The Potential Expansion of Methamphetamine Production and Distribution in Canada
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The Potential Expansion of Methamphetamine Production and Distribution in Canada A BACKGROUND STUDY PREPARED BY BRUNO NORDESTE CARLETON UNIVERSITY NOVEMBER 2004 A Report Commissioned by Criminal Intelligence Service Canada Feedback is welcome and may be sent to cifp@carleton.ca David Carment, Principal Investigator http://www.carleton.ca/cifp
BACKGROUND STUDY -- METHAMPHETAMINE 1
About the Project
In January 2004, Criminal Intelligence Service Canada (CISC) initiated Project SOOTHSAYER.
The goal of the project was to develop a strategic early warning system (SEWS) for organized
and serious crime in Canada. The project had three broad objectives: I) the development of a
methodology suited to intelligence warning for law enforcement; II) the establishment of a
reporting mechanism; and III) the development of dissemination and communications methods
(i.e. a product line). SEWS focuses on emergent events and phenomena – be they local, national
or international, demographic, economic or technological – that could potentially alter the
organized and serious crime situation in Canada. CISC sought out the support of the Country
Indicators for Foreign Policy (CIFP) at the Norman Paterson School of International Affairs,
Carleton University, which had a demonstrated expertise in warning for state failure, risk
assessment and early warning. A central element of this venture was the development of the
project’s scanning component, known as the SENTINEL Watch List. This report, commissioned
by the CISC and produced by CIFP, is the essential background to one of the project’s pilot
SENTINEL on the state of the methamphetamine market in Canada and the role of organized
crime within it.
About the Author
Bruno Nordeste, MA, holds a Masters degree in International Affairs from the Norman Paterson
School of International Affairs, at Carleton University where he specialized in conflict analysis and
conflict resolution. Before entering Carleton, Bruno completed a four-year combined honours
program in History and Political Science at McMaster University where he graduated with
distinction. Bruno served as project analyst and research consultant for the Country Indicators for
Foreign Policy project’s Watch List Report and the CIFP/CISC joint “Creating an Organized
Crime SENTINEL: development and implementation of a strategic early warning methodology for
law enforcement”.BACKGROUND STUDY -- METHAMPHETAMINE 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS: I Introduction 3 II Executive Summary 5 III Demand, Consumption, and Usage of Methamphetamine 6 1) Demand Dynamics 6 2) Consumption 6 3) Demand Trends 8 4) Substitutes and Compliments to Methamphetamine 9 IV Supply, Production, Trafficking and Market Manipulation 11 1) Supply Dynamics 11 2) Production 12 3) Trafficking and Smuggling 13 4) Supply Trends 13 5) Profitability 15 6) Potential for Market Monopolization 16 7) Methamphetamine Market and Organized Crime 16 V Societal Factors and Usage 18 1) Who Uses Methamphetamine? 18 2) Instrumental Use 18 3) Sub-cultural/ Recreational Use 19 4) Chronic Use 19 VI Regulatory Structures and Precursor Control 21 1) Canada’s Drug Strategy 21 2) Precursor Diversion 21 3) Precursor Control 22 VII Environmental Factors 24 1) Environmental Requirements 24 2) Environmental Impacts 25 VIII Bibliography 26
BACKGROUND STUDY -- METHAMPHETAMINE 3
I – INTRODUCTION
First synthesized in 1893 from ephedrine in obesity (through weight control), and
Japan, a natural stimulant and organic depression.4
substance found in the ephedra plant,
methamphetamine is a powerfully addictive These same stimulant properties warranted
stimulant that dramatically affects the central their use during the Second World War as
nervous system.1 Methamphetamine is also they were distributed in large quantities to
referred to as ‘speed’, ‘meth’, ‘chalk’, ‘jib’, military personnel to ensure alertness,
‘teck’ ‘zip’, ‘spoosh’, ‘shi-shi’, ‘poor man’s increase productivity, enhance fighting spirit
cocaine’ and ‘load of laundry’. In its more and suppress appetite during the long and
potent, crystallized, smokeable form (d- arduous wartime campaigns. Over 200
methamphetamine hydrochloride) it is also million tablets were supplied to American
known as ‘crystal meth’, ‘crystal’, ‘ice’, troops during the war period and an
‘crank’, ‘fire’, ‘glass’, ‘shards’ and ‘shabu’. 2 unknown quantity was supplied to the
Methamphetamine is often confused with Japanese military in the same period.
other stimulants such as ephedrine (its Subsequently, amphetamine use spread to
precursor), amphetamine (of which it is a other segments of society where energy,
derivative), caffeine, and illicit stimulants stamina, and performance were significant
such as ecstasy. components of the lifestyle, for example:
long distance truck drivers; students; and
Used for hundreds of years as medicine in athletes.5
China, methamphetamine (and the greater
group of amphetamine type stimulants ATS) Recreational use of methamphetamine was
was introduced in the 1930s and originally first associated with American motorcycle
intended for use in nasal decongestant and gangs in 1950s and British ‘mods and
bronchial inhalers. 3 However, its stimulant rockers’ of the 1960s, who used the drug in
properties found medical use in treating a way that is remarkably similar to the use of
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder these same drugs today by young people
(ADHD), narcolepsy (a sleeping disorder), associated with the ‘dance/rave culture’.6
Large stocks of amphetamine (and
Methamphetamine) left over from licit
1 production during the war period fed a
British Columbia Ministry of Health Services,
Crystal Meth and Other Methamphetamines: An number of ‘epidemics’ in Japan, the United
Integrated BC Strategy (Ministry of State for States, and Sweden. In the US,
Mental Health and Addiction Services, 2004) p. 4. methamphetamine remained easily
Copy available at website: obtainable without a prescription until 1951.
http://www.heatlhservices.gov.bc.ca/mhd. In each case amphetamines were commonly
2
Ibid; and Susan Pennell, Joe Ellett, Cynthia
Rienick, and Jackie Grimes, Meth Matters:
available in both the licit and illicit markets,
Report on Methamphetamine Users in Five while use of the drug became associated
Western Cities (Criminal Justice Research with particular sections of the community
Division of the San Diego Association of
Governments, 1999) p. ix; and National
4
Institute on Drug Abuse, Community Drug Ibid.
5
Bulletin: Methamphetamine (US Department of Division of Mental Health and Prevention of
Health and Human Services, 1998); and Jane Substance Abuse, Epidemiology and Social
Buxton, Vancouver Drug Use Epidemiology Context of Amphetamine-type Stimulant Use
(Canadian Community Epidemiology Network on (World Health Organization 1997), p. 12; and
Drug Use, 2003), 44. British Columbia Ministry of Health Services,
3
British Columbia Ministry of Health Services, Crystal Meth and Other Methamphetamines: An
Crystal Meth and Other Methamphetamines: An Integrated BC Strategy, p. 4.
