The Colonial Encounter and the Heritage of Colonialism in Africa and the Mediterranean Area - IEMed
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The Colonial Encounter and
the Heritage of Colonialism in
Africa and the Mediterranean
Area
Gustavo Gozzi. University of Bologna
The article explores colonialism during the 19th century, with particular reference to French
colonialism and the influence of the colonial heritage on current African and Euro-Mediterranean
relations. The topic is analyzed from the perspective of colonial law. In the frame of colonial
law it is important to examine economic legislation in order to understand the continuity of the
economic organization of the colonies with the contemporary asymmetric relations between the
European Union, on the one side, and the African countries and those of the southern shore of
the Mediterranean, on the other. In particular, the article discusses the project of so-called “Eura-
frica”, that is the idea of the complementarity of Europe and Africa from a colonial perspective.
Assimilation and Association in to proclaim that all peoples develop according
French Colonial Politics to their own laws, in their environment and
according to their characteristics (Le Cour
The French colonies were first characterized Grandmaison, 2010; p. 23).
by the doctrine of assimilation and later by The extension of the colonial empire im-
the concept of association. Institutionally, the posed the need to consider the different insti-
doctrine of assimilation is rooted in the French tutional, ethnic, cultural and environmental
tradition of administrative centralism, while characteristics of subjected populations and led
ideologically it stems from the principles of to the abandonment of the universalistic idea
equality proclaimed in the Declaration of 1789. of assimilation. This notion was substituted by
However, at the end of the 19th century the the concept of association that derived from the
doctrine of assimilation was gradually over- idea of evolution, of which one could identify
come by the extension reached by the French the different levels peoples under colonial rule
colonial empire and the spread of the new sci- had reached. As a result, the universalistic idea
ences, namely sociology and social psychology. of equality was abandoned, to be replaced with
The opponents of assimilation called on the that of cooperation and reliance, but between
scientific ground provided by social Darwinism “superior” and “inferior” partners. The as-
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sociation expressed itself in a certain degree looking only for the realization of colonial
of flexibility and autonomy of the colonial power and exploitation.
administrations that were largely exercised Shahabuddin analyses colonialism in
through the existing institutions of the indig- relation to its nationalistic roots, that is the
enous populations. different concepts of nation proclaimed in
In order to clarify the doctrine of asso- the metropolis. By relating colonialism to the
ciation, René Maunier utilized the concept of representation of the national self, there ap-
hierarchical partnership (Maunier, 1949; p. pear the different concepts of ethnicity that
297 ff.), a contradictory expression because a is the ethnic belonging of natives in colonies
hierarchical structure does not permit collabo- that could be considered from the monogenic-
ration among equals. Raymond F. Betts claims assimilationist perspective of liberalism or
the policy of association must be distinguished the polygenic-exclusionist perspective of
from that of assimilation because the former German ethnic nationalism (Shahabuddin,
“sought the improvement of the native’s condi- 2016; p. 62 ff.).
tion without severely altering his way of life, Nationalism, commercial interests and the
while the latter sought the reorganization of instrumentalization of colonial expansion as a
native society in the light of French civiliza- function of domestic political dynamics were
tion” (Betts, 2005; p. 123). the elements that fed German colonialism.
Lastly, this paradigm found its legitimation in
Raymond F. Betts claims the policy of an evolutionist doctrine that justified Germanic
association must be distinguished from racial superiority and the elimination of the
that of assimilation because the former weak by the strong (Shahabuddin 2016; 70).
