THE PHARMACOLOGY OF CORTISONE, CORTISOL (HYDROCORTISONE) AND THEIR NEW ANALOGUES
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300
THE PHARMACOLOGY OF CORTISONE,
CORTISOL (HYDROCORTISONE) AND
THEIR NEW ANALOGUES
By OLIVER GARROD, M.D., M.R.C.P.
Physician, Barnet General Hospital; late Research Fellow, Middlesex Hospital
In man the essential functions of the adrenal corticosterone (Compound.B). Though it is the
cortex stem from at least two hormones, cortisol predominant glucocorticoid in a number of
(hydrocortisone) and aldosterone, these differing mammalian species, in man it is of little importance
in their quality of action, mode of secretory for only small amounts are secreted (about i mg.
regulation, and probable site of production within a day) (Migeon et al., 1956).
the gland. The adrenal sex hormones are of re-
latively minor physiological importance and will The Secretion and Metabolism of Cortisol
not be considered here. The rate of cortisol secretion is governed by
The new synthetic analogues of cortisol are best the level of circulating corticotrophin. Under
assessed in relation to the essential duality of quiescent conditions the pituitary corticotrophin
function of the adrenal cortex as revealed by the output varies inversely with the concentration of
actions of its two principal hormones. The first cortisol in the blood, resulting in a fairly steady
function is concerned with a number of homoeo- rate of cortisol secretion from day to day. Over-
static processes and with resistance to stress and riding this basal ' feedback' regulation is the
is served by the secretion of cortisol. In the body stress reaction whereby additional corticotrophin
cortisol is reversibly interconvertible with corti- is released, probably in response to stimulating
sone and is probably the active form of the hor- neurohormones emanating from the hypothalamus
mone. Cortisol and cortisone, with their almost and reaching the adenohypophysis by portal
identical actions, are called glucocorticoids for venous pathways. Under such extreme stimu-
their effects on carbohydrate metabolism. Though lation cortisol secretion may rise to about 250 mg.
Ingle (1950) has likened use of the word gluco- a day.
corticoid for these steroids to describing an The capacity to suppress corticotrophin secre-'
elephant by the shape of its tail, yet it remains a tion is common to all known glucocorticoids,
useful generic term to cover all those diverse natural and synthetic, when given in doses which
actions of cortisol and its analogues which seem to 'equal or exceed in equivalence the normal cortisol
be inseparably linked with their carbohydrate secretion of about 20 mg. a day. By only partially
effects. suppressing corticotrophin secretion smaller doses
The second or mineralocorticoid function of the than these merely replace an equivalent amount of
adrenal cortex is concerned with the regulation of endogenous cortisol; hence they are usually in-
sodium and potassium balance, and depends effective therapeutically in patients with intact
largely on the secretion of aldosterone. A similar adrenal function. In effective doses they cause
but less potent mineralocorticoid is desoxycorti- reversible atrophy of the zona fasciculata, whence
costerone (DOC) which, though easily synthesized cortisol is mainly derived, which lasts for
and used therapeutically as the acetate (DOCA), is many days after treatment has been stopped;
secreted only in small amounts by the adrenal hence the importance of slowly tapering off the
cortex. Further to their glucocorticoid properties, dose over one to several weeks according to the
cortisol and cortisone also have a weak mineralo- duration of the preceeding treatment. If this
corticoid activity, which assumes an increasing precaution be neglected the patient is exposed to
importance when they are being produced in the risks of an acute adrenal crisis when faced
excess as in Cushing's syndrome, or administered during this period with severe stress, such as
in large doses pneumonia or surgical trauma.
