A Critical Narrative Review of Research about the Experiences of being Muslim in New Zealand
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Being Muslim in New Zealand
A Critical Narrative Review of Research about the Experiences of
being Muslim in New Zealand
Colleen Ward1, Jaimee Stuart2 & Zeenah M. Adam1
1 Centre for Applied Cross-Cultural Research, Victoria University of Wellington, New
Zealand, 2 Griffith University, Australia.
The paper reviews and integrates findings from our programme of research on acculturation and
intercultural relations with, for and about members of New Zealand’s Muslim community. Our objectives
are to act as a conduit for Muslim voices, sharing findings about their experiences, aspirations and
challenges, while increasing overall awareness about diversity-receptiveness in New Zealand. We
describe how New Zealand Muslims see themselves in terms of their religious, ethnic and national
identities; the challenges they face, including coping with discrimination and cultural change; the resources
they access, particularly religion, family and community; and their pathways to positive psychological and
social outcomes. We also examine how New Zealanders perceive and receive Muslims in the wider
community.
Keywords: Muslim; acculturation; identity; discrimination; adaptation; immigrant; attitudes
The recent tragedy in Christchurch, the smaller proportion of the population than identities as Muslims and as New
brutal slaying of 50 Muslim New is generally found in Europe (e.g., 6.1% Zealanders; the challenges they face,
Zealanders at prayer, has led not only to in Germany, 6.3% in the United including discrimination and coping with
a national outpouring of grief, but also to Kingdom, and 8.8% in France), but is cultural change; the resources they
sombre reflection about who we are as a similar to the United States (1.1%; Pew access, particularly religion, family and
nation and if we should have anticipated Research Center, 2017, 2018). About community; and their pathways to
this act of terrorism. Emerging public three-quarters of New Zealand Muslims positive psychological and social
discourses on white supremacy, hate are overseas-born, and they are highly outcomes. We also discuss how New
crimes, gun control, Islam and diverse in terms of ethnicity and national Zealanders perceive and receive
Islamophobia have left a strong background. The largest group is of members of the Muslim community.
impression that as a nation we have been Asian origin (26.9%), with around a These discussions are based on a
largely unaware of the insidious, divisive quarter having African and Middle compilation of qualitative and
forces that are at work in our society. Eastern backgrounds (23.3%), as well as quantitative studies, using mixed
These discourses also suggest that there smaller numbers of both Māori and methods (interviews, focus groups,
is limited knowledge about Muslims and Europeans, comprising the community. workshop exercises, identity mapping,
Islam in New Zealand. The aim of this A substantial proportion of New Zealand surveys), and designed for various
paper is to provide an overview of Muslims come from a refugee purposes and outcomes (e.g., social
findings, both published and background; Afghans, Pakistanis, action, theory testing). A summary of the
unpublished, from our broader Syrians, Palestinians, and Myanmar’s projects is presented in Table 1. In some
programme of research on Acculturation Rohingyas are among the groups instances the survey research is
and Intercultural Relations with, for, and currently being resettled in New Zealand complemented by comparative data from
about members of New Zealand’s with earlier settlements of refugees from international sources; in particular the
Muslim community. Our objectives are Iran, Iraq, and Somalia (Beaglehole, research on Pathways to Positive
to act as a conduit for Muslim voices, 2013; Immigration New Zealand, 2019). Development includes a comparative
sharing research findings about Muslims’ Overall, New Zealand’s Muslim sample of 142 young British Muslims,
experiences, aspirations and challenges, community is young, with those aged 15- and the work on Identity, Acculturation
while increasing overall awareness about 29 years making up 29% of the and Adaptation is part of a larger national
diversity-receptiveness in Aotearoa/New population, and the community is study with Korean, Indian, Chinese,
Zealand. unevenly dispersed throughout New Samoan, Māori and Pākehā youth, which
The Muslim community in New Zealand, with about two-thirds living in make up the New Zealand data in the 13-
Zealand is a small, but growing group, Auckland (Statistics New Zealand, nation International Comparative Study
having increased by 28% between the 2013). of Ethno-cultural Youth (ICSEY; Berry,
2006 and 2013 census, but still making In the following sections we discuss Phinney, Sam, & Vedder, 2006).