“sought the improvement of the native’s However, the paradigm of liberalism must
condition without severely altering his also be deconstructed in order to pinpoint its
way of life, while the latter sought the deep ambivalences. This becomes clear if we
reorganization of native society in the consider the economic aspects of colonization.
light of French civilization”
Mohammad Shahabuddin, a lecturer in Principles of Colonization
law at Keele University, has analysed the idea and Colonial Legislation.
of assimilation and the subsequent adoption Economic Notions
of the doctrine of association within the frame
of a confrontation between the perspective In his seminal work Principes de colonisation et
of French liberal colonialism and that of de legislation coloniale (1930), Arthur Girault
German ethno-nationalistic colonialism. The analyses all the fields of exploitation of colonial
French concept, guided by the ideals of the resources. First of all, he considers the condi-
Revolution, had first undertaken a “civiliz- tion of colonial agriculture and particularly ap-
ing mission” in the framework of a possible preciates Joseph Chailley-Bert’s representation
egalitarian assimilation and subsequently an of the French colonies which he claimed were
association no longer grounded on the idea still in the age of agriculture (Chailley-Bert,
of equality, but on the basis of cooperation 1896; p. 20 ff.). At the origin of this thesis there
between a “superior” and an “inferior”. By was certainly the theory of the development of
contrast, the German concept of colonialism societies through subsequent stages grounded
had excluded any possibility of assimilation, on the different ways in which men made their
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living (Meek, 1976).1 Backward countries ought of Colonies, asked whether it was not useless
to follow the economic evolution like European and dangerous to create flourishing industries
countries; agriculture’s development normally in the colonies (Guy, 1900; p. 315). The adver-
had to precede that of commerce. saries of colonial industry declared indeed that
Natives of the colonies did not lack the de- the colonies had been conquered in order to
sire to buy the products of European industry, assure a market for the products of the metro-
they lacked the means. Products are exchanged politan industries. Consequently, it would have
with products, declared Girault, according to been contradictory to let the colonial industries
the famous formula of Jean Baptiste Say. In develop against the interests of the metropolis.
order to buy something it was necessary to Against this position Girault upheld the
have some money. To obtain the money, it was principle of the freedom of work and that of
important to have something to sell. To have the equality of all French people before the
something to sell, one ought to begin by pro- law (Girault, 1930; p. 61). However, the French
ducing it. To develop agriculture in the colonies colonies were mainly agricultural countries
was the surest way to increase the importance and for this reason the possibility of industrial
of the market that they could offer to metro- development could not regard Madagascar,
politan products. According to this perspective, Congo or French West Africa, but only colonies
the colonies were in the age of agriculture and in Asia, such as, for instance, Indochina.
they had only to develop this stage in order to
be functional to the creation of a market for The adversaries of colonial industry
the products of the metropolis. declared indeed that the colonies had been
The considerations on colonial trade were conquered in order to assure a market
also oriented to increasing the profit gained for the products of the metropolitan
by the metropolis’ trade. Girault suggests the industries. Consequently, it would have
creation of business ventures localized both in been contradictory to let the colonial
the colonies and in the metropolis in order to industries develop against the interests of
control the terms of sale of imported products. the metropolis
Moreover, he considered it necessary to cre-
ate trade-marks2 to guarantee the quality of In the case in which all the conditions were
products against possible fraud on the part of favorable to the growth of a colonial indus-
natives (!). One can clearly understand that this try, nothing had to impede the genius of the
perspective is simply that of the commercial ad- French race (!) – so wrote Girault – to create
vantages for metropolitan enterprises without on the shores of Pacific Ocean the wonders of
any considerations for a possible improvement metropolitan industry. Of course, these results
of the native population’s conditions. could only regard the possible industrial suc-
Lastly, the considerations on the question cesses of the French colonizers without any
of industry in the colonies were very com- advantages for the native populations and
plex. Camille Guy, Director of the Service without any considerations for their industrial
Géographique et des Missions at the Ministry development.
1. Meek establishes the origin of this theory in the works of scholars who wrote in the latter half of the 18th century, in
particular John Millar (1731-1801), Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot (1727-1781) and Adam Smith (1723-1790).
2. That happened for instance in French West Africa on the ground of the decree of 11 January 1924 that authorized
the governor to adopt this measure (Girault, 1930; p. 60).