Intermediate in quality of action between Likewise, during even moderately intensive
cortisolVand aldosterone, but much less potent, is glucocorticoid therapy the patient cannot step upDownloaded from http://pmj.bmj.com/ on February 4, 2015 - Published by group.bmj.com
Yune 195 8 GARROD: Pharmacology of Cortisone, Cortisol and their New Analogues 301
his cortisol secretion in emergency, and must then Biochemically these steroids influence the
be protected by raising the dosage, if needs beto metabolism of protein, fat, carbohydrate, purines,
the equivalent of 200 mg. of cortisone a day. electrolytes and water, and exert a direct calori-
Independent of corticotrophic control there are genic action (Evans et al., 1957). In excess they
wide diurnal variations in the rate of cortisol inhibit tissue healing and body growth, influence
secretion which falls to low levels in the early the local and general response to infection, and
morning hours before rising to a sustained peak at raise the body's resistance to stress; they help in
around 5 or 6 a.m. Whether this phenomenon maintaining normal functions of the brain, heart
should be allowed to influence the timing and dis- and circulation, and stimulate the gastric
tribution of dosage when steroids are being given secretions.
in small amounts has yet to be decided.
Radioisotope studies have been of great value in Metabolic Effects
elucidating the metabolism of cortisol (Migeon et Glucocorticoids stimulate protein katabolism,
al., 1956; Peterson and Wyngaarden, I955 and
1956). Within the body the free steroid has a thereby increasing nitrogen output and glucose
half life of about I.4 hours, and is reduced to formation (gluconeogenesis). In excess this leads
derivatives such as tetrahydrocortisol, tetra- to muscle wasting, weakening of connective and
hydrocortisone, and allotetrahydrocortisol (Bush vascular tissue, osteoporosis and the formation of
and Willoughby, 1957), which combine in the wide purple striae. Aminoacid, creatine and uric
liver with glycuronic acid to form glucuronides. acid excretion are increased. This last effect may
Together these metabolites account for about 36 per be useful when treating acute gout, if not neu-
cent. of the secreted hormone and are excreted in the tralised by increased uric acid formation.
urine where they can be measured as 17-hydroxy- The complex actions of glucocorticoids on car-
corticoids (Reddy, I954), or, together with the bohydrate metabolism can be only partly accounted
cortol and cortolone derivatives, as I7-ketogenic for by increased gluconeogenesis, for these
steroids (Norymberski et al., 1953). Only about steroids also antagonize insulin, promote glycogen
4 per cent. of the metabolites of cortisol can be storage, and lower the renal glucose threshold
accounted for as i7-ketosteroids, and about O.I5 (Fourman et al., 1950). Large doses diminish
per cent. of the hormone is excreted in the free glucose tolerance and cause mild glycosuria.
state (Wade and Kellie, 1957). Impaired liver Frank diabetes seldom results (less than i per cent.
function and myxoedema retard the conjugation, treated cases), and when it does is usually un-
and renal failure the excretion, of these meta- accompanied by ketonuria (Brookman et al.,
bolites, hyperthyroidism having the opposite effect 1953). Fat mobilization and ketone combustion
(Peterson et al., 1955). By means of radio-isotope are accelerated, and starvation ketosis inhibited
studies it has been shown that the high plasma (Kinsell et al., 195I). A centripetal redistribution
i7-hydroxycorticoid levels of late pregnancy are of body fat contributes towards the Cushingoid
due to delayed metabolism, and not increased habitus which is a feature of steroid overdosage.
secretion, of cortisol (Migeon et al., 1957).
Water and Electrolytes
Physiological and Pharmacological Actions The complicated actions of cortisol and corti-
of Cortisol sone on water and electrolyte metabolism, though
Despite the protean activities of cortisol, little is mainly located within the kidney, are not confined
known about the biochemical processes which to this organ, for these steroids have been shown to
mediate these effects within the cells, though there increase the extracellular fluid volume inde-
is evidence that a number of enzyme systems are pendently of changes in, external water and
involved (Ingle, I950). To quote Ingle (I950): electrolyte balance (Levitt and Bader, 195I). They
' The consequences of cortical hormone action also diminish the sodium : potassium ratio in
spread through the organism in a manner re- sweat and saliva (Conn and Fajans, 1952).