up only 1.2% of the national population how New Zealand Muslims view
(Statistics New Zealand, 2013). This is a themselves, particularly in terms of their
New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 48, No. 1 April 2019 36Being Muslim in New Zealand
Table 1. Overview of Projects
Project Participants
Interviews and Focus Groups
1. Pathways to Positive Development 25 young Muslim adults (19-27 years)
Workshops
2. Young Muslim Leaders: Qaadah Muslimoona Shabaab 36 young Muslims (15-25 years)
3. Young Muslims: Needs and Challenges 94 young Muslims (15-27 years)
4. Building Bridges: Jusoor Tawaasul 24 ethnically diverse, Muslim and non-Muslim
students (13-14 years)
Surveys
5. Identity, Acculturation and Adaptation 180 Muslim youth (13-19 years)
6. Pathways to Positive Development 155 Muslim youth (16-27 years)
7. Acculturative Stress and Muslim Religious Coping 167 Muslim adults (mean age = 31.5 years)
8. Muslim Identity, Visibility and Well-being 153 Muslim women (aged 16-60 years)
9. Acculturation, Adaptation and Intercultural Relations 100 Muslims (16-71 years)
10. Attitudes to Immigrants 2020 New Zealand households
11. Attitudes to Muslims 295 New Zealanders (18- 65+ years)
Striving for Balance: Identity Muslims and non-Muslims in New seeing things from others’ point of
and Integration Zealand (Ward, 2009; Ward, Liu, view, being honest, understanding
Fairbairn-Dunlop, & Henderson, 2010). and having empathy. Balancing my
Acculturation and Integration
The essence of integration involves culture with New Zealand culture (p.
Acculturation theory points to two key
engagement with both heritage and 260).
issues that individuals and groups face
national cultures. The process of being Moreover, the young Muslims who
when they settle in a new country; these
and becoming integrated has been participated in our research appeared
involve decisions about the extent to
articulated by young Muslims in terms of highly skilled in broadly achieving
which traditional cultural heritage is or
“balance,” which has been described both balance.
should be maintained and the extent to
as a pathway to positive development and I feel a sense of belonging and
which participation in and adoption of the
a key indicator of success (Stuart & connection to both my religion and
culture of the wider society is desired or
Ward, 2011a). culture as well as to New Zealand
achieved (Berry, 2001, 2005). Whether
Achieving a good balance, being a society. I do not see them as
examined in real or ideal terms, research
Muslim and being a member of a non- conflicting (p. 260).
has shown these two issues are
Muslim society and not
conceptually and empirically distinct These expressions of balance were
compromising on faith, but still being
(Navas et al., 2005; Ryder, Alden, & further elaborated in the exercise of
able to be comfortable (p. 259).
Paulhus, 2000; Ward & Kus, 2012). identity mapping, a technique developed
Framing acculturation in terms of these Balance is seen as a means of by Sirin and Fine (2008) in their work
two orthogonal dimensions permits the minimising the risks of managing with young Muslims in the United States.
identification and classification of four multiple cultural affiliations and Using this technique participants
acculturation strategies or orientations: competing demands. Efforts are made to illustrate their identities pictorially,
separation (cultural maintenance only), “fit into” New Zealand culture, but prompted by a request to draw all of the
assimilation (participation/cultural neither at the expense of compromising elements of the self. Sirin and Fine
adoption only), marginalisation (neither the self, nor by shedding one’s values and (2008) uncovered three profiles from
cultural maintenance nor beliefs. identity mapping: integrated (Muslim
participation/cultural adoption) and Being true with myself, who I am and identity and national identity blended in a
integration (both cultural maintenance where I am from. Being able to non-conflicting way), parallel (both
and participation/adoption). balance out the two different cultures, identities depicted as separate) and
Although acculturation preferences mine and theirs (p. 260). conflicted (representations of tension,
and outcomes vary as a function of socio- Balance is also seen as fostering hostility or irreconcilability of identities).