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The Age of Agriculture. The Theory formidable reserve of future consumers for food
of the Stages of Development materials or manufactured products that the
creator’s work will throw on the market of the
According to colonial economic literature, all future!” declared Sarraut, who triumphantly
civilizations develop according to subsequent concluded: “Happy and wise are those who
stages: the period of sheep-farming (or agri- will not wait until the last moment to prepare
culture, if the conditions of a country do not themselves to answer the call of the universal
permit this starting activity), then the period consumer” (Sarraut, 1923; p. 153). This was the
of trade and, lastly, that of industry. The colo- perspective of the colonial empire: to transform
nies had yet to embark on the route towards the natives into universal consumers!
civilization, consequently one could try to re-
duce the length of this period, but certainly it Albert Sarraut, French Minister of
was neither possible to suppress a stage nor to Colonies, declared that after the ruins
think of inverting their succession. Therefore of the First World War a general plan
the best exploitation of the colonies ought to was necessary to enhance the value
begin from agriculture, choosing those fit for of the colonies on the ground of a
this project of exploitation. Besides Algeria, complementarity relation between the
which was considered the most advanced colonies’ wealth and that of the metropolis
colony, Chailley-Bert had singled out Tunisia
(a French protectorate since 1881), New Cal- Afterwards this perspective was enlarged
edonia and Tonkin. on an international level, because Sarraut also
In a book published at the beginning of considered the question of a fair distribution of
the 1920s, Albert Sarraut, French Minister of raw materials among the countries belonging
Colonies, declared that after the ruins of the to the League of Nations, recalling the debates
First World War a general plan was necessary held within the Council of the League in 1920.3
to enhance the value of the colonies on the Art. 23 of the Covenant of the League of Na-
ground of a complementarity relation between tions promised all its members fair economic
the colonies’ wealth and that of the metropolis. treatment.4 It was a condition that openly
However, the main problem was the limited clashed with the protectionist attitudes and the
consumption capacity of the populations in monopoly regime practised by the holder na-
the colonies. There are “hundreds of millions tions of raw materials. This debate reflected the
of human beings – wrote Sarraut – that are question of the organization of international
reduced to inadequate living conditions… that relations and international law that some years
do not consume any products that civil life sup- later the internationalist lawyer George Scelle
plies every day to the needs of the developed expressed through the “federative principle”
countries” (Sarraut, 1923; p. 152). So it was nec- that ought to underpin the administration of
essary to increase the consumption capacity of colonies’ resources in the name of international
the native populations of the colonies. “What a solidarity (Scelle, 1932; p.143).
3. Report presented to the Council of the League of Nations in Brussels in 1920, published by the Revue de Genève,
No. 5, November 1920, pp. 664-667.
4. In art. 23 one can read: “…the Members of the League:…(e) will make provision to secure and maintain freedom of
communications and of transit and equitable treatment for the commerce of all Members of the League. In this connection,
the special necessities of the regions devastated during the war of 1914-1918 shall be borne in mind.”
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The French Union and the becoming independent (Luchaire, 1959; p.
Community 116). But if a State became independent, it
could no longer belong to the Community (art.
The foregoing considerations on the economy 86). Moreover, the Community was opened to
of the colonies and the subsequent question of the association of other States that wanted to
a new international order were increasingly “develop their civilization” (art. 88). It is an
linked to the problem of decolonization and expression that discloses the ancient “civilizing
the attempt of the colonial powers to oppose mission” of France. The relations among the
independence movements through institutional peoples of the Community were expressed in
transformations. Some aspects of the French the first article of the constitution that pro-
constitutional transformations from the French claimed the “solidarity of the peoples” that
Union to the Community can be usefully out- joined the Community. This solidarity implied
lined to clarify the attempt of French power to the availability of resources to assure economic
control the process of decolonization. and social development.