miniscent of the waves caused by the impact of a Acting as weak mineralocorticoids, cortisol and
stone in a pool of water, but the point of impact of cortisone increase the renal tubular reabsorption
the hormone remains unknown for the present.' of sodium, resulting in fluid retention. Often this
In most instances cortisol would seem to assist effect is only transient and followed by diuresis;
rather than initiate the processes which it affects frank oedema seldom follows unless other factors
(Sayers, 1950). Except for the electrolyte effects, are present. Paradoxically, and notably in
the actions of cortisol are common to all the Addisonian patients receiving DOCA, these
known glucocorticoids, whether natural or syn- steroids may initially increase sodium excretion,
thetic, varying in strength but not in quality from probably by raising the glomerular filtration rate
one such compound to another. (Garrod et al., I955a). The basis for theirDownloaded from http://pmj.bmj.com/ on February 4, 2015 - Published by group.bmj.com
'302 POSTGRADUATE MEDICAL JOURNAL 3fune 1.958
sodium-diuretic action in cardiac, scirrhotic and Anti-inflammatory and Anti-allergic Actions
nephrotic oedema, is not yet understood. Glucocorticoids modify both general and local
Potassium excretion is increased by a direct responses to inflammatory agents. Under. their
renal tubular action, augmented by potassium re- suppressive influence fever abates and there, is a
lease from''protein breakdown. As opposed to fall in the erythrocyte sedimentation rate which
pure mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone and can be correlated with a decrease in -plasma
DOC, glucoco'rticoids act specifically and per- fibrinogen and gamma-globulin concentrations
missively on water diuresis and so protect against (Fletcher et al., 1952); the plasma albumin tends
Water intoxication. Without them there is great to rise.
delay in excreting a water load, and when they are The local anti-inflammatory effects of these
given in excess water diuresis is accelerated. The steroids are related to several actions:-a lessening
underlying osmotic mechanisms are only partly of fibroblast-response and cellular reaction, a di-
understood but seem to involve a direct action on minution: in the number of mast cells and con-
the renal tubules. sequently in the amount of tissue hyaluronic acid,
and an inhibition of specific antibody synthesis.
Bone and Calcium Metabolism Whilst these actions may be desirable in the treat-
ment of collagen' diseases and of excessive con-
Here, again, the effects of glucocorticoids are nective tissue proliferation in other ,disorders, they
complex and obscure. Prolonged treatment re- predispose to the spread of tuberculosis and other
sults in negative calcium, phosphorus and bacterial infections unless appropriate antibiotic
nitrogen balances and eventually osteoporosis. cover is provided.
These steroids also antagonize the action' of vita- The remarkable. antiallergic properties of the
min D and its analogues (Dickel, ig i) and so glucocorticoids are probably related to their
neutralize the effects of antitetanic treatment in modifying action on antigen-antibody reactions
hypoparathyroidism (Moehlig and Steinbach, and on histamine release, and may be lifesaving in
I954). By inhibiting excessive calcium absorp- such conditions as status asthmaticus and bene-
tion from the gut, they correct the defect'Which ficial in many other disorders.
causes hypercalcaemia in some cases of sarcoidosis
(Hellman et al., 1956). Central Nervous System
Glucocorticoids increase cerebral excitability,
The Circulation predisposing to fits arid, psychoses in susceptible
The actions of glucocorticoids on the circulation subjects. Euphoria and insomnia are common
are largely permissive. Without them the blood accompaniments of steroid therapy and less often
pressure and glomerular filtration rate. fall sharply. agitated depression. The electroencephalograph
Similarly hypertension can be corrected by bit shows characteristic changes in Addison's disease
lateral adrenalectomy followed by minimal corti- (Forsham et al., 1949) and in patients on large
sone maintenance (Harrison et al., 1952); yet, doses of cortisone (Bolandd and Headley, .I949).
provided renal function is good, hypertension The pain-relieving properties of these steroids
seldom follows the use of these steroids in man, seem to be related to their local anti-inflammatory
despite their potentiating the pressor a'ction of action rather -thanr to any' direct effects on the
noradrenaline (Kurland and Freedberg, I95 I). sensory nervous system.