political contexts, research has suggested positive intergroup relations, assisting in As in Sirin and Fine’s (2008) research,
that integration is generally preferred by building better relationships with non- we found that the majority of identity
new settlers (Phinney, Berry, Vedder, & Muslims as well as cultivating virtues maps generated by young adults in our
Liebkind, 2006; Ward, Fox, Wilson, that are aligned to religious beliefs. workshop sessions portrayed integration;
Stuart, & Kus, 2010), and our research Tolerance, learning about the New however, both the process and the
has indicated that this is the case for both Zealand culture and way of life,
New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 48, No. 1 April 2019 37Being Muslim in New Zealand
content were represented. Figure 1 studies. Overall, we found evidence of indicated that Turkish and Muslim
depicts one such identity map (Ward, strong religious, ethnic and national identities were strongly inter-related and
2013); while Islam is central to the self, identities. We also found positive that both were negatively related to
as shown in the outstretched hand and the associations between young Muslims’ Dutch identity. As Muslim identity was
mosque, the map also depicts national ethnic and national identities (Stuart, also associated with Dutch dis-
identities in the adjacent flags of New 2012; Ward, Adam, & Stuart, 2011; identification, the researchers argued that
Zealand and Pakistan. In addition, both Ward, Liu et al., 2010). Broadly Dutch Muslims see their religious and
English and Arabic (shafaq, compassion) speaking, a positive association between national identities as largely
scripts are present. The Sunni path, in ethnic and national identities in incompatible. In line with Verkuyen and
conjunction with family (caution lights) immigrant and minority groups has been Yildiz (2007), we also found a positive
and friends (bumps), suggests that seen to be an indicator of a multicultural relationship between ethnic and religious
acculturation is experienced as a process or diversity-receptive environment where identities in New Zealand Muslims;
or journey. Figure 2 illustrates the extent individuals are not forced to choose however, in contrast to the Dutch study,
of integration at one point in time (Stuart, between heritage and national cultures. Muslim and New Zealand identities were
Ward, & Adam, 2010). Multiple This pattern is more often observed in unrelated, undermining the suggestion
identities, roles and relationships are settler societies such as New Zealand and that these identities are seen as
brought together in the folds of a Australia as opposed to the “Old World” incompatible in the New Zealand
woman’s hijab. A pin, labelled societies such as France, Germany and context. Indeed, many of the voices we
Islam/Allah, represents how her faith is the Netherlands (Phinney et al., 2006). have heard from the Muslim community
holding multiple identities together while Although the relationship between after the horrific attacks in Christchurch
her nose is illustrated by an inverted religious and national identities has been mosques have expressed the sentiment of
question mark labelled “balance” and her relatively neglected in the international being “a proud Muslim, and a proud New
smile is “thankful or trying to be.” literature, work by Verkuyten and Yildiz Zealander.”
Findings from our survey research (2007) addressed this issue with Turkish-
converge with those from the qualitative Dutch in the Netherlands. Their findings
Figure 1. Young Muslim’s identity map Figure 2. Young Muslim’s identity map
Identity, Acculturation and Well- well-being and a lower level of between integration and positive
being depression (Lam, Nguyen, & Benet- adaptation was stronger than the
On one hand, managing multiple Martínez, 2011). The links between relationship between either ethnic or
cultural identities can be stressful, integration and well-being were national identity on their own and the
precipitating identity conflict and crises examined in greater detail in Nguyen and adaptive outcomes. Along these lines,
(Baumeister, Shapiro, & Tice, 1985; Benet-Martínez’s (2013) meta-analysis, our research shows that Muslim youth are
Stuart & Ward, 2011b; Ward, Stuart, & which investigated biculturalism (i.e., largely achieving integration with 85%
Kus, 2011). On the other hand, achieving two integrated cultural identities) in (N = 180) categorised as integrated on the
an integrated cultural identity is association with psychological, basis of having both strong Muslim and
associated with positive psychological sociocultural and health outcomes. Their national identities (Ward, Liu et al.,
outcomes, including a higher level of results indicated that the relationship 2010), and they are well adapted with
New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 48, No. 1 April 2019 38Being Muslim in New Zealand
young Muslims reporting higher levels of about Islam, and unfavourable media public life included access to prayer
life satisfaction, fewer symptoms of portrayals of Muslims, as well as spaces during school or work hours,
psychological distress, better school discrimination in educational and availability of halal food, exposure to
adjustment and fewer behavioural employment contexts (Ward, Lescelius, alcohol and limited options for modest
problems than their Māori and Pākehā Naidu, Jack, & Weinberg, 2016). dress for young women at school.