6
Integrated BC Strategy, p. 4; and, Drug Policy Division of Mental Health and Prevention of
Information Clearinghouse, Fact Sheet: Substance Abuse, Epidemiology and Social
Methamphetamine (Office of National Drug Context of Amphetamine-type Stimulant Use
Control Policy 2003) p. 1. (World Health Organization 1997), p. 12.BACKGROUND STUDY -- METHAMPHETAMINE 4
through medical, occupational or process through which methamphetamine
recreational use.7 could be produced.
Furthermore, its use spread from the ‘avant The methamphetamine problem spread
garde’, who popularized the drug, to the quickly between 1992 and 1997, arriving in
more marginalized sections of society. This Oregon and Washington by 1994. It is
phenomenon was essential in the creation of believed that the spread to the northern
a subculture of hard core addicts and users states along the Canadian border was due
who became the driving force behind the to the large amounts of pseudo-ephedrine
demand for methamphetamine in the drug (another precursor chemical for
market. The increase of demand led to the methamphetamine) being smuggled across
quick depletion of licit stocks leftover from the border from Canada into the US.10
wartime, and combined with the stricter
regulation in licit production and limits to The history of methamphetamine in Canada
medical prescriptions, encouraged illicit is much less clear, and not very well
manufacturing. documented. Perhaps this is due to the lack
of a large scale epidemic similar in
In the US, the illicit manufacture of proportion to that witnessed in the US.
methamphetamine was primarily associated However, methamphetamine has long been
with organized motorcycle gangs (OMG) like an established presence in Western
the ‘Hell’s Angels’, and limited to the Canada, particularly British Columbia (BC).
western regions of the country, principally BC experienced high methamphetamine use
the San Francisco Bay area from where illicit in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. Prevalence
production began in the 1960s. The majority in use of methamphetamine has always
of the methamphetamine market, however, been greater in BC and Alberta, and as of
was still dominated by independent 2002 it has once again surfaced as a drug of
producers who usually focused on feeding concern.11
personal and local consumption –
colloquially known as ‘mom & pop’ In November of 2004, stakeholders from
operations.8 across Western Canada met in Vancouver
to develop a collaborative approach to
However, as early as 1996 indicators began address the issue of ‘crystal meth’ use and
emerging of increased methamphetamine production. 12 The Western Canadian
manufacturing and trafficking in various Summit on Methamphetamine is evidence of
locations throughout the US, which indicated the growing concern that Canadians should
that the methamphetamine drug market had be showing to this issue – particularly with
spread well beyond its western origins. The the example of the effects of organized
shift was attributed to the decline in the crime on the methamphetamine market in
cocaine trade and the greater interest in the US.
methamphetamine by Mexican organized
crime groups familiar with the dynamics of
drug markets.9 Moreover, the importance of
the Internet cannot be over-looked in making
widely available and accessible information
related to the ingredients, methods, and
10
Office of Drugs and Crime, Global Illicit Drug
Trends 2003 (New York: United Nations, 2003),
p. 34.
7 11
Ibid. British Columbia Ministry of Health Services,
8
Susan Pennell et al., Meth Matters: Report on Crystal Meth and Other Methamphetamines: An
Methamphetamine Users in Five Western Cities, Integrated BC Strategy, p. 5.
12
p. ix, 3; and Division of Mental Health and Western Canadian experts converge to deal
Prevention of Substance Abuse, Epidemiology with crystal meth crisis, retrieved November 14,
and Social Context of Amphetamine-type 2004:
Stimulant Use p. 12. http://healthandfitness.sympatico.msn.ca/News/
9
Susan Pennell et al., Meth Matters: Report on ContentPosting.aspx?contentid=c2b02332b35b4
Methamphetamine Users in Five Western Cities, 7a593efe61f302ef84a&show=False&number=0&
p. ix, 4. showbyline=False&subtitle=&abc=abcBACKGROUND STUDY -- METHAMPHETAMINE 5
II – EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Methamphetamine is produced domestically
in Canada in British Columbia, Alberta,
Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, and most
1) PREVALENCE recently Saskatchewan. Higher rates of
The use of methamphetamine in Canada is production are witnessed in British Columbia
low relative to the abuse of other substances and Alberta.
such as alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis.
Overall, its use is still less than that of
cocaine and heroin; however, its prevalence 4) PRODUCTION
may be considered acute in certain regions, The production of methamphetamine in
particularly in Western Canada. Provincially, Canada is dominated by independent
methamphetamine abuse is higher in British producers feeding local demand. However,
Columbia and Alberta. There does seem to there is significant involvement of organized
be evidence of a move eastwards as use crime groups at all levels of the
has become more significant in Ontario and methamphetamine market. In Canada it
Quebec, and it has surfaced in rural appears that organized motorcycle gangs
communities in Saskatchewan and Manitoba [OMG] like the Hells Angels and Asian-
as well. based organized crime are the two largest
identifiable groups involved in the
methamphetamine market. However, the
2) DEMAND Canadian market remains competitive and
Methamphetamine use is stable among the dynamic, with numerous independent
general population. Among the youth organized crime groups involved at all
population its use is higher but has also levels. Moreover, there appears to be signs
remained stable. Very high rates of abuse of interrelatedness or even complementarity
occur in certain vulnerable societal between differing drug markets (in Canada
subgroups (some of whose lifestyles are particularly between marijuana grow and
associated with a higher demand for illicit methamphetamine production distribution
stimulants). These include, but are not operations).
limited to: children or family members
associated with or in homes where
methamphetamine use or production is 5) COUNTERMEASURES
taking place; youth and young adults Precursor control remains the best supply
between the ages of 14-29 including street reduction method available to combat the
youth; youth attending rave dance scenes; expansion of the methamphetamine market.
young women with perceptual weight Canada has enacted and implemented its
problems; athletes and ‘super achievers’ Precursor Control Regulations recently,
(ambitious students); the homeless; some beginning in January of 2003. The success
segments of the homosexual community of these regulations is not yet apparent as
including those attending sex clubs; sex insufficient time has passed in order to
trade workers; multiple-drug users; and evaluate their effectiveness. However, some
those in rural communities where provisions contained within the regulations
methamphetamine is being manufactured, indicate the implementation of a process of
making it inexpensive enough to become the voluntary reporting of suspicious
illicit drug of choice. Trends indicate that transactions by the private sector. Moreover,
rates of use amongst these populations are the Precursor Control Regulations rely on
increasing and are fuelling greater demand the effective and consistent cooperation
for methamphetamine. between both the private sector industry and
retailers, along with relevant government
agencies. This creates room for possible
3) SUPPLY subversion and exploitation of any
The manufacturing of methamphetamine monitoring or enforcement process.
has remained relatively stable, with some
recent spikes in production. Data is mostly
provided by seizures of methamphetamine-
producing laboratories and finished
methamphetamine product.BACKGROUND STUDY -- METHAMPHETAMINE 6
III – DEMAND, DEMAND TRENDS, CONSUMPTION, AND USAGE OF METHAMPHETAMINE
• Methamphetamine possesses greater • Prevalence of methamphetamine use
functional utility then most traditional illicit appears to be low and stable among the
substances. general population, but rising among
• Frequency of consumption varies depending vulnerable sub-groups.
on location and individuals. British Columbia, • Through its association with ‘designer drugs’
Alberta and Ontario appear to have a higher and ‘club drugs’, methamphetamine has
prevalence rates, with higher levels of gained greater popularity. It is also a popular
methamphetamine consumption associated and cheaper substitute for cocaine.
with ‘at risk groups’.