The constitution of the French Republic
of 27 October 1946, art. 60, in Title VIII, pro- French aid, essentially concentrated in
claimed the realization of the French Union the territories previously administered
(Union Française) that comprised, on the one by France as colonies, consisted for
side, “the French Republic, that comprises (ed) the most part of donations that were
metropolitan France, the departments and the largely earmarked, because only French
overseas territories (and), on the other side, companies or businesses belonging to
the associated territories and States”. Art. 81 the beneficiary countries could perform
also created a citizenship of the French Union activities financed by the Fonds d’Aide et
that had the political purpose of expressing de Coopération (FAC)
the unity of the Empire through the creation
of a common tie for all members of the Union, After the Second World War, the French
within the authoritarian framework of this effort produced mainly planning projects that,
institution (Gonidec, 1959; p. 376). on the basis of the law dated 30 April 1946,
However, during the 1950s Africa was mov- were above all decennial development plans.
ing on and the condition of associated State to French aid, essentially concentrated in the
the French Union, after the independence of territories previously administered by France
Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia in 1954, was no as colonies, consisted for the most part of do-
longer attractive for any State. So the consti- nations that were largely earmarked, because
tutional law of 3 June 1958 attributed to the only French companies or businesses belong-
government the task of issuing the draft of a ing to the beneficiary countries could perform
new constitution. Through a complex consti- activities financed by the Fonds d’Aide et de
tutional procedure (Bidegaray, 1992; p. 196) Coopération (FAC). Moreover, materials and
the text of the new constitution was finally supplies that were purchased thanks to that
submitted to a referendum and after its ap- fund ought to be French. In short: the markets
proval came into force on 5 October 1958. The of the countries belonging to the Community
constitution proclaimed in the first article the were used for the sale of French products.
creation of the Community (Communauté), Continuity with the foregoing rule of colonial-
that was proposed to the overseas territories ism is plain, first in the frame of the French
that wanted to become States without soon Union and subsequently recognizable in the
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Community, although in different forms. The negotiations for the Treaty of Rome and Part
same perspective emerges from an analysis of Four of the Treaty regarded the association
the organizational structure of the EEC. of the overseas countries and territories. The
It is therefore important to examine the doctrine of Eurafrica accompanied the birth
complex relations that intervened between of the EEC.
the association of the overseas territories in
the French constitution of 1946, and later in
the constitution of 1958, and the associative Eurafrica and Geopolitics
forms that were created in the framework of
the rising institutions of Europe. The project of Eurafrica was set in a specific
geopolitical context. It had a clear economic,
The principle of association was admitted political and military significance with the
to the negotiations for the Treaty of Rome aim of confirming the ties of France with the
and Part Four of the Treaty regarded African continent and assuring its role as a
the association of the overseas countries great power (Papa et Samir 2004; p. 96). The
and territories. The doctrine of Eurafrica complexity of the project depended on the rela-
accompanied the birth of the EEC tions of the African countries associated with
France with the rising European Economic
It was the project of an economic Europe Community and the insuppressible independ-
that served to develop the debate on the ques- ence tendencies of those countries.
tion of the overseas territories in the frame During the 1930s, the Eurafrican idea was
of the doctrine of Eurafrica. France did not developed by the French political scientist
want to participate in the European single Eugène Guernier on the grounds of the theory
market shouldering alone the burden of of the complementarity of Europe and Africa
public investments in the overseas territories. thanks to the African wealth of raw materials
The representatives of France observed that and hydroelectric resources (Guernier, 1933).5
the effort in favour of the overseas territories After the Second World War, there emerged the
corresponded to the perspective of helping awareness that Europe, overwhelmed between
the underdeveloped countries. If this did not the two superpowers, could propose itself as a
come about, Europe would not be able to keep “valid factor” (Guernier, 1957; p. 22)6 capable
these countries in the western sphere (Avit, of exercising the role of arbitrator and equilib-
2005; p. 22). In the end, the European partners rium between the two superpowers. However,
accepted this justification. The international the question of the complementarity between
context – the nationalization of the Suez Canal Europe and Africa, proclaimed as the basis of
by Nasser and the beginning of the Algerian shared interests, was instead an ideology that
conflict – also favored the French position. So aimed at assuring the interests of the colonial
the principle of association was admitted to the power. In order to justify this judgement we
5. According to other scholars, the idea of Eurafrica was first conceived by Count Richard de Coudenhove-Kalergy in
his book PanEuropa that was published in German in Vienna at the beginning of October 1923 (Ageron, 1975; p. 450).
