences between generation groups (Baby Boomers,
Generation X, Generation Y, and Generation Z) when evaluating telework, considering
the scores they reached for each of the three areas affected by teleworking, the Kruskal–
Wallis test was performed. A significance level of 95% (pSustainability 2022, 14, 16108 13 of 24
Table 4. Results obtained by applying the Kruskal–Wallis test.
Field of Interest Generation Group n Mean Rank Chi-Square p H
Generation Z 72 84.25
Generation X 810 150.23 7.815 0.000 20.853
Work-life Balance Score
Generation Y 171 168.05
Baby Boomers 45 110.80
Generation Z 72 82.75
Generation X 810 145.60 7.815 0.001 14.913
Productivity Score
Generation Y 171 173.58
Baby Boomers 45 134.80
Generation Z 72 58.75
Generation X 810 130.00 7.815 0.000 16.393
Health Score
Generation Y 171 145.16
Baby Boomers 45 96.40
Source: Authors own contribution based on data generated by Excel RealStatistics software.
Considering 4—1 degree of freedom and an alpha level of 0.05, the critical chi-square
value is 7.815. The critical chi-square value is less than the H statistic for each of the
three areas affected by teleworking, namely work-life balance, productivity, and health.
We are therefore in a situation where we can reject the null hypothesis set out above in
the Research Methodology, which leads us to the conclusion that there are significant
differences between generation groups in terms of the scores they have reached for each
of the three areas affected by telework: work-life balance, health, and productivity. The
results of the one-sample t-tests performed above (Table 3) support this result.
The satisfaction towards teleworking achieved by Generation Z and Baby Boomers
is, on average, higher than that of the other two considered generations. By analysing the
relationship between each generation of employees and the scores obtained for the three
categories of variables (work-life balance, individual productivity, and health), we may
conclude that Generation Z is the most satisfied. This finding aligns with Bhaskara Mulya
Marhadi and Fajar Hendarman [38], arguing that Generation Z is the easier to adapt to
teleworking, while the workforce is shifting as Generation Z started to enter work.
Regarding work-life balance perceptions, the majority of the respondents (64.75%)
appreciate that telework helped them to create more flexible work arrangements. This
finding aligns with the Jamal et al. [57,64] Rodríguez-Modroño and López-Igual [17],
Eurofound study from 2017 [41], and Tremblay [97], where flexible work arrangement
was the main factor that can influence work-life balance. About 80% of Baby Boomers
respondents agree with this perspective. Percentages are also high for the remaining
respondents: 78.95% for Generation X, 62.5% for Generation Z, and 61.11% for Generation
Y. While this study shows that Baby Boomers are the most likely to prefer flexible work
arrangements, Cordeniz’s [83] results consider that Generation X are the ones that mostly
prefer it. However, the difference between the percentages obtained by Baby Boomers and
Generation X are close and the results of the mentioned study can be accepted.
The respondents had to evaluate the volume of family conflicts during teleworking.
A total of 35.25% strongly disagree, and 26.23% disagree with the increasing number of
family conflicts during teleworking. All the Baby Boomers respondents (100%) say that
they did not have more family conflicts during teleworking. An explanation for this result
can be that Baby Boomers “acknowledge the importance of work-life balance” [98] (p. 89).
The study presented by Kapianen-Heiskanen [36] also suggests that older age groups had
less difficulty reconciling family and work. Generation Z respondents are also not affected
to such an extent by this subject, as 87.50% disagree or strongly disagree that they hadSustainability 2022, 14, 16108 14 of 24
more family conflicts during the teleworking time. Approximately 43% of Generation Y
and Generation X respondents mention that there were family conflicts during teleworking.
According to Ojala et al. [99], family type is something to consider when analysing work-life
balance during teleworking. Couples with children work in their free time more often than
other household types. This informal overtime strongly correlates with increased conflict
over the allocation of time for family. Our results show that 62.22% of Generation Y and
84.22% of Generation X have one or more children.
All generations experience the influence of losing social and professional interaction
during teleworking periods. This reinforces the call of other previous research to better
understand the role of social and professional interaction during teleworking [33,82–88].
The more concerned are Generation X respondents (52.63%) who agree or strongly agree
regarding this subject, followed by Generation Y respondents (50%), Generation Z (37.50%),
and Baby Boomers (20%). The results align with Fujii [44] who stated that Generation Y
and Generation Z do not value as much social interaction in the workplace which is in
opposition to the one found by Raišienė et al. [43] where Baby Boomers are the ones that
feel more the lack of face-to-face interaction while teleworking.
Generation Z respondents perceive relying on Wi-Fi and technology as a struggle
when working remotely. An explanation could be that exponents of this generation are
not skilled and practical when considering technology [100]. The results show as well that
Generation Z is not able to detach themselves from work issues outside the usual schedule.
They are concerned about distractions that may affect their focus on their work tasks.