1) Demand Dynamics same stimulant effects (like cocaine). 16
Moreover, until recently the public health risk
A complex of social, cultural and economic posed by methamphetamine was often
forces appears to drive demand for ATS completely overshadowed by the
substances like methamphetamine. ATS institutional fixation with plant-based drugs,
portray an image of modernism in their close which often leaves law enforcement, the
association with the contemporary medical establishment, and drug prevention
phenomenon of ‘designer drugs’, especially networks with few usable tools to both
when compared with the traditional identify and adequately deal with surfacing
stimulants (i.e. caffeine and nicotine) methamphetamine abuse.17
frequently consumed in many societies and
traditional illicit drugs (i.e. cocaine and 2) Consumption
heroin). 13 Unlike traditional narcotics,
methamphetamine is most often Current prevalence estimates indicate that
manufactured in the country of consumption, consumption of methamphetamine in
thus eliminating the need for the elaborate Canada is limited to between 0.5% and 1%
trafficking and smuggling methods across of the population 15 years of age and up.18
international frontiers.14 Lifetime prevalence among youth and young
adults between the ages of 12 and 25 is
Methamphetamine, like other ATS estimated at less than 5%.19
substances, also possesses a greater
functional utility which allows it to more However, consumption varies depending on
easily create niche markets for which other location and individuals. British Columbia,
illicit drugs cannot provide for. 15 Alberta and Ontario appear to have a higher
Methamphetamine is comparatively less percentage of methamphetamine users. In
expensive then traditional narcotics with the B.C. it is estimated that lifetime use among
school age children is 4%. 20 In Alberta,
13
Expert Meeting on Amphetamine-type
16
Stimulants Shanghai November 25-29, Policy Office of Drugs and Crime, World Drug Report
Options for Countermeasures (Shanghai: United 2004, p. 175.
17
Nations Drug Control Programme, 1996), p. 4; Expert Meeting on Amphetamine-type
and Office of Drugs and Crime, Global Illicit Drug Stimulants Shanghai November 25-29, Policy
Trends 2003, p. 113. Options for Countermeasures, p. 6.
14 18
United Nations Drug Control Programme, Office of Drugs and Crime, World Drug Report
Amphetamine-Type Stimulants: A Global Review 2004, p. 177.
19
(Vienna: Commission on Narcotic Drugs, 1996), Gary Roberts et al. and Canadian Centre on
p. 44; and Office of Drugs and Crime, World Substance Abuse, Preventing Substance Use
Drug Report 2004 (New York: United Nations, Problems Among Young People: A Compendium
2004), p. 159. of Best Practices (Ottawa: Office of Canada’s
15
Expert Meeting on Amphetamine-type Drug Strategy Health Canada, 2001), p. 8.
20
Stimulants Shanghai November 25-29, Policy Lisa May et al., Healthy Youth Development:
Options for Countermeasures, p. 5. Highlights from the 2003 Student Health SurveyBACKGROUND STUDY -- METHAMPHETAMINE 7
students surveyed from grades 7 to 12 show among injection multiple-drug users at four
a past year use of 5.3%.21 An Ontario survey different sites (Regina, Sudbury, Toronto,
of students, ranging from grade 7 to 12, and Victoria) of those surveyed in Victoria
showed a lifetime use of 4.3% and a past 32.7% said that they injected
year use of 3.3%. The same surveys show methamphetamine, and 18.7% said they
that use among males is typically greater had consumed it in another form. 24 These
than that among females and that use peaks users were also more likely to have a higher
at grades 10 and 11, then drops in grade 12. rate of use.
Prevalence increases again from the ages of
19 to 25.22 The higher rates of use in BC have led to
greater awareness of the problem and
Other provincial student survey data from associated societal and health risks.
Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Methamphetamine related deaths in the past
Island and New Brunswick does not indicate three years (2002-2004) total 25, and 17
methamphetamine prevalence directly, and new cases of Leucoencephalopathy (toxic
it is assumed that it is lumped together in the damage of white matter of the brain) have
category of ‘other illicit substances’. The been identified since 2003, 8 of which have
same is true for the limited data on the died (note: this toxic damage is also
territories; Yukon, North West Territories, attributed to heavy abuse of heroin).25
and Nunavut. This is in itself an indication
that methamphetamine use has not yet Alberta, Ontario and Quebec do not yet
become an observable problem within these have such alarming cases resulting from
regions. high levels of abuse. However, in Edmonton
it is estimated that 5.3% of youth have
These surveys do not however represent the consumed ‘crystal meth’ in the past twelve
prevalence in ‘out-of-the-mainstream’ youth, months (surpassing cocaine at 2.9%), and
or prevalence among the adult population. among street youth ‘crystal meth’ is second
Data reflecting use among the general only to marijuana as the most commonly
population is difficult to collate and is usually used drugs over the past three months with
estimated. However, the indication is that a prevalence of 8.1%.26 In Calgary, the rave
prevalence varies with location, and culture and ‘club scene’ are gaining
circumstance. BC and Alberta show the popularity and it is anticipated that
highest rates of methamphetamine abuse, methamphetamine use is high with those
followed by Ontario and Quebec (who show associated with such subgroups, as well as
a greater use of ecstasy). those in the rural areas where the drug is
manufactured. 27 In Toronto and Montreal
In BC the number of youth whom have used (and to a lesser extent some areas of
methamphetamine ranges from 1.4% and Northern Ontario) there is concern over the
3.3% (both in school and street youth) in the
rural areas of the province, to 10% in 24
Health Canada, I-Track: Enhanced
Victoria and 70% in Vancouver (street Surveillance of Risk Behaviours Among Injecting
youth). 23 In a survey of risk behaviours Drug Users in Canada: Pilot Survey Report.
February 2004 (Surveillance and Risk
Assessment Division, Centre for Infectious
(Vancouver: The McCreary Centre Society, Disease Prevention and Control, Health Canada,
2004), p. 17; and British Columbia Ministry of 2004), p. 18-19.