6. In this essay Guernier points out the extension of this new continent, Eurafrica, that measures 35 million square kilo-
metres, in comparison with the 42 square kilometres of America and 40 square kilometres of Asia. After the Second World
War, Europe discovered its poverty, but this condition could have been counterbalanced by the huge energy resources and
mines of Africa.
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must analyse not only the economic aspects, but So there appeared the extreme urgency
also the military and political factors. (Meynier, 1958; p. 21) of the realization of
From a military point of view, Eurafrica Eurafrica that could create strong relations
was conceived as an answer to the communist with Northern Africa against the strategies of
“threat” and to the American manoeuvres pan-Arabism and communism. In this strategic
that sustained the emancipation movements context, the question of the independence of
of the African countries. The Eurafrica project the African countries must also be considered.
considered Africa the rear of the metropolis in The African nationalisms were conceived both
case of a conflict with the Red Army. Africa as a consequence of the backwardness in the
ought to have been the Siberia of Europe valorization of the colonies and as the result
and the Atlas mountains the Urals (Labonne of the anti-colonialist ideologies sustained by
1948; p. 40). the two superpowers. However, these consid-
erations by France did not lead to an accept-
From a military point of view, ance of the independence tendencies, but the
Eurafrica was conceived as an answer hypothesis of a new colonization that could be
to the communist “threat” and to the advantageous to both Europe and Africa.
American manoeuvres that sustained the The nationalist movements were considered
emancipation movements of the African a threat for the European presence. Many in-
countries terventions of the ideologists of the Eurafrican
project strongly criticised nationalist move-
A number of journals issued after the ments and their leaders, such as the Tunisian
Second World War – Eurafrique, Défense Neo-Destour led by Bourguiba (Fabre-Luce,
Nationale and so on – published essays by 1952; p. 24 ff.), the Moroccan Istiqlal and
military officers who examined in depth the Nasser’s movement in Egypt. In short, the pro-
strategic aspects of the Eurafrican project. ject of Eurafrica was the denial and refusal of
General Meynier, editor-in-chief of the journal the nationalist movements. It was an attempt
Eurafrique, published a paper in 1958 analys- to guarantee the status quo and, against every
ing the strategy of the Soviet Union after the hypothesis of decolonization, it signified “a
Conference of Bandung in 1955. According to nostalgic return to the colonial era” (Papa and
his analysis, the Soviet Union aimed at exploit- Samir, 2004; p. 111).
ing the anti-Western tendencies of the Third All projects for the industrialization of the
World countries. Moreover, after the discovery African countries, together with the creation of
of oil reserves in the Middle East and the Suez strategic military posts, were in the name of a
crisis of 1956, the Soviet Union had succeeded neocolonial project. In this geopolitical scenario
in realizing a fundamental objective of its – loss of the role of great power by France,
foreign policy, namely access to the Mediter- independence movements in the colonized
ranean. The Russians had indeed offered arms countries and neocolonial policies – there arose
supplies to Syria and other countries of the the question of the relations of the Eurafrican
Arab League and had obtained authorization project with the new European Economic
to use the port of Latakia. To this should be Community.
added the Russian interventions in favour of The problem was to adapt the constitutional
the independence tendencies of peoples of solutions introduced in the French constitution
Northern Africa, namely the Algerian “rebels”, of 1946 and afterwards in that of 1958 to the
as General Meynier called them. institutional reality of the European Economic
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Community. The French idea was to promote de coopération avec les pays en voie de dével-
European cooperation with the aim of com- oppement, that issued the French doctrine on
batting independence uprisings, but to ensure the aims of the policies of cooperation (Basso,
French influence in Africa at the same time 1992; p. 261). The document states that “to
(Schreuers, 1998; p. 85). During the Venice strengthen the economic independence of a
summit of 29-30 May 1956 the French minister country, it is necessary to be clearly aware of
of Foreign Affairs, Christian Pineau, declared the causes of its dependence” (Jeanneney, 1964;
that France wanted that its African countries to p. 84). This declaration openly expressed the
be associated members of the EEC (Schreuers, doctrine of “independence in dependence”
1998; p. 84). The economic transformation of (Papa et Samir, 2004; p. 112) underlying the
the Union Française through the association French policies of cooperation.
