The 1871 Anti-Chinese massacre in Los Angeles, and Anti-Asian American antipathies during the COVID-19 pandemic
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Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Advance Publication by J-STAGE
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
The 1871 Anti-Chinese massacre in Los Angeles, and Anti-
Asian American antipathies during the COVID-19 pandemic
Gracyn CUBBAGE and Barbra Mann WALL
University of Virginia School of Nursing, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
Abstract
Aim: This paper examines the 1871 massacre against the Chinese people in Los Angeles, leading us to
reconsider that massacre and relate it to the numerous hate crimes committed against Asian Americans today.
Methods: The methods used were historical research and analysis of the social, cultural, and political contexts
of the Asian Massacre in the 1870s, 1880s, and 1890s.
Results: Overall, the 1871 Anti-Chinese Massacre was a devastating event that resulted in multiple deaths. It
provides a useful lens for comparing current acts of racism against Asians since the COVID-19 pandemic
began.
Conclusions: The United States has a long history of racist ideologies that have pushed social and political
agendas to maintain power. From the grand jury’s failure to punish the murderers involved in the 1871 Chinese
Massacre to political leaders posting racist tweets on social media in 2020, it is important to remember that
hatred will always seek a public platform from which to spread. Nurses and in key positions to keep this from
happening.
Key words: Anti-Asian violence, 1871 Anti-Chinese massacre, disaster, COVID-19
For months, officials at the highest levels of the United women of Asian descent, is a recent example. Indeed, the
States government referred to the global Coronavirus United States is no stranger to racism or placing blame on
Disease 2019 (COVID-19), as the “China virus,” and others for disasters, as evidenced by the fact that the 1918
“Kung Flu.”1 This baseless claim evokes an earlier attack Influenza epidemic is still commonly called the “Spanish
in 1871 against the Chinese people in Los Angeles, Influenza.” As such, it is no surprise that the spread of the
leading us to reconsider that massacre and relate it to the coronavirus also spread hatred towards Chinese Ameri-
numerous hate crimes committed against Asian Ameri- cans and Asian Americans in general. Hate crimes
cans today. A reexamination of the Anti-Chinese including verbal harassment, shunning, physical assault,
massacre of 1871 seems especially relevant at the time and civil rights violations all increased in 2020 to a
of this writing, the spring of 2021, because it is a critical degree that an organization called Stop Asian American
point during the COVID-19 pandemic that has spread Pacific Islander (AAPI) Hate was created to track and
around the world. Once again, the Asian American and respond to these crimes.2 Significantly, on May 20, 2021,
Pacific Islander community is being blamed. The March United States President Joseph R. Biden signed the Anti-
2021 Atlanta murder of eight people, including six Asian Hate Law.3
Remembering the Massacre
Correspondence: Barbra Mann Wall, University of Virginia School On October 28, 1871, journalist P.S. Dorney wrote an
of Nursing, 225 Jeanette Lancaster Way, Charlottesville, Virginia, article in the Los Angeles Daily News entitled, “Lynching
22903, USA. Email: bmw8y@virginia.edu the Chinese.” It described the fierce anti-Chinese feelings
Received 11 June 2021; accepted 15 June 2021; J-STAGE advance
published 27 July 2021. in Los Angeles as he related the horrifying, racially
This article is licensed under a Creative Commons motivated massacre that had occurred on Tuesday,
Attribution 4.0 International license. October 24, 1871, in Los Angeles, California. Dorney
Copyright © 2021 The Authors. Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing
published by NPO Disaster Nursing Group DOI http://doi.org/10.24298/hedn.2021-0006G. Cubbage and B. M. Wall Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Advance Publication by J-STAGE also described the perpetrators: an “Irish shoemaker and giving China a most-favored nation status.11 The known as ‘Crazy Johnson, who stood guard;’ and men of success of the treaty was short-lived, however, as anti- Mexican descent led by Jesus Martinez, who, with others, Chinese sentiment soon erupted. cut a hole in the roof of the building where Chinese According to reports written in the 1870s, 1880s, and inhabitants were hiding and shot them.4 1890s, the Anti-Chinese massacre was instigated by an In 1883, another newspaper reporter from the Los argument between two Chinese companies that were Angeles Daily Times, in “A Reminiscence,” described trying to obtain possession of a highly