peers (Ward, Liu et al., 2010; Ward, Although discrimination is the most Young Muslims in Stuart’s (2014)
Adam et al., 2011). commonly cited risk that young Muslims study also identified three major
The high level of resilience and confront, the overall level of perceived resources in dealing with risks: religion,
adaptability found among Muslim youth discrimination appears to be moderately family and the wider intercultural
was also reported in the International low and more often apparent as prejudice environment. Religion impacted all
Study of Ethno-cultural Youth where towards the group in general rather than aspects of life, informed attitudes and
Muslim immigrants displayed higher towards specific individuals. When this behaviours, and influenced the way the
levels of psychological well-being and occurs, it is most likely to be at the less young people defined themselves.
better social functioning than their violent end of the spectrum, such as being I really, truly believe every single
Christian, Jewish and Buddhist insulted as opposed to being threatened thing that is good about me is because
immigrant peers. In the ICSEY project (Ward, Liu et al., 2010). Our research has I am a Muslim and every single thing
both national and ethnic identities were shown that young Muslims are no more that is not so good about me is
associated with positive psychological likely to report perceived discrimination because of my innate problems as a
(e.g., life satisfaction) and behavioural than Indian, Chinese, Korean, Samoan person, as a human being (p. 31).
(e.g., better school adjustment and fewer and Māori youth. In terms of the Family provided the most significant
behavioural problems) outcomes (Sam, prevalence of discrimination, 8% of context for cultural transmission as well
Vedder, Ward, & Horenczyk, 2006). In young Muslims indicated they had been as ongoing support for maintenance of
the extension of this research to New threatened or attacked, compared to 25% values in everyday life.
Zealand Muslims we also included a who had been teased or insulted. (Family) is important for
measure of Muslim identity. While we Moreover, 8% said that they did not understanding who you are, your
found evidence that Muslim, ethnic and personally feel accepted by New identity . . . family support and
national identities all predicted greater Zealanders, although 39% agreed that knowledge are the most important to
psychological well-being in terms of life Muslims as a group have been treated be a successful Muslim here (p. 28).
satisfaction, only Muslim identity unfairly. This appears consistent with
predicted better school adjustment and Shaver and colleagues’ contention that Diversity and multiculturalism were
fewer behavioural problems (Ward, Liu relationships between New Zealand’s acknowledged as important aspects of the
et al., 2010; Ward, Adam et al., 2011). Muslims and other ethnic communities intercultural environment that are
The importance of Muslim identity and are generally peaceful and at least until conducive to positive adaptation,
religious practices are discussed in more the recent terrorist attack have been fostering openness and acceptance and
detail in the following sections. largely non-violent (Shaver, Troughton, allowing young Muslims to be their
Sibley, & Bulbulia, 2016). authentic selves. They were also seen as
Beyond discrimination, Stuart (2014) supporting connections among ethnically
Risks, Resources & Resilience diverse Muslims.
Beyond managing multiple cultural found that cultural differences presented
significant risks. The differences were We feel we are connected with them
identities, new settlers confront a variety because of our religion and . . . we all
of challenges as they adjust to their new frequently described in terms of are the same. Even though they have
living arrangements and unfamiliar social interpersonal or social interactions and
context. These may involve learning a the challenges of “fitting in” while
different backgrounds like Indian and
Arab, still we’re the same (p. 30).
new language, dealing with maintaining Muslim norms and values.
homesickness, facing discrimination and Differences were often discussed with These resources are discussed in
marginalisation, managing family regard to alcohol, gambling, halal food, greater detail in the following sections.
pressures, and establishing new networks and female dress, especially the hijab. Religion
for friendship and social support. In And I always feel that I am different.