25
Health Services, Crystal Meth and Other British Columbia Ministry of Health Services,
Methamphetamines: An Integrated BC Strategy, Crystal Meth and Other Methamphetamines: An
p. 22. Integrated BC Strategy, p. 22; and Jane Buxton,
21
Alberta Alcohol and Drug Abuse Commission, Vancouver Drug Use Epidemiology, p. 44; and
Adolescent Substance and Gambling Use May Colleen Anne Dell and Karen Garabedian,
2003 (Edmonton: Government of Alberta, 2003). Canadian Community Epidemiology Network on
22
Ontario Student Drug Use Survey, Drug Use Drug Use 2002 National Report Drug Trends
Among Ontario Students 1977-2003 (Toronto: (Ottawa: Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse,
Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 2003), p. 2003), p. 89.
26
4. 2003 Canadian Community Epidemiology
23
British Columbia Ministry of Health Services, Network Site Updates (October 2003 Annual
Crystal Meth and Other Methamphetamines: An Meeting), p. 3.
27
Integrated BC Strategy, p. 22. Ibid.BACKGROUND STUDY -- METHAMPHETAMINE 8
use of club drugs and associated ‘designer students grades 7 to 12 between 1998 and
drugs’ among which methamphetamine is 2003).31
often found.28
However, among the aforementioned
Moreover, higher levels of societal subgroups, methamphetamine use
methamphetamine consumption in these is increasing, particularly in areas of
locations are associated with what are Western Canada. In BC methamphetamine
identified as ‘at risk groups.’ Youth, and related deaths have increased every year
particularly street youth are two groups that since 2000 (please refer to Figure 1).32 The
can be discerned from the above 17 cases of Leucoencephalopathy since
information. However, analysis into the 2003 is an increase from 4 in 2002. 33 A
social context of the methamphetamine specialized detoxification clinic in Victoria
problem has yielded other identifiable has seen its admission for ‘crystal meth’
subgroups. These include: children or family increase from 17 to 117 over the past 4
members associated with or in homes where years. Another report states that more then
methamphetamine use or production is 70% of all admissions into detoxifications
taking place; youth and young adults clinics in Victoria and Vancouver are for
between the ages of 14-29 including street methamphetamine abuse with the average
youth; youth attending rave dance scenes; age of admission at 16.34
young women with perceptual weight
problems; athletes and ‘super achievers’ Figure 1. Methamphetamine related deaths in
(ambitious students); the homeless; some British Columbia: 2000-March 2004
segments of the homosexual community
including those attending sex clubs; sex 12
trade workers; multiple-drug users; and
those in rural communities where 10
methamphetamine is being manufactured 8
and where the availability of cheap
Deaths
methamphetamine makes it the illicit drug of 6
choice.29 The logic behind what places these
societal subgroups at a higher risk of 4
methamphetamine use will be addressed in
2
a later section.
0
3) Demand Trends 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
(Jan-
Prevalence of methamphetamine use Mar)
appears to be low and stable among the
general population. Methamphetamine still Source: British Columbia Ministry of Health Services,
Crystal Meth and Other Methamphetamines: An
ranks between fifth and seventh in Canada
Integrated BC Strategy 2004.
in terms preferred substance of abuse well
behind alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana. 30
Among the general youth population
methamphetamine use is for the most part 31
Ontario Student Drug Use Survey, Drug Use
stable with signs of decrease in Ontario Among Ontario Students 1977-2003, p. 24; and
(between 1999 and 2003) and BC Lisa May et al., Healthy Youth Development:
(prevalence dropping from 5% to 4% in Highlights from the 2003 Student Health Survey,
p. 17.
32
British Columbia Ministry of Health Services,
Crystal Meth and Other Methamphetamines: An
Integrated BC Strategy, p. 22.
33
Colleen Anne Dell and Karen Garabedian,
28
Ibid., pp. 6-7. Canadian Community Epidemiology Network on
29
British Columbia Ministry of Health Services, Drug Use 2002 National Report Drug Trends
Crystal Meth and Other Methamphetamines: An (Ottawa: Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse,
Integrated BC Strategy, p. 16. 2003), p. 89.
30 34
Office of Drugs and Crime, World Drug Report Jane Buxton, Vancouver Drug Use
2004, p. 177. Epidemiology, pp. 42-45.BACKGROUND STUDY -- METHAMPHETAMINE 9
In fact, in the majority of the cases stated confidence, wakefulness, libido, alertness
above, the patients/victims are youth and well-being. Due to the body’s inability to
associated with one or more of the quickly process the chemicals in
aforementioned subgroups at risk. Similarly, methamphetamine the ‘high’ can last up to
trends are surfacing in neighbouring Alberta 12 hours, which contrasts to the shorter
among relevant subgroups. In Toronto there ‘high’ experienced from cocaine which the
is concern over the significant increase in body is able to process much more quickly
the hospital discharge data classification of (up to 50% of the substance is removed
dependent abuse of ‘other’, which is from the body within the first hour). 38 The
attributed to the increasing popularity of longer-lasting high, combined with the
‘designer drugs’ (in which cheaper price of methamphetamine, make it
methamphetamine is often found).35 a very popular substitute for cocaine (poor
man’s cocaine).
Hence, while trends in methamphetamine
use among the general population seem The versatility in methods of consumption
stable and low, the concern over the abuse also may remove the stigma that some may
of the drug among societal subgroups is have to experimenting with cocaine or
increasing as trends indicate a higher and heroin. Unlike cocaine, which is snorted or
more frequent incidence of use. This pattern smoked (if it is synthesized into ‘crack
is historically consistent with the beginnings cocaine’), methamphetamine can be
of most methamphetamine ‘epidemics’. A smoked, snorted, injected, or orally
strong subculture of prevalent users and ingested. This versatility makes
addicts is necessary to encourage the methamphetamine accessible to multiple
expansion of the illicit manufacturing of drug environments. 39 The ability to orally
methamphetamine and creation of new ingest methamphetamine has allowed it to
markets for the drug.36 ‘piggy back’ on the popularity of ‘club drugs’
and ‘designer drugs’ which often come in an
4) Substitutes and Compliments to ingestible pill form and have the same
Methamphetamine physiological effects as methamphetamine.