valued young anonymous mounds buried behind the area where the woman who was thought to belong to one of them and massacre occurred. The riot had been forgotten by then. stolen by the other. On October 23, 1871, one company Yet he quoted an older resident who recalled the mob member was shot while walking down the Calle de los attack that had occurred twelve years earlier: “The Negros in the Coronel Adobe part of town, and although difficulty arose from a quarrel between two Chinamen,” he was not killed, the shooting led to both company fired on or hanged by “motley Mexican, American and leaders calling for a major conflict. On the evening of European population[s]” who “for a long time had October 24, at 5:30 p.m., a police officer by the name of cherished the worst feelings towards the encroaching Jesus Bilderrain heard gunfire coming from the Calle, Mongolians” [italics original].5 In the aftermath, nineteen went to investigate, and ended up calling in backup.12 people of Chinese descent living in Los Angeles were The vigilantism that resulted, as people took the law into either lynched or shot. According to Victor Jew, this their own hands, was typical of the violence in the region, killing should be called the “Anti-Chinese Massacre,” based on values of personal self-redress and individu- which is the term used in this article.6 alism that had emerged in the Western frontier since Then in 1894, C. P. Dorland wrote again about the before the Civil War. In particular, white fears of job massacre, this time in the Historical Society of Southern competition had spurred a virulent anti-Chinese move- California. He began by stating, “The trouble originated ment. The 1871 Los Angeles Anti-Chinese Massacre was among the Chinese themselves.” He described the grisly one of many over the years.13 scene that followed: During the ensuing altercation on the Calle de los About 9 o’clock a party battered in the eastern end of Negros, multiple police officers and others responded, the building, and with hooting and yelling and firing of and a white civilian named Robert Thompson was pistols, the rioters rushed in and found huddled in wounded. He was taken to the nearest place for first corners or hidden behind boxes, eight terror-stricken aid, Dr. Theodore Wollweber’s drug store on Main Street, Chinamen, who, in vain, pleaded piteously for their where he died an hour later. The death of Thompson lives. They were violently dragged out and turned over spurred a mob to attack the Chinese in force, who at that to the infuriated mob.7 point had barricaded themselves in a large building. Two Dorland referred to it as “a recital of one of the most Chinese men were captured and killed as they tried to bloody and barbarous tragedies in the annals of this escape the attackers, and seventeen more were killed or state.”8 In 1870, Los Angeles had a total population of hanged once the mob broke into the building where the just under 6,000, one hundred and seventy-two of whom Chinese had tried to hide. One casualty was a Chinese were Chinese. This information is even more disturbing doctor, Chee Long Tong, who was hanged. The angry when compared to the fact that the mob who attacked the crowd also looted several thousand dollars. Dorland Chinese numbered somewhere around 500 people, more describes Sheriff Burns joining the crowd and calling for than twice the population of their target.9 “all good and law-abiding citizens to follow him to Jew notes that accounts of remembering the massacre Chinatown,” where they found the horrific effects of the as one “caused by Chinese wrongdoing were themselves lynchings and killings. Other sources relate how Judge woven with anxieties about the Chinese,” which had Robert Widney walked through the streets trying to begun in the 1860s and escalated in the 1870s, 1880s, restore order.14 and 1890s.10 The road to the Anti-Chinese massacre in In the end, a grand jury judged the cases brought about 1871 began when the United States and China concluded by the massacre and condemned the inefficiency of the the Burlingame-Seward Treaty in 1868, which aimed to police and the actions of all those involved in murdering ease immigration restrictions. While the United States innocent civilians. Paul M. De Falla notes that the names wanted access to profitable trading in China’s ports, of “the perpetrators who seemed to encourage the mob leaders promised the Chinese the right to free travel in the [were]not published by the newspapers+ .In fact, this list United States, thereby encouraging Chinese immigration seems to have completely disappeared, and is not known 2
Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Advance Publication by J-STAGE 1871 Anti-Chinese massacre
to exist today.”15 In 1872, in Judge Robert Widney’s Jew also analyzes narratives that blamed the Chinese.