Large doses can raise the glomerular filtration rate Gastric Secretions
to supernormal levels. Cerebral blood flow in-
creases, but cerebral oxygen and glucose utilization Glucocorticoids increase the concentrattons,of
are not affected (Schieve et al., 195I). pepsin. and hydrochloric acid in the stomach,; as
reflected in a rise of uropepsin excretion (Eastcott
et al., 1953). This action, which is independent
Blood and Blood Vessels of the route of steroid administration, predisposes
Glucocorticoids in excess cause e3sinopenia and to peptic ulceration in those susceptible and is one
regression of lymphoid tissue, this last action ex- of the major risks of steroid therapy.
plaining their usefulness in the treatment' of
lymphosarcoma and lymphatic leukaemia. They Secondary Endocrie Effects
stimulate neutrophil and red cell production.and Although exerting a direct calorigenic action
can induce a mild reversible polycythaemia. They glucocorticoids in high dosage also. suppress
have no consistent effects on platelet formation, thyroid functior, as shown by diminished radio-
purpura being'suppressed because of their action iodine uptake (Berson and Yalow, 1952) and a fall
in depressing capillary fragility (Zweichach et, al., in the plasma protein-bound iodine (Hill et ial.,
r953). I950). Gonadal function may also be; depressed.Downloaded from http://pmj.bmj.com/ on February 4, 2015 - Published by group.bmj.com
June I 958 GARROD: Pharmacology of Cortisone, Cortisol and their New Analogues 303
The androgenici side-effects of large doses, such as cortisol and cortisone respectively, were dis-
acne and hirsutism, may be due to i7-ketosteroid covered in the laboratories of the Schering Cor-
metabolites of cortisone. poration (Herzog et al., I955). The introduction
of a double bond between the first two carbon
Aldosterone atoms of the steroid ring increases the glucocorti-
Aldosterone, the other major adrenocortical coid potencies of cortisol and cortisone by at least
hormone, is the principal regulator of sodium and 4 to 5 times, yet without enhancing their mineralo-
potassium balance, and is secreted mainly by the corticoid activities. Thus, prednisolone and
zona glomerulosa (Ayres et al., I957). Although prednisone can be given in therapeutic dosage
cortisol also contributes towards sodium retention without fear of causing excessive sodium re-
and in excess may even become the predominant tention or potassium depletion. In all other ways
mineralocorticoid, yet its rate of secretion is un- their actions resemble those of the parent steroids,
related to the changing requirements of sodium but with 4 to 5 times the potency. Except when
and potassium balance. treating adrenal failure, sodium retention and
potassium depletion are undesirable side-effects of
By contrast with cortisol,-the secretion of aldo- steroid therapy, and especially in debilitated,
sterone is geared to the needs of the extracellular hypertensive, oedematous or cardiac patients, or
fluid volume, or more precisely probably of the when the aim of treatment is to promote sodium
arterial side of the vascular compartment (Bartter, diuresis. These new compounds are therefore
I956). The mechanisms which regulate this rapidly replacing cortisone and cortisol in general
secretion are unknown but seem to be largely in- use, thereby obviating the need for sodium re-
dependent of pituitary control since they remain striction and supplementary potassium unless
intact after hypophysectomy. The physiological heroic doses are being used as in the treatment of
stimuli for increased aldosterone secretion are a certain blood dyscrasias.
loss or deprivation from the body of sodium, Recent studies have shown that prednisone and
water, or blood, and a high potassium intake. prednisolone are largely excreted in unmetabolized
Conversely, a high sodium intake, pitressin- form, giving rise to fewer tetrahydro-derivitives
induced water intoxication, and potassium de- (Slaunwhite and Sandberg, 1957; Vermeulen,
privation all inhibit the secretion (Bartter, 1956). 1956). As with the natural steroids, prednisolone
Prolonged oversecretion of aldosterone, as in and prednisone are freely interconvertible within
Primary Hyperaldosteronism, leads to severe the body (Gray et al., 1956).