Methamphetamine is chemically similar to This has allowed methamphetamine to
cocaine in the physiological response it compliment the success of Ecstasy in some parts
induces in the human brain. of Canada. A chemical analysis conducted by the
Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) of
Methamphetamine (like cocaine) acts on the drugs seized at rave dances between September
brain’s reward pathway, increasing the 2001 and June 2002 showed that what most
release of neurotransmitters dopamine, people thought they purchased as Ecstasy
noradrenaline, and serotonin. 37 This yields actually turned out to contain a variety of
an initial rush of pleasurable disposition that mixtures. Only 24% of tablets and 11% of
is followed by feelings of prolonged capsules contained pure Ecstasy. The most
euphoria, increased levels of energy, self- common ingredient mixed in was
methamphetamine (please refer to Figure 2).40 A
similar analysis was conducted again by the
35
2003 Canadian Community Epidemiology RCMP of 356 samples seized in seven ‘raves’ in
Network Site Updates (October 2003 Annual Montreal between October 2002 and April 2004.
Meeting), p. 7. The results were congruent with those of the
36
Division of Mental Health and Prevention of earlier analysis; there is no relation between the
Substance Abuse, Epidemiology and Social
Context of Amphetamine-type Stimulant Use
38
(World Health Organization 1997), p. 12; and British Columbia Ministry of Health Services,
Hiroshi Suwaki, Methamphetamine Abuse in Crystal Meth and Other Methamphetamines: An
Japan in Methamphetamine Abuse: Integrated BC Strategy, p. 23.
39
Epidemiologic Issues and Implications eds. National Institute on Drug Abuse, Community
Marissa A. Miller and Nicholas J. Kozel (National Drug Bulletin: Methamphetamine (US
Institute on Drug Abuse research monograph Department of Health and Human Services,
115, 1991), pp. 82-86. 1998).
37 40
Deidre Ah Shene, “Crystal Meth” in Jane Buxton, Vancouver Drug Use
Developments 23:2 (Spring 2003). Epidemiology, pp. 43, 55.BACKGROUND STUDY -- METHAMPHETAMINE 10
logo, the colour or shape of the pill and the active may lead to future substitution and
41
ingredients that is found in those substances. complimentary effects in the
methamphetamine market. This may provide
Hence, methamphetamine’s close association additional routes for expansion.
with cocaine and club drugs (‘designer drugs’)
Figure 2. Analysis of drugs seized at Raves by the RCMP: September 2001-June 2002
MDMA, MA, K, Caf (3.64%) MDMA, MA, K (1.82%) MDMA, MA, E/PE, DM, K (1.82%)
MDMA, MA, E/PE, Caf (1.82%) MDMA, MA, E/PE (3.64%) MDMA, MA (9.09%)
MDMA, E/PE (9.09%) MDMA, Caf (9.09%) MDA, MDMA, MA, K, Caf (12.73%)
MDA, MDMA, MA, E/PE (5.45%) MDA, MDMA, MA (5.45%) MDA, MDMA, E/PE, Caf (1.82%)
MDA, MDMA, Caf (1.82%) MDA, MDMA (1.82%) MDA, MA, E/PE, DM, K (3.64%)
MDA, MA, Caf (1.82%) MDA, MA (3.63%) MDA, E/PE (1.82%)
MA, E/PE, Caf (1.82%) MA, E/PE (1.82%) MA, COD (1.82%)
MA, Caf (1.82%) MA, A, K (1.82%) MA, A (1.82%)
K, Caf (1.82%) E/PE (7.27%)
A Amphetamine K Ketamine
Caf Caffeine MA Methamphetamine
COD Codeine MDA 3,4-Dmethylenedioxyamphetamine
DM Dextromethorphan MDMA Ecstasy;3,4Ðmethylenedioxyamphetamine
E/PE Ephedrine/pseudoephedrine
Source: Vancouver Drug Use Epidemiology 2003
41
Peter Rakobowchuk, RCMP, Health Canada
warn content, dosage of illegal designer drugs
unsafe in Canadian Press Wednesday, November
17, 2004. Retrieved on November 17, 2004:
http://www.canada.com.BACKGROUND STUDY -- METHAMPHETAMINE 11
IV – SUPPLY, PRODUCTION, TRAFFICKING, AND MARKET MANIPULATION DYNAMICS
• Unlike cocaine, methamphetamine is • British Columbia and Alberta account for
generally manufactured in the country of the majority of methamphetamine
consumption, eliminating the need for production in Canada. The majority of
elaborate trafficking and smuggling networks. methamphetamine is manufactured by
• Economic incentives, simplicity of synthesis, independent producers, with significantly
greater flexibility, and location of production increasing involvement of OCGs,
drive methamphetamine supply. particularly the ‘Hell’s Angels’ OMG and
• There is a secular upward trend in the supply Asian based OCGs.
of methamphetamine with production and • Smuggling and trafficking networks
consumption gradually expanding eastwards; uncovered through joint US-Canadian law
little evidence of production in the Maritime enforcement efforts may indicate high
Provinces, however. degree of inter-connectivity between
• High profits and easy return on capital methamphetamine markets and relevant
investment reduce what were once prohibitive OCGs in the US and Canada.
financial barriers to entering the drug market. • Market monopolization would require
control of precursor chemicals; at this
stage this remains highly unlikely.
1) Supply Dynamics production may present strong incentives for
drug entrepreneurs and OCGs seeking
The factors that drive supply of higher profits from the drug trade.42
methamphetamine are similar to those of
other ATS substances. These include The simplicity of the synthesis process that
economic incentives, simplicity of synthesis, renders methamphetamine (requiring only a
greater flexibility, and location of production. few steps) also explains why a large number
of drug entrepreneurs choose to enter the
There are a number of economic incentives ATS market. Methamphetamine production
associated with the production of does not require a great level of
methamphetamine, but the main supply sophistication. 43 Most methamphetamine
push factor is the perception of high profits. operations in Canada and the US are thus
Profitability of methamphetamine will be ‘mom & pop’ operations (independent
discussed in a future section, however at producers) using relatively primitive ‘kitchen
this point it is important to point out that the laboratories’. Simplicity of method also
profit margin at the manufacturing level is invites experimentation and makes
quite high as the precursors, chemicals, and clandestine manufacturing easier.44 Though
equipment are easily accessible, widely OCGs may prefer more sophisticated
available, and relatively cheap. facilities in order to realize economies of
scale for their operations, the simplicity in
Furthermore, manufacturing of production remains a constant.
methamphetamine takes place in the
country of consumption; thus the
manufacturer does not need to incur costs of 42
Expert Meeting on Amphetamine-type
trafficking and smuggling the product across Stimulants Shanghai November 25-29, Policy
international boundaries. The low cost and Options for Countermeasures, p. 5; and Office of
high profit factor is a defining characteristic Drugs and Crime, Global Illicit Drug Trends 2003,
pp. 9, 47.