I always feel that I look different, I There is a robust literature on the
many cases challenges such as these positive relationship between religiosity
present risks that induce acculturative have an accent. I’m not like everyone
else; I don’t drink, I don’t go and mental health, including enhanced
stress (Berry, 2006a; Ward & Szabo, in quality of life (Hackney & Sanders,
press), which is associated with clubbing, I don’t have a boyfriend-
I’m not allowed to (p. 34). 2003; Sawatzky, Ratner, & Chiu, 2005).
decrements in well-being and increased Findings from research with New
psychological symptoms, including This sentiment overlapped to a large Zealand Muslims are in accordance with
depression, anxiety, and psycho-somatic extent with the needs identified by Ward these trends. Both Muslim identity and
problems (Berry, 2006a; Jibeen & et al. (2016), broadly referred to as issues Muslim practices are associated with
Khalid, 2010; Miller, Kim, & Benet- of Integration and Inclusion. These needs greater psychological well-being (Stuart,
Martínez, 2011; Romero & Roberts, emphasised the importance of cultural 2012; Ward, Liu et al., 2010). In addition,
2003; Ward & Szabo, 2019). One of the and religious maintenance and the desire religion has been recognised as an
most common risks that young Muslims to participate in the wider society, which important mechanism by which people
face in New Zealand is discrimination are dependent upon increasing cope with stress (Ano & Vasconcelles,
(Stuart, 2014). This manifests itself in acceptance and accommodation of 2005), and a study with Muslim students
terms of everyday racism, negative cultural and religious diversity in New in New Zealand found that positive
stereotypes based on lack of knowledge Zealand. Challenges of participating in religious coping was linked to lower
New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 48, No. 1 April 2019 39Being Muslim in New Zealand levels of stress and a higher quality of life which did not permit analyses of the experience and the experiences of other (Gardner, Krägeloh, & Henning, 2014). temporal sequence of these relationships. family members. In a series of studies we have examined Nonetheless, in general the findings One of the most important protective the impact of Islam on managing suggest that religion contributes to factors for immigrant youth is a shared acculturative stress, both in terms of enhanced resilience and plays a positive set of beliefs, values, and expectations discrimination and cross-cultural role in coping with distress and fostering among family members. This is differences. Adam and Ward (2016) well-being. demonstrated by research on intrafamilial identified three domains of Muslim These findings have important congruence, or the perception that there religious coping: cognitive (interpreting implications for supporting vulnerable is a similarity in behaviours and beliefs stressful situations as Allah’s will), members of New Zealand’s Muslim between oneself and the members of the behavioural (performing religious community. Faith-based therapeutic family. High levels of congruence rituals) and social (seeking help from the interventions in counselling and clinical alleviate the stress of migration for Muslim congregation) in a sample of settings are likely to prove useful. Not children (Stuart & Ward, 2011b; Stuart, highly religious Muslim adults. Each of only should these be culturally sensitive Ward, Jose, & Narayanan, 2010; Ying, these forms of religious coping were and appropriate, but they also need to Lee, & Tsai, 2004), whereas frequently used, and each predicted reflect an understanding of the incongruence between parents and greater life satisfaction, suggesting the importance of religion amongst our local children, sometimes referred to as the importance of faith-based coping Muslim population. This is likely to be “acculturation gap,” has been associated strategies in building resilience. particularly important in response to the with depression, anxiety and gang Racism is known to exert a widespread events in Christchurch, given that the involvement in adolescents, and to and negative influence on mental health brutality and specificity of the attack depression and anger in parents (Dinh, (Harris, Stanley, & Cormack, 2018), with have led many to turn to spiritual Weinstein, Tein, & Roosa, 2013; Ying et ethnic and religious discrimination linked understandings and practices to try and al., 2004). Research also indicates that to poor psychosocial functioning, make sense of the tragedy and seek family obligations, or the extent to which including more depression, anxiety, and comfort. family members feel a sense of duty to psychological distress as well as lower The international literature advocates assist one another and to take into levels of self-esteem and life satisfaction an integrated therapeutic approach, account the needs and wishes of the (Schmitt, Branscombe, Postmes, & incorporating religion, when working family when making decisions, is Garcia, 