court, nine of the accused received convictions of In the 1880s and 1890s, these remembrances “took shape
manslaughter and sentences of two to six years of jail at the same time that the United States Congress was
time each. Yet the state supreme court reversed the order building the statutory and administrative regime of
on a technicality, and Widney released them in 1873. Chinese Exclusion, the legal structure of immigration
While the massacre was brutal, the retreat of law also restriction that lasted from 1882 to 1943.” As well, by
occurred in the face of racial violence. As such, there has 1880, the Burlingame Treaty had been renegotiated to
been no real justice brought about for the victims of the suspend Chinese immigration. It was also during this
1871 Anti-Chinese Massacre.16 time that urban violence and anti-Chinese labor unrest
were increasing, and the perpetrators of the massacre
Context and Analysis viewed the Chinese immigrants as encroaching on the
In contextualizing the massacre, we build on the analysis territory they had already claimed. Thus, “tracing the
of Jew and De Falla, who re-examine accounts that were ultimate fault of the 1871 massacre to the Chinese
written in the 1870s, 1880s, and 1890s when preoccu- residents of Los Angeles worked the convenient retro-
pations with anti-Chinese rhetoric was increasing, and the active effect of blaming the Chinese.”21
city of Los Angeles was rewriting the history of the
embarrassing massacre. Scripts in these later years The COVID-19 Pandemic and Anti-Asian
referred to the lynchers as the habitual ruffians of the American Hate Crimes
city (the Irish, Mexicans, and other Europeans), members Overall, the 1871 Anti-Chinese Massacre was a devas-
of the dangerous classes. Indeed, an 1880 source tating event that resulted in multiple deaths. It provides a
criticized the “American ‘hoodlum’ and Mexican ‘greas- useful lens for comparing acts of racism to today. By
er,’ Irish ‘tramp’ and French ‘communist,’ all of whom 2020, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
“joined to murder and dispatch the foe.”17 Pitted against was claiming that the coronavirus was discovered in
these instigators were the white courageous heroes who Wuhan, China.22 As that information became public,
were seen as trying to stem the violence, including Sheriff tensions rose between angry, mostly white, Americans
Burns and Judge Widney.18 and Asian Americans, whether they were Chinese or
Yet the vigilante teams that erupted that night were, another East Asian or Pacific Islander ethnicity. This
in fact, multiethnic groups that included not only those conflict was not the only one to occur during the COVID-
from the margins but also the respected members of the 19 pandemic. People were fighting back against quar-
city. De Falla notes that the perpetrators were “of all antining measures and mandates about wearing masks in
nationalities,” and in 1871, five hundred of them came public, saying that such overarching mandates passed by
together to commit the massacre. The vigilantes included government officials violated their civil rights. On the
those both within and not-quite-within respectable other hand, many other Americans were protesting
society, prompting Jew to argue: “white Angelenos” violence by police against Black people and calling for
were not “static identities;” rather, identity effects “that equal civil rights as part of the Black Lives Matter
could be latched onto by those occupying various shades movement, especially after the murder of a Black man
of ethnic relation to ‘white.’”19 Those deputized in 1871 named George Floyd. Amidst calls to action by people
were Anglos and Hispanics, and the subsequent indict- across the cultural and political spectrum, one group that
ments revealed Anglo and Hispanic names. Significantly, came to be blamed was that of Asian Americans.