of the global expansion of ATS 43
United Nations Drug Control Programme,
manufacturing and provides a good Amphetamine-Type Stimulants: A Global Review,
explanation of why illicit ATS manufacture p. 44
44
and trafficking have grown so rapidly in the Expert Meeting on Amphetamine-type
1990s, and why methamphetamine Stimulants Shanghai November 25-29, Policy
Options for Countermeasures, p. 5.BACKGROUND STUDY -- METHAMPHETAMINE 12
The level of simplicity in the synthesis 2) Production
process also yields a greater level of
flexibility in the manufacture of The manufacturing of methamphetamine in
methamphetamine in comparison to Canada is dominated by independent
traditional plant-based narcotics. While producers who manufacture
cocaine and heroin are derived from one methamphetamine for personal and local
source, even small quantities of consumption. 47 These producers generally
methamphetamine can be profitably operate small, unsophisticated ‘kitchen
manufactured by using a number of laboratories’ either from their residences or
appropriate chemicals and techniques. 45 from a number of locations (refer to
Moreover, flexibility also applies to the Environmental Factors for further
movement of operations. Because of the low information). These ‘mom & pop’ operations
level of sophistication associated with the are the most common form of clandestine
manufacturing of methamphetamine the laboratories and account for the majority of
operations can be hastily dismantled or lab seizures in Canada and the US.
abandoned, only to be reassembled or
initiated elsewhere. The section on In addition, there is significant evidence that
Environmental Factors elaborates on this OCGs are involved in the production (and
point further. distribution) of methamphetamine in
Canada, even though it only accounts for a
Finally, location of production is an fraction of the methamphetamine supply. 48
additional factor that drives supply. Unlike The major OCG involvement is from
plant-based drugs such as heroin and organized motorcycle gangs (OMG)
cocaine, methamphetamine manufacturing operating primarily in Western Canada.
generally takes place in the country of Other OCGs involved include Asian based
consumption. Manufacturers tend to locate OCGs (particularly Vietnamese drug rings)
themselves close to the area of distribution, and various independent OCGs with no
reducing transportation costs and increasing defining characteristic besides their
profits. This also allows manufacturers to involvement in the clandestine production
respond to shifts in the market through rapid and dissemination of methamphetamine. 49
relocation to a new area. Freed of the need Independent OCGs and the ‘Hell’s Angels’
for trafficking and smuggling networks, OMG are also involved in precursor
methamphetamine operations can run more chemical diversion networks.50
efficiently and with fewer personnel than
comparable cocaine or heroin networks.46 Moreover, surveys of laboratory seizures
indicate that the majority of
All these factors ensure that the methamphetamine production takes place in
methamphetamine market remains Western Canada, with BC and Alberta
competitive, profitable and dynamic, and accounting for the great majority of seizures
acts to reduce the risks involved in of methamphetamine-producing laboratories
methamphetamine production. Most of all, over the last six years (117 of 148). 51
as we shall explore shortly, it also According to the principles of
encourages the involvement of OCGs. methamphetamine markets in other part of
the globe, the closer one gets to a site of
manufacturing the greater the availability of
methamphetamine and thus, the lower the
47
Interview with RCMP, Tuesday October 5,
2004.
45 48
United Nations Drug Control Programme, Ibid.
49
Amphetamine-Type Stimulants: A Global Review, Ibid.; and RCMP and DEA, Chemical Diversion
p. 44; and Office of Drugs and Crime, Global and Synthetic Drug Manufacture (September
Illicit Drug Trends 2003, p. 47. 2001), p. 9.
46 50
United Nations Drug Control Programme, Ibid.
51
Amphetamine-Type Stimulants: A Global Review, Interview with RCMP, Tuesday October 5,
p. 44. 2004.BACKGROUND STUDY -- METHAMPHETAMINE 13
price.52 Again, this suggests that production methamphetamine seized by law
in Western Canada is greater than in other enforcement agencies. They are the same
regions, as methamphetamine price index indicators used by the United Nations Office
confirms that on average a gram of on Drugs and Crime to produce their World
methamphetamine is cheaper in BC (mainly Drug Report, who acknowledge that, in the
in the greater Vancouver area) than in other absence of more accurate measures of
parts of Canada, particularly as one moves supply, lab and methamphetamine seizures
East. The price differences are more remain our best indicators.56 While these are
pronounced when one searches for useful indicators of supply, they should not
quantities in excess of one ounce.53 be taken as definitive and certain; some
caveats are in order. There is no method to
3) Trafficking and Smuggling control for the effect that a shift in law
enforcement focus toward curbing the
In the summer and fall of 2004 a series of supply of methamphetamine may have on
large smuggling and trafficking networks the number of seizures registered. A certain
were uncovered and dismantled that linked increase in seizures may simply be the
OCG groups in Canada and the US. For the result of increased law enforcement
most part these networks were involved in attention to the problem, rather than
the diversion of precursor chemicals increased production. Thus, unless one can
(primarily pseudo-ephedrine) from Canada ensure consistency in law enforcement
to the US, a practice that became more efforts, seizures remain at best an imperfect
prevalent in the mid-1990s, prompting the proxy for levels of production.
introduction of Canada’s Precursor Control
Regulations in response. 54 Police also Nonetheless, the numbers of laboratories
uncovered networks exporting finished seized producing methamphetamine show a
methamphetamine, ephedrine and significant increase in the last 2 years. In BC
marijuana to the US, and importing cocaine there were 10 lab seizures in both 2001 and
to Canada. 55 Given that, until the mid 2002 (down from 13 in 1999 and 17 in
1990’s, the methamphetamine market was 2000). However, in 2003 the number was
entirely domestic in nature, the recent back up to 16, and as of September 2004
seizures may also indicate a higher degree there were 18 labs seized in BC. The same
of interconnectivity between the American pattern is observed in Ontario where there
and Canadian methamphetamine markets, were 2 lab seizures in the successive years
and consequently between OCGs in the US of 2000, 2001 and 2002, but an increase to
and Canada. More research is required 8 lab seizures in 2003 and 3 as of
before this theory can be confirmed, September 2004 (please refer to Figure 3).57
however.
Alberta does not follow the trend. It had 4
4) Supply Trends lab seizures in 2000 and 2 in 2001. In 2002
it led the country with the most lab seizures
The main indicators of supply trends are becoming the only province to ever surpass
numbers of seizures of laboratories BC with 13 lab seizures to BC’s 10 that year.
producing methamphetamine (and their This was followed by 8 lab seizures in 2003
location), and the amounts of and 6 as of September 2004. So while lab
seizures in BC and Ontario decreased in
52
Office of Drugs and Crime, Global Illicit Drug 2002, Alberta saw the greatest number of
Trends 2003, p. 48. lab seizures in its history in that same year.
53
Interview with RCMP, Tuesday October 5, However, the subsequent years still saw
2004. higher numbers of lab seizures than the
54
RCMP and DEA, Chemical Diversion and
period before 2002 (please refer to Figure
Synthetic Drug Manufacture (September 2001),
pp. 2-6; and Office of Drugs and Crime, Global 3).58
Illicit Drug Trends 2003, p. 89.