Generation Y envisions collaboration and communication with managers or teammates
as a struggle. For Generation X, their main concerns are the inability to detach from work
issues outside the usual schedule and external distractions that may affect focus on work
tasks. Baby Boomers’ difficulties during teleworking are mainly the collaboration and
communication with managers or team-mates, and not being able to detach themselves
from work issues outside the usual schedule. The ability of a teleworker to detach from
work issues outside the usual schedule is also discussed by Raišienė et al. [43]. The authors
consider that Generation Y encounters challenges related to self-organization and following
work routines. The results of the present study contradict the previously mentioned study,
Generation X and Baby Boomers being the ones that are more affected by the difficulty to
detach themselves from work issues outside the usual schedule, mostly because they lack
self-organization.
Respondents’ perceptions of individual productivity during telework were also inves-
tigated. The results show that the main factors contributing to higher perceived productivity
among remote workers are the following: a more personalized office environment (76%
of the sample members), reduced stress from commuting (68%), quieter noise level (60%),
and fewer interruptions from colleagues (56%). These findings are in congruence with
the work of Montreuil and Lippel [101] who argued that working from home provides
an environment that favours better concentration, less noise, fewer interruptions, more
privacy, and better air quality. Moreover, in some other opinions, having greater schedule
flexibility improves better teleworkers work-life balance [102–106].
Considering individual productivity during telework, Generation Z, Y, and Baby
Boomers are highly satisfied with their job during teleworking, while Generation X is
just satisfied with their job during teleworking. This confirms the literature which has
established a significant increase in productivity while teleworking. The results align
with Vitry [107] who conducted several case studies from a variety of small and large
organizations. His findings demonstrate the capabilities of the telework program to increase
the employee’s productivity by 96%. Increased productivity while teleworking was also
stated by del Carmen Gutiérrez-Diez [108].
Subsequently, this current study investigates the main incentives for higher individual
productivity. Generation Z considers the lack of commuting as the main incentive for their
higher individual productivity. For Generation Y, a more personalized office environment
is the main reason for being productive while teleworking, while Generation X appreciateszations. His findings demonstrate the capabilities of the telework program to increase the
employee’s productivity by 96%. Increased productivity while teleworking was also
stated by del Carmen Gutiérrez-Diez [108].
Subsequently, this current study investigates the main incentives for higher individ-
Sustainability 2022, 14, 16108 ual productivity. Generation Z considers the lack of commuting as the main incentive for
15 of 24
their higher individual productivity. For Generation Y, a more personalized office envi-
ronment is the main reason for being productive while teleworking, while Generation X
appreciates
both the lack both the lack of commuting
of commuting and a more and a more personalized
personalized office environment.
office environment. Baby BoomersBaby
Boomers consider that fewer interruptions from colleagues, quieter noise
consider that fewer interruptions from colleagues, quieter noise levels, and a more person- levels, and a
more personalized office environment are the main incentive for higher
alized office environment are the main incentive for higher individual productivity. This individual
productivity.
reinforces theThiscall reinforces the call to better
to better understand understand
the incentives the incentives
of teleworkers forof teleworkers
higher individualfor
higher individual
productivity productivity
considering considering
the influence the influence of socio-demographic
of socio-demographic character-
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istics of workers
by Raišien ė et al.set by Raišienė et al. [43].
[43].
In
Ingeneral,
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respondents to the studystudy declared
declaredthemselves
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satisfiedwith
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tivity during telework. However, a number of 1188 responses were provided
ity during telework. However, a number of 1188 responses were provided for the question for the ques-
tion related
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whywhytheythey are satisfied
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feel less less productive
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ries underneath
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disruptive working environment (caused by family and household responsibilities),
ruptive working environment (caused by family and household responsibilities), and and
high technology requirements are the main elements that can have a negative
high technology requirements are the main elements that can have a negative impact on impact on
individual productivity. These results are converging with those obtained in previous
research by Eurofound study from 2020 [109] and International Labour Organization [110].
Regarding the overall health condition during telework, 18.85% of respondents, most
of them part of Generation Y (80.95%), consider that they have perfect health during
telework time. The shares of respondents who consider themselves perfectly healthy
were lower in the case of the other generations (Generation X 7.91%, Generation Z 5.25%,
Generation Baby Boomer 5.90%). Respondents who scored below 10 for their health self-
evaluation, were invited to indicate whether they had health problems due to telework.
This construct was based on Tavares’s [65] research, previously mentioned within this
paper, according to whom health problems associated with telework can be grouped into
four categories: musculoskeletal problems, isolation and depression, stress and overwork,
and others such as metabolic, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, or fertility disorders. The
results of the qualitative research presented above reconfirmed Tavares’ study.
This research produced multiple novel findings, thus extending the current body of
knowledge on teleworkers’ health problems and analysing them according to the generation
they belong to. The analysis performed, summarized in Figure 6, shows that the majority
of those who worked in telework (79.80%) presented musculoskeletal problems. This is
the main health problem reported by each generation. A total of 54.55% of Generation Z
respondents, 44.35% of Generation Y respondents, half of Generation X respondents, and
all Baby Boomers respondents (100.00%) stated that they have experienced musculoskeletal
problems during teleworking.You can also read