potassium deficiency, alkalosis, and excessive
sodium retention which, being mainly intracellular, 9-alpha-fluorohydrocortisone
seldom gives rise to oedema. Similar effects occur The remarkable effects of adding a halogen atom
with overdosage of DOCA or fluorohydrocortisone in the 9-alpha position to the cortisol molecule
(vide infra), and can likewise be corrected by were discovered by Fried and Sabo (I
severely restricting the sodium intake. Of
these derivatives only the chlorinated and fluori-
nated compounds were found to exceed the natural
Synthetic Analogues of Cortisol and Cortisone steroid in potency. Whereas the glucocorticoid
By effecting minor adjustments to the steroid activity of 9-alpha-fluorohydrocortisone (FHC) is
ring or its attachments the chemist has been able about io times that of cortisone, the mineralocori-
to a remarkable degree to enhance and modify the coid activity exceeds that of the parent compound
actions of these steroid hormones. Qualitatively, by at least ioo times (Garrod et al., 1955b) and is
however, these changes have only brought about a slightly greater than that of aldosterone.
shift of balance between their glucocorticoid and Despite its enhanced glucocorticoid potency the
mineralocorticoid potencies. So far only three of extreme electrolyte activities of FHC preclude its
the many new compounds have found their way systemic use as a substitute for cortisone (Ward et
into general use: the two delta- i steroids, pred- al., 1954). However, since it can be given by
nisolone and prednisone, and 9-alpha-fluorohydro- mouth, it is an ideal substitute for DOCA in treat-
cortisone (fludrocortisone). Two other compounds ing adrenal insufficiency at doses of about O. 1-0.2
have recently been made available.* mg. a day. The cortisone-like action of such
The Delta-I Compounds: Prednisolone and amounts is very small, so cortisone must also be
Prednisone given to achieve adequate replacement.
These compound', which are analogues of This contraindication applies less when the
steroid is used topically, as in skin disease, for it
These are triamcinolone (i6 hydroxy-9-alpha-fluoro- is little absorbed into the circulation. Excessive
prednisolone) and 6-methyl prednisolone. sodium retention has, however, been reportedDownloaded from http://pmj.bmj.com/ on February 4, 2015 - Published by group.bmj.com
304 POSTGRADUATE MEDICAL JOURNAL June I958
following liberal use of FHC ointments in patients solved in 500 ml. of 5 per cent. dextrose, and act
with extensive ulcerated skin lesions. maximally when infused at a rate of io to I2 mg.
A third use of FHC, which takes advantage of an hour. The sodium succinate ester is very
its enhanced glucocorticoid activity, is in tests to soluble in water; IOO mg. given intravenously,
differentiate adrenocortical tumours from adreno- dissolved in 2 ml. of distilled water or saline,
cortical hyperplasia (Renold et al., 1955). Using begins to act within about half an hour (Orr
this compound the metabolic end-products are et al., 1955). Prednisolone-2i-phosphate has the
small enough rot to disguise the falls in I7- advantage of being stable in solution and very
ketosteroid and 17-hydroxysteroid excretion which soluble.
follow the steroid-induced suppression of endo- For topical and intraarticular use, only cortisol
genous corticotrophin in patients with adrenal or its analogues, prednisolone and FHC are effec-
hyperplasia. tive, their effective concentrations in suspension
or as ointments being roughly inversely propor-
Some More Recent Cortisol Derivatives tional to their glucocorticoid potencies (vide
By the addition of a 6-methyl group to cortisol supra). Cortisol and FHC are used in acetate
or prednisolone or a i6-OH group to FHC or form, prednisolone as the free compound or
9-alpha fluoroprednisolone compounds can be acetate.