55
Pablo Fernandez, Vast drug network likely
56
linked here in Sun Media Thursday, October 21, Office of Drugs and Crime, World Drug Report
2004. Retrieved October 21, 2004: 2004.
57
http://www.canoe.ca/NewsStand/EdmontonSun/ Numbers provided courtesy of the RCMP.
58
News/2004/10/21/pf-678752.html. Numbers provided courtesy of the RCMP.BACKGROUND STUDY -- METHAMPHETAMINE 14
Regina soon. In the rural areas of Manitoba
Seizures in methamphetamine producing the methamphetamine situation is similar,
laboratories peaked with a high of 4 in with methamphetamine use reported in
Quebec in 2003, up from 1 in 2002. Prior to those areas where clandestine laboratories
2002 Quebec registered 1 lab seizure in are suspected to be located.61
both 1999 and 2000, and 0 in 2001. As of
September 2004 Quebec has again only 1 In Eastern (Maritime) Canada there is no
lab seizure reported (please refer to Figure significant evidence that methamphetamine
3).59 has made any inroads in to a drug market
still heavily dominated by marijuana; the
In the rest of Canada, there were some substance of greatest abuse is still alcohol.
remarkable and surprising discoveries of However, in 2002, there was a strong
clandestine methamphetamine producing presence of rave/club drugs reported in St.
laboratories in new areas of the country. John’s, Newfoundland, significantly higher
Manitoba reported 2 lab seizures in 2000. In than in the three preceding years. 62
the period from 2002 to September 2004 Recalling the ability of methamphetamine to
Manitoba reported 3 more (one in each compliment the success and thrive from the
year) lab seizures. Saskatchewan was popularity of club drugs and ‘designer drugs’
added to the list of provinces reporting it is plausible that the supply of
clandestine lab seizure this year with one as methamphetamine has already reached the
of September 2004 (please refer to Figure shores of Newfoundland. It is not impossible
3).60 to envisage that Newfoundland (or another
of the Maritime Provinces) may join the
Figure 3. Methamphetamine producing
other six provinces already reporting
lab seizures by province: 1999-
seizures of laboratories producing
September 2004
methamphetamine.
18
16 BC The other indicator of supply trends is
14 seizures of methamphetamine product.
Alberta
12 Canadian law enforcement agencies that
10 Ontario contributed to the data collected by the
8
Quebec
RCMP reported the seizure of 52.9
6 kilograms (kg) of methamphetamine in 2001
4 Manitoba with the additional seizure of 55,121 dosage
2 Sask
units (usually but not exclusively to pill form).
0 This was significant increase from the
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 previous two years which combined reported
seizures of 25.8 kg of methamphetamine
Source: Royal Canadian Mounted Police 2004 and only 3,266 dosage units. Since 2001 the
reported seizures have declined (42.4 kg in
As of September 2004 a number of 2002 and 33.8 kg in 2003) and as of
provinces were reporting the existence and September 2004 only 13.6kg of seized
seizure of clandestine laboratories methamphetamine product have been
producing methamphetamine, stretching reported (please refer to Figure 3).63
from BC to Quebec. This confirms the
repeated warning that there is a
disconcerting trend witnessing the supply of
methamphetamine gradually moving east.
From Saskatchewan, the newest member in
the group reporting lab seizures, the RCMP
report evidence of ‘crystal meth’ in the rural
areas and anticipate its appearance in 61
2003 Canadian Community Epidemiology
Network Site Updates (October 2003 Annual
Meeting), pp. 4-5.
59 62
Ibid. Ibid., p. 10.
60 63
Ibid. Numbers provided courtesy of the RCMP.BACKGROUND STUDY -- METHAMPHETAMINE 15
Figure 4. Methamphetamine seizures by Figure 5. Methamphetamine seizures in
kilogram as reported by Canadian Law dosage units as reported by Canadian
Enforcement: 1999-September 2004 Law Enforcement: 1999-September 2004
60 60000
Methamphetamine Seizures
50000
50
Methamphetamine / kg
40000
(dosage units)
40
30000
seized
30 20000
20 10000
0
10 1999 2001 2003
0
1999 2001 2003
Source: Royal Canadian Mounted Police 2004
5) Profitability
Source: Royal Canadian Mounted Police 2004 The manufacturing of ATS substances like
methamphetamine presents a highly
However, the picture is significantly different profitable venture. As previously mentioned,
with regards to the seized dosage units. the location of production plays a significant
While only 9,497 dosage units were seized part in reducing the associated costs by
in 2002 and 2003 combined, as of removing the need to fund the smuggling
September 2004 there have been 34,541 and trafficking networks and expenses
dosage units of methamphetamine reported necessary to deliver the drug to the location
seized. 64 This is a remarkable increase of consumption. While there are still
which may indicate a focus on supply of associated costs with the manufacturing and
methamphetamine in dosage unit form. It is distribution of any illicit drugs (i.e.
likely that this is a result from the surge in precursors, chemicals, materials,
popularity in ‘designer drugs’ (club/rave equipment, labour costs, rent, depreciation
drugs) and the benefit that of equipment, bribery costs), they remain
methamphetamine has enjoyed from this significantly lower for ATS substances then
popularity. This is consistent with the for traditional narcotics.
aforementioned trend in demand of certain
societal subgroups and may reflect an Previous economic studies on plant-based
attempt to compliment their preference in drugs have shown that between roughly half
drug consumption method (ingestion in pill and two thirds of the final retail price
or capsule form). represents the value added in the country of
final consumption. In contrast, for ATS
substances almost all of the total retail price
amounts to value added in the country of
final consumption. Hence, clandestine drug
synthesis has enormous profit potential.65
In the case of methamphetamine, at the
manufacturing level, the average profitability
is estimated at 2,6%. At the distribution level
the average profitability is estimated at
65
United Nations Drug Control Programme,
Amphetamine-Type Stimulants: A Global Review,
64
Ibid. p. 84.BACKGROUND STUDY -- METHAMPHETAMINE 16
485%. 66 Of course, the profits will vary 7) Methamphetamine Market and
depending on the availability of chemicals, Organized Crime
the purity of the methamphetamine, the
regions of the country where the drug is The infiltration of Mexican criminal
manufactured and sold, and the size and organizations and drug trafficking networks
sophistication of the lab.67 into the US methamphetamine market
provides some insights into the Canadian
On average, less then one kilogram of situation. The take-over of manufacturing
methamphetamine sold on the illicit market and distribution in major methamphetamine
typically pays for the initial investment of markets in the US by Mexican criminal
setting-up a small-scale clandestine organizations was facilitated by two factors.
laboratory.68 High profits and easy return on
capital investment reduce what may often be First, their familiarity with the necessities of
prohibitive financial barriers to entering the the manufacture and trade of other illicit
drug market, and along with the other drugs, and extensive involvement in highly
previously mentioned incentives, organized and well established cartels
compensate for most perceived risks provided Mexican criminal groups with
associated with methamphetamine readily disposable capital, sophisticated and
production. elaborate trafficking networks, diverse and
strategic affiliations, and proficient criminal
knowledge. 70 This facilitated the
6) Potential for Market Monopolization appropriation of the methamphetamine trade
into their operations.