of the African countries with the EEC was
the indispensable condition for the continuity Thanks to its European partners France
of French power.7 In short: thanks to its Eu- aimed to finance the maintenance of its
ropean partners France aimed to finance the sovereignty in Africa. This was possible
maintenance of its sovereignty in Africa. This because the relations of the EEC member
was possible because the relations of the EEC states with the overseas countries
member states with the overseas countries were were mediated by the French political
mediated by the French political institutions institutions
(Papa et Samir, 2004; p. 110).
However, the Communauté, introduced Indeed the cooperation agreements8 con-
by the French constitution of 1958, could not cluded in the period immediately after inde-
oppose the principle of association with the pendence “were formally respectful of the
growing independence movements of the existing sovereignties; …in reality – as Jean
African peoples, notwithstanding the constitu- Touscoz wrote – they were grounded on the
tional law passed on 4 June 1960 that reviewed maintenance of the inegalitarian political,
the constitution permitting the compatibility economic and cultural relations that had been
of one State’s independence with belonging to inherited from colonialism. They were the
the Community (Duverger, 1989; p. 319-320). expression of the Gaullist policy towards the
This made necessary a different political Third World in general and towards franco-
strategy to introduce the policies of coopera- phone Africa in particular” (Tuscoz, 1974;
tion with the new independent African States. p. 209)9. In short: the independence of the
The contents of these policies of cooperation African States was conceived as the occasion
promoted by General De Gaulle were expressed for the realization of new neocolonial relations,
in a fundamental document, known as the masked by the ideology of cooperation policies,
Rapport Jeanneney, and entitled La Politique technical assistance and financial aid.
7. Trade with Africa consisted in the exchange of African primary and semi-manufactured goods for European manu-
factured products. These commercial relations had a very weak evolution in the following years.
8. From 7 July 1959 to 17 July 1963 138 cooperation agreements were signed by the French Republic and the Afri-
can francophone countries. From 1957 to 1970, 320 diplomatic acts were signed by France and the African francophone
countries. In the same period, 164 conventions or agreements were signed with the countries of the Maghreb: Algeria (72),
Morocco (49) and Tunisia (44). The fields that were the objects of the agreements were culture, economy and defense
(Basso, 1992; p. 270).
9. For an in-depth and critical analysis of the debate on colonialism in France see Girardet, 1972.
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Since African countries gained independ- As Hansen and Jonsson declare, the EU (or better
ence, this has indeed been the transformation the EEC) “would not have come into existence…
of the Eurafrican project with the aim of main- had it not been conceived as a Eurafrican enter-
taining colonial interests, in particular those prise in which colonialism was Europeanized”
of France, and guaranteeing the exploitation (Hansen and Jonsson, 2014; p. 13).
of the resources of sub-Saharan and North-
African countries also in the postcolonial age. In the European political debate, Africa was
considered a solution in terms of territories
and resources that could be attained
The EEC and the Neo-Colonial through the union of all colonizing nations
Project of Eurafrica that merged their colonial possessions for
the common advantage
But it should be clearly emphasized that colo-
nial concerns still played central roles in the For the African States that gained independ-
establishment of the EEC in 1957 (Hansen and ence,10 the project of Eurafrica allowed the
Jonsson, 2014; p. xiv). When it was created, the political elites of those States to make a com-
European Economic Community comprised not promise with their former colonial rulers, but
only Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the at the cost of the majorities of African peoples
Netherlands and West Germany, but also all for whom decolonization did not seem to have
the colonial possessions of the Member States. taken place. The postcolonial State conducted
They were called Overseas Countries and Ter- economic activities and trade according to the
ritories and included the Belgian Congo and old patterns. This has been the function of the
French West and Equatorial Africa, Somalia association agreements of the EEC (Hansen
under Italian trusteeship, Dutch New Guinea and Jonsson, 2014; p. 15). Through these agree-
and many others (Madagascar, French Somalia, ments Europe continued to maintain control
Cameroon under French trusteeship). In that over the resources of the African continent.