after the killing of Thompson, the main motive became Hatred and violence towards people from East Asian
the idea that “white men” needed to be defended against and Pacific Islander countries increased significantly in
the impertinent Chinese, especially after Chinese civil- early 2020. As a response, the Asian Pacific Planning and
ians began firing their guns in self-defense. Yet, as Jew Policy Council, the Chinese for Affirmative Action, and
asserts, when the massacre was memorialized in the the Asian American Studies Department of San Francisco
following years, those safeguarding their “whiteness” State University created “Stop AAPI Hate” on March 19,
blamed “the ambiguously white or strangely recruited 2020. The organization’s website states that the AAPI
Hispanic Angelenos,” a narrative that worked to restore a center “tracks and responds to incidents of hate, violence,
“new urban order” in Los Angeles. The embarrassing harassment, discrimination, shunning, and child bullying
memory of what happened in 1871 had to be suppressed, against Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders in the
with blame placed on the Chinese and the city’s habitual United States.” They also acknowledge in their mission
criminals.20 statement that to end hatred towards Asian Americans
3G. Cubbage and B. M. Wall Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Advance Publication by J-STAGE requires destroying systemic racism towards all com- Francisco (UCSF), entitled “Trump’s ‘Chinese Virus’ munities of color in the United States.23 “Stop AAPI Tweet Linked to Rise of Anti-Asian Hashtags on Twitter” Hate” has produced a national record of all the incidents discussed how attaching a specific group of people or a that have been reported to them since March 19, 2020. location to a disease is dangerous. A UCSF study found As of March 31, 2021, the number of incident reports the use of racist hashtags in relation to COVID-19 had filed regarding discrimination numbered 6,603. Overall, increased substantially after March 16, 2020, when then- “verbal harassment (65.2%) and shunning (18.1%)” President Trump tweeted, “The United States will be accounted for the majority of the incidents reported with powerfully supporting those industries, like Airlines and “physical assault (12.6%)” being the third-largest cat- others, that are particularly affected by the Chinese egory. Some trends indicate that most incidents have Virus.”28 On January 8, 2021, Twitter officials perma- occurred in public areas and businesses, with more than nently blocked Trump’s account because it violated half filed by females.24 Twitter’s Glorification of Violence Policy.29 This impor- Horrific hate crimes committed against Asian Ameri- tant action removes the accounts and social media posts cans increased when vaccinations started to become that promote hatred and violence towards people of any available and social distancing restrictions began to lift. minority group. One of the first major hate crimes to be widely publicized Bigotry and violence towards Asian Americans have occurred in March 2021, when a white man murdered been perpetrated on a large scale throughout the COVID- eight people, six of whom were women of Asian descent. 19 pandemic. The actions by organizations such as “Stop He attacked three different massage parlors in Atlanta, AAPI Hate” and Twitter, Inc. have given hope to those Georgia. In a New York Times article entitled, “8 Dead in who have been affected by anti-Asian discrimination. Atlanta Spa Shootings, With Fears of Anti-Asian Bias,” However, there are still many incidents of violence the author discussed that the perpetrator may have had towards Asian Americans that show that the fights to racial and gender-based motivation for his killings The protect people’s lives and their rights are still desperately gunman claimed his motivations were primarily to rid needed. himself of “temptation” by attacking women that he associated with his own “sexual addiction,” and he said Legacy of the 1871 Anti-Chinese Massacre and the race of the women was not relevant to why he killed 2021 Hate Crimes Against Asian Americans them.25 Nevertheless, the attack shook the Asian With a difference of 150 years between the 1871 Anti- American community, and many felt that it was a direct Chinese Massacre and the rash of hate crimes against attack on people of Asian descent because of bias created Asian Americans in 2021, we see a disturbing number of by the virus. similarities that show the United States has been slow to Aside from the news coverage of tragic events such as change its ways of ignoring the pains of people of color. the Atlanta shooting, social media sites such as Twitter The 1871 massacre was a tragedy in which many have played an important role in promoting both support innocent people were murdered; yet how it was and hatred towards Asian American populations. The remembered and who is to blame remain problematic. @StopAAPIHate Twitter account has posted informa- Media coverage of hate crimes in 2021 differs somewhat