The greatest operating cost in a
methamphetamine production operation Second, large Hispanic communities in the
remains ensuring a steady supply of south western regions of the US and in the
chemicals and precursors. 69 Only by majority of the key metropolitan areas
controlling the available supplies of these provided the necessary beachhead from
products would any one group be able to which to begin clandestine operations and
monopolize the market. access consumption markets.
Monopoly remains highly unlikely at this Despite concern over the presence of
point as precursors and chemicals remain individuals with links to Mexican criminal
available through diversion from licit organizations in Western Canada, there is
sources. Furthermore, low level production, no evidence that Hispanic crime groups
such as that practiced by most independent have infiltrated the Canadian
‘mom & pop’ operations, does not require methamphetamine market. 71 Neither is the
the large-scale diversions of precursors that prospect of their penetration likely at this
some of the more elaborate and point due to the complete absence of the
sophisticated operations operated by OCGs second factor.
rely upon. Hence, independent
manufacturers will still be attracted by the However, there does exist the possibility that
same incentives as OCGs to enter the a similar phenomenon may occur in the
methamphetamine market. Canadian methamphetamine market
involving those OCGs involved in marijuana
grow operations. These OCGs possess the
level of organization, sophistication, capital,
established networks and contacts, and
criminal knowledge necessary to
66
Ibid., pp. 84-85; and Office of Drugs and
Crime, Global Illicit Drug Trends 2003, p. 50.
67
Michael S. Scott, Problem-Oriented Guides for
70
Police Series Guide No. 16: Clandestine Drug Susan Pennell et al., Meth Matters: Report on
Labs, p. 13. Methamphetamine Users in Five Western Cities,
68
Office of Drugs and Crime, Global Illicit Drug p. 3.
71
Trends 2003, p. 50. Interview with RCMP, Tuesday October 5,
69
Ibid. 2004.BACKGROUND STUDY -- METHAMPHETAMINE 17 successfully integrate the methamphetamine trade into their operations. Evidence suggests that this phenomenon is already underway. Already some law enforcement members in BC have reported observing a growing trend which they have termed ‘M&Ms’. This trend involves the simultaneous operation of a marijuana grow on one floor of a house, and the manufacturing of methamphetamine on another floor by a single OCG. BC law enforcement officials claim most of the grow operations are run by either the ‘Hells Angels’ or Vietnamese criminal organizations; these groups in turn trade the profit from such operations for harder drugs or guns.72 The emergence of large criminal organizations dominating ATS markets around the world is not a surprising phenomenon. They are driven by the same incentives that draw out individual entrepreneurs. Unlike individual producers however, larger groups are more flexible and are able to identify and exploit any lucrative business opportunities, as well as any flaws in law enforcement efforts. Their ability to effectively organize and structure manufacturing and distribution processes allows OCGs to produce more and better quality drugs at lower costs. Their willingness to cooperate and collaborate with other OCGs increases the scope and range of their operations. 73 OCG involvement in the methamphetamine market makes its expansion more likely and its impact on the Canadian public more severe. 72 Janis Cleugh, PoCo wants another look at grow op regulations in Tri-City News Saturday, November 20, 2004. Retrieved November 22, 2004: http://www.tricitynews.com/portals- code/list.cgi?paper=74&cat=23&id=332654&mo re=. 73 Office of Drugs and Crime, Global Illicit Drug Trends 2003, p. 9.
BACKGROUND STUDY -- METHAMPHETAMINE 18
V – SOCIETAL FACTORS
• There are a number of identifiable and • Instrumental use may lead to chronic
vulnerable societal subgroups: street youth use, which involves the habitual heavy
and the homeless; sex trade workers; use of methamphetamine as is often the
teenage girls (for weight loss); ambitious case with socially marginalized
students and professionals; ‘ravers’ and the populations.
youth party scene; certain segments of the • Multiple drug users are the group most
gay community; and multiple drug users frequently connected with chronic use,
(particularly cocaine addicts). and such patterns of use often lead to
• Societal subgroups display a number of higher risk of contracting HIV/AIDS and
patterns of methamphetamine use including hepatitis B and C.
instrumental, chronic, recreational, or • Sub-cultural/ recreational use involves
multiple drug use. the exploiting of the drug’s stimulant
• Instrumental use involves exploiting the properties which provide euphoria and
stimulant or anorectic properties of the drug boundless energy, the capacity to
to achieve desired goals, and is globally the increase sociability, allowing the user to
most common pattern of methamphetamine more easily bond in their social network.
use.
1) Who Uses Methamphetamine?
Historically, in the North American context, Among these subgroups it is possible to
the portrait of a methamphetamine was draw on particular patterns of
usually white male, blue-collar workers who methamphetamine use, which are essential
used it as a stimulant. 74 However, the in understanding why certain societal groups
portrait has evolved over time to include a are labelled ‘at risk’. These patterns include
number of groups with differing instrumental use, chronic use, and sub-
characteristics, to the point where to paint a cultural/recreational use. Such patterns,
single portrait is now impossible. Current however, are not necessarily fixed or stable.
trends indicate a broadening of usage most Individuals may begin methamphetamine
likely due to the wide appeal of the drug to use for instrumental or recreational reasons
groups that are drawn to it under different and subsequently develop chronic
circumstances. symptoms.75
As aforementioned, there are a number of 2) Instrumental Use
identifiable vulnerable societal subgroups.
These subgroups include, but are not limited Historically and globally, this is the most
to: street youth and the homeless; sex trade common pattern of methamphetamine use.
workers; teenage girls (for weight loss); This involves exploiting the stimulant or
ambitious students and professionals; anorectic properties of the drug to achieve
‘ravers’ and the youth party scene; certain desired goals. Methamphetamine, in it
segments of the gay community; and various forms and under its many names,
multiple drug users (particularly cocaine may be consumed by long distance drivers,
addicts). students, professional, and night workers to
74
British Columbia Ministry of Health Services,
Crystal Meth and Other Methamphetamines: An
75
Integrated BC Strategy, p. 23; and National Division of Mental Health and Prevention of
Institute on Drug Abuse, Community Drug Substance Abuse, Epidemiology and Social
Bulletin: Methamphetamine (US Department of Context of Amphetamine-type Stimulant Use, p.
Health and Human Services, 1998). 7.You can also read