period Algeria was part of metropolitan France In around the mid-1960s, Eurafrica dis-
and was formally integrated in the EEC. appeared from the political agenda and was
In the European political debate, Africa was substituted by the projects of cooperation,
considered a solution in terms of territories and development, and diplomatic counselling. In
resources that could be attained through the 1963, when 18 independent African States
union of all colonizing nations that merged their decided to maintain their association with the
colonial possessions for the common advantage. EEC in the frame of the Yaoundé Convention,11
10. In 1960 the following countries gained their independence: Senegal, Mali, Congo-Brazzaville, Gabon, Central
African Republic, Ciad, Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Upper Volta, Niger, Mauritania and Madagascar. The same year saw the
independence of Togo and Cameroon that had been under a trusteeship (Rossi, 2010; p. 39).
11. The Convention of Yaoundé was approved on 20th December 1962 in Brussels and signed in Yaoundé on 20th
July 1963. The Convention of Yaoundé created a dependence relation on the EEC. It stated that the delivered funds in the
field of diversification and production ought to be used for “measures essentially intended to make marketing possible at
competitive prices on the Community’s markets as a whole, by encouraging, in particular, rationalization of cropping and
sales methods, and by aiding producers to make the necessary adaptations” (art. 17). Moreover, aid to the programmes of
diversification and production were established by the States and discussed by the Community (Luchaire, 1966; p. 522).
Furthermore the 11th article of the Convention established that the “Community shall take the interests of the Associated
States into consideration as regards products similar to and competitive with European products”. For this purpose the
Community and the Associated States had to consult together. In short: the Convention tied the associated States strongly
to Europe, conditioning the process of their industrialization and hindering the realization of African unity.
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the fears that the African States could leave pattern of colonial development” (Mailafiah,
the EEC vanished definitively. The African 1997; 60). The African territories had remained
Association with the EEC continued with the “agricultural appendages to Europe” (Coryell,
approval of the Yaoundé Convention, although 1962; p. 13; Hansen and Jonsson, 2014; p. 274).
with nominally independent African States. The last ten years have witnessed a new
These African States subsequently opted for interest in Africa on the part of the EU. As we
association with the EEC through the Lomé can read in the Lisbon Declaration of Decem-
Convention (1975-2000) and then through the ber 2007, the new Africa-EU partnership was
Cotonou Agreement (2000). But the spirit of presented as a “partnership of equals […] in
association with the EEC was still in the frame order to achieve […] the strengthening of in-
of the old colonial paradigms. vestment, growth and prosperity”.12 The sum-
mit held in Paris in August 2017 can represent
In the 1950s and thereafter, the economy the advent of a new partnership for a real de-
of Europe needed the markets and velopment of Africa. However, only a Marshall
resources of Africa through a relationship Plan for Africa will be able to tackle the great
of geopolitical complementarity. challenges facing the African continent.
The Eurafrica project represented an
alternative to the perspective of pan-
Africanism Colonialism and Euro-Mediterranean
Policies
In the 1950s and thereafter, the economy
of Europe needed the markets and resources The colonial heritage is clearly recognizable
of Africa through a relationship of geopolitical also in the relations of Europe with the coun-
complementarity. The Eurafrica project repre- tries of the southern shore of Mediterranean.
sented an alternative to the perspective of pan- After the Second World War, in the era of
Africanism. According to Nkrumah, the first decolonization, Europe has held itself out as
president of independent Ghana, the Treaty a civil power intent on keeping the peoples of
of Rome could be considered the treaty of the the Mediterranean’s southern shore in a state of
Berlin Congress in 1885 (Hansen and Jonsson, dependence by making its aid to development
2014; p. 270). Its meaning was the advent of ne- conditional on their adoption of Western-style
ocolonialism in Africa. Frantz Fanon declared forms of democratic government and human
that the project of Eurafrica was that one of rights protections.