tional content about discrimination towards Asian in that it is much easier for citizens to spread information Americans, and it has provided resources to help people and misinformation at their own will through social constructively lift Asian American voices through virtual media sites such as Twitter and Facebook. This increased conferences and vigils.26 Additionally, the hashtag access to information has a positive effect in that it allows #StopAsianHate has been used to promote awareness people to explore more facets of a single situation with all of crimes perpetrated against people of Asian descent in the different biases that come with each view. However, it the United States and to uplift those who have helped to also has a negative effect by encouraging some people to prevent racist hate crimes against Asians.27 On the other deceive and manipulate others who do not wish to hand, Twitter users repeatedly used the platform to abuse analyze situations from multiple angles. Asian people and to spread misinformation and hatred. In times of disaster, an emergent effect is often Even Former President Donald Trump, known for using observed as people close to or affected by the disaster Twitter as a place to spread his own opinions, enforced come together to help alleviate the suffering of others.30 anti-Asian sentiments by using the phrase “Chinese After the Anti-Chinese massacre of 1871, however, Virus” in his tweets and other public announcements. An emergent actions led to a riotous murder spree. The article published by the University of California at San shame of the killings resulted in a rewriting of its memory 4
Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Advance Publication by J-STAGE 1871 Anti-Chinese massacre
and who was to blame. Still, with many public traces racist tweets on social media in 2020, it is important to
of the massacre gone, De Falla points out that the remember that hatred will always seek a public platform
Los Angeles Daily News printed out the names of the from which to spread. It does not matter whether the
known murdered Chinese men. Indeed, they were not triggering event for taking a deeper look at systemic bias
nameless, and they need to be remembered: is a single violent altercation that lasted only hours or
1. Doctor Chee Long Tong, known as “Gene” Tong thousands of abuses of varying severity over the course
by non-Chinese Angelenos, shot and hanged. of a year; any time is an appropriate time to be aware of
2. Wa Sin Quai, resident of Negro [sic] Alley, shot. one’s place in history. By looking at the past, we see a
3. Chang Wan, a resident at Doctor Tong’s house, violent event of one of the first incidents of Anti-Chinese
hanged. bigotry that the public worked hard to either re-write or
4. Long Quai, hanged. forget. As it is mirrored in modern time and space,
5. Joung Burrow, shot. societies can begin to appreciate the lessons that history
6. (No name given. Probably Won Yu Tuk, Ed.) must tell. All the hatred and cruel actions towards Asian
“Hanged. Was a cigar manufacturer.” Americans, or any other marginalized group, must be put
7. Wong Chin, hanged. together in a tangible format that can be researched,
8. Tong Wan, shot, stabbed, and hanged. understood, and stopped. That is why it is necessary to
9. Ah Loo, hanged. “Had just arrived from China.” acknowledge history and to learn from it; otherwise,
10. Wan Foo, hanged. humanity will be doomed to repeat its mistakes. If
11. Day Kee, hanged. societies, including nurses, cannot protect all their
12. Ho Hing, hanged. people, there will come a disaster greater than a massacre
13. Ah Was, hanged. or a pandemic that will rip humanity apart, and only then
14. Ah Cut, shot. will humans be forced to put aside their differences to
15. Lo Hey, hanged. survive or perish without a single sympathy among them.
16. Ah Wan, hanged.
17. Wing Chee, hanged.
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7
C. P. Dorland, “Chinese Massacre at Los Angeles in 1871,”
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8
Ibid, 22.
Conclusion 9
Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre.”
10
The United States has a long history of racist ideologies Ibid, 115.
that have pushed social and political agendas to maintain
11
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former President of the United States himself posting
5G. Cubbage and B. M. Wall Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Advance Publication by J-STAGE
12
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13
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Paul M. De Falla, “Lantern in the Western Sky,” Part II, March 18, 2021, https://www.ucsf.edu/news/2021/03/420081/
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Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre;” “A Reminiscence.” Mass Emergencies and Disasters 20, no. 2 (August 2002): 197–
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Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre,” 115. 224.
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