obtained with even greater glucocorticoid potency
than prednisolone, and without excessive mineralo- BIBLIOGRAPHY
corticoid activity (Spero et al., 1956; Bernstein AYRES, P. J., GARROD, O., PEARLMAN, W. H., TAIT,
S. A. S., TAIT, J. F., and WALKER, G. (I957), Ciba Found.
et al., I956). These compounds, which have not Colloq. Endocrin., 'Hormones in Blood,' Churchill, London.
yet been subjected to full clinical trial, are un- BARTTER, F. C. (I956), Metab., 5, 369.
BERNSTEIN, S., et al. (1956), J. Amer. chem. Soc., 78, 5693.
likely to offer advantages over prednisolone as BERSON, S. A., and YALOW, R. S. (I952), J. clin. Endocr., 12, 407.
they seem to have no important qualitative dif- BOLAND, E. W., and HEADLEY, N. E. (0949),J. Amer. med. Ass.,
141, 301.
ferences in their glucocorticoid actions. BROOKMAN, J. J., DRACKMAN, S. R., SCHAEFER, L. E.,
Then, there are the 2-methyl derivatives of and ADLERSBURG, D. (I953), Diab., 2, I00.
cortisol and FHC, which are the most potent BUSH, I. E., and WILLOUGHBY, M. (19S7), Biochem.Y.., in press.
CONN, J. W., and FAJANS, S. S. (I952), Ann. Rev. Physiol., x4,
mineralocorticoids yet discovered (Liddle et al., 453-
1956). The second of these two compounds is DICKEL, H. (i5si), Minch. med. Wschr., 93, I.
several thousand times as active as cortisol on EASTCOTT, H. H. G., FAWCETT, J. K., and ROB, C. G. (1953),
Lancet, i, io68.
electrolyte metabolism, and a single oral dose is EVANS, E. S., CONTROPOULOS, A. N., and SIMPSON, N. E.
effective for about 48 hours. Many more ana- (1957), Endocrin., 60, 403.
FLETCHER, A. A., DAUPHINEE, J. A., and OGRYZLO, XI. A.
logues of cortisol are being prepared and sub- (1952), 7. clin. Invest., 3I, 56I.
FORSHAM, P. H., BENNETT, L. L., ROCHE, M., REISS,
jected to biological assay. R. S., SLESSOR, A., FLINCK, E. B., and THORN, G. W.
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Modes of Administration of Steroid Hormones FOURMAN, P., BARTTER, F. C., ALBRIGHT, F., DEMPSEY,
E., CARROLL, E., and ALEXANDER, J. A. (I950), Y. clin.
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FRIED, J., and SABO, E. F. (1954), Y. Amer. chem. Soc., 76, I455.
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WALKER, G. (I955b), Lancet, 2, 367.
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W., HERSHBERG, E. B., PERLMAN, P. L., and PECHET,
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G. W. (I950), Y. clin. Endocr., I0, 1375.
This route of administration offers no real advan- INGLE, D. J. (I950), Ibid., to, 1312.
tages over the oral route, and is rarely indicated. KINSELL, L. W., MARGEN, S., MICHAELS, G. D., and
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June 1958 BAYLISS: Cortisone and its Analogues in Endocrinology 309
cretion. A similar effect may also be observed GURLING, K. J., GORE, M. B. R., and BARON, D. N. (1958),
Y. Endocr. 16, 304.
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KUPPERMAN, H. S., BLATT, M. H. G., VESELL, M.,
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AND CONTROLLED HYPOTENSION ANAESTHESIA
C. F. Scurr, M.V.O., D.A., F.F.A.R.C.S. B. A. Sellick, D.A., F.F.A.R.C.S.
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The Pharmacology of
Cortisone, Cortisol
(Hydrocortisone) and their
New Analogues
Oliver Garrod
Postgrad Med J 1958 34: 300-309
doi: 10.1136/pgmj.34.392.300
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