substituting Africa as the “hunting ground of At the time the European Coal and Steel
France” into the “hunting ground of Europe” Community (ECSC) was established, in 1951,
(Fanon 2006, 126; Hansen and Jonsson, 2014; p. France was firmly in control of its colonies
271). According to Obadiah Mailafia, the coer- and protectorates, so much so as to lead Schu-
cive association of African independent States man, Foreign Minister of France, to predict
with the EEC “was oriented toward financing that these countries, too, could themselves
of infrastructures and was markedly biased be part of the new European Community.
against industrialization… association did not That actually happened with the overseas
mark a major departure from the historical countries and territories, which in 1957
12. www.africa-eu-partnership.org/sites/default/files/documents/eas2007_lisbon_declaration_en.pdf
IEmed 26.indd 44 25/05/2018 11:15:48Quaderns de la Mediterrània 26, 2018: 35-47 45
were integrated into the European Economic This was a strategy designed to exploit
Community (EEC) under Article 227 of the commercially developing economies, while
Treaty of Rome, which was signed in the protecting the European economy by mak-
same year and went into effect the follow- ing sure that agricultural products and other
ing, in 1958 (Isoni, 2013; p. 9).13 In light of commodities and manufactured goods com-
the complementary relation between former ing from those economies would not enter
colonies and the metropolises, Article 3 of the the EEC if they were in competition with
treaty introduced, as we have pointed out, the European goods and commodities (Pocar,
principle of association for the purpose of 1981; p. 5-17).
increasing trade and pursuing economic and
social development.14 The aim and content of Europe needs a different policy of
such association are set out in greater detail interdependence and not of conditionality
in Articles 131-136. This provision was ex- if it wants to realize a real partnership,
pressly requested by France as a condition for and not asymmetric relations with our
signing the founding treaty and was aimed at neighboring countries
those non-European countries and territories
that were bound to certain member states Through a historical reconstruction, it is
by so called special relations – the coded possible to bring out the way in which the
language by which Article 13115 referred to development discourse is continuous with
certain relations of manifest colonial depend- colonial policies, and the way in which this
ence (Martines, 1991; p. 404). continuity has made it possible to promote
Afterwards starting from 1961, a series ideas of Western superiority, difference,
of agreements was initiated with almost all and inequality (Kothari, 2005; p. 63). In-
the Mediterranean countries, under which deed this perspective is also recognizable in
the EEC countries would buy raw materials the so-called Global Mediterranean Policy
from these non-European countries while of 1972 and in the Renewed Mediterranean
selling European industrial products (Isoni, Policy of the Nineties, till the persistent poli-
2013; p. 10). The first association agreements cies of conditionality of the EU towards the
were reached with Greece in 1961 and Tur- countries of the southern shore of Mediter-
key in 1963. They were followed in 1965 by ranean. But Europe needs a different policy
a mixed agreement – both commercial and of interdependence and not of conditionality
of technical cooperation – with Lebanon. if it wants to realize a real partnership, and
In 1969 two commercial agreements were not asymmetric relations with our neighbor-
signed with Tunisia and Morocco. ing countries.
13. Article 227 declares: “…3. The special arrangements for association set out in Part Four of this Treaty shall apply
to the overseas countries and territories listed in Annex IV to this Treaty”.
14. Article 3 reads as follows: “For the purposes set out in the preceding Article [namely, “establishing a Common Market
and progressively approximating the economic policies of Member States”], the activities of the Community shall include [...]
(k) the association of overseas countries and territories with the Community with a view to increasing trade and to pursuing
jointly their effort towards economic and social development.”
15. Article 131: “The Member States agree to associate with the Community the non-European countries and territories
which have special relations with Belgium, France, Italy, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.” The association had the
objectives of applying to the trade with the countries and territories the same treatment as the Member States accorded each
other and of realizing the investments required for the progressive development of those countries and territories (Art. 132).
IEmed 26.indd 45 25/05/2018 11:15:4846 The Colonial Encounter and the Heritage of Colonialism in Africa and the Mediterranean Area Gustavo Gozzi
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