2014). However, Islamic with Muslim clients (Abu Raiya & associated with positive outcomes for practices can buffer the detrimental Pargament, 2010) and has suggested that acculturating youth (Fuligni, Tseng, & effects of discrimination on life cognitive therapies provide a good fit for Lam, 1999). satisfaction. Jasperse, Ward and Jose a wide range of religious traditions Extending research on familial (2012) found not only that wearing hijab (Hodge, 2006). More specifically, acculturation, we examined the roles that as an expression of visible Muslim previous attempts to develop Islamically- family congruence and family identity predicted greater life integrated interventions have focussed on obligations play in connection with satisfaction, but also that religious cognitive restructuring techniques that acculturative stress and positive practices buffered the negative effects of encompass a religious worldview (Hodge adaptation in adolescents and young discrimination on well-being among & Nadir, 2008). These suggestions may adults in New Zealand’s Muslim Muslim women. Similarly, Adam and present challenges to New Zealand’s community (Stuart, Ward, & Robinson, Ward (2016) reported that behavioural secular mental health system, but are 2016). More specifically, we tested a forms of Muslim Religious Coping, such worth consideration in light of increasing model whereby family congruence and as making dua, seeking guidance from demands for responsiveness to cultural family obligations exerted both direct the Quran, and increasing prayers to diversity amongst the clientele. and indirect effects on psychological Allah, buffered the detrimental effects of Family well-being (life satisfaction) and social acculturative stress on life satisfaction. Families have the capacity to foster functioning (behavioural problems) with However, these results were not well-being and provide a context in the indirect effects mediated by replicated in Stuart and Ward’s (2018a) which individuals resolve acculturative acculturative stress. The findings study with Muslim youth. Although stress (Oppedal, 2006). Conversely, indicated that family congruence exerted religious practices predicted greater life families can be a major source of conflict, a direct effect on young Muslims’ social satisfaction, those who were highly particularly when there is difference in functioning, predicting a lower level of engaged in Islamic practices were more the acculturation strategies of parents and behavioural problems. Likewise, family susceptible to the detrimental influences children (Telzer, 2010). For young obligations were associated with positive of discrimination stress. It is difficult to people, functional and supportive family outcomes, predicting both greater life tease out the variable effects of Muslim relationships serve as a foundation for satisfaction and fewer behavioural religious practices across these three successful engagement in the social problems; however, family obligations studies as they were based on highly world, whereas dysfunctional family also predicted greater acculturative varied samples (Muslim adults, youth relationships potentially leave young stress, which in turn, predicted lower and women), examined Muslim practices people unprepared to meet challenges in levels of life satisfaction and more as a generic resource versus a specific other social contexts (Crosnoe & Elder, behavioural difficulties. coping mechanism, framed perceived 2004). Furthermore, because young Overall, these findings are consistent discrimination in terms of its occurrence people tend to relocate with their family with earlier qualitative studies. Families versus the distress it generated, and were units, there are reciprocal influences provide resources that young people need confined to cross-sectional studies, between the individual’s acculturation to thrive and flourish. Not only do New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 48, No. 1 April 2019 40
Being Muslim in New Zealand
cohesive families ensure the transmission be detrimental to new settlers’ and negative attitudes toward immigrants
of cultural norms and values, they also psychological and social wellbeing, as predictors of the individual-level
provide a sense of connection. predicting higher levels of depression outcomes of perceived discrimination,
Sometimes it feels like I am losing the and more antisocial behaviours among life satisfaction, psychological symptoms
connected part of me. But I can keep youth (Forster, Grigsby, Soto, Schwartz, and behavioural problems. Multi-level
this alive just by being with my family & Unger 2015; Schwartz et al., 2014; modelling revealed that neither the
here (Stuart, 2014, p. 28). Ward, Szabo, & Stuart, 2016). An percentage of Muslims in the population
Moreover, social support from families important feature of the context of nor the national diversity indices were
and family congruence are linked to a reception is the degree to which significant predictors; however, attitudes
wide range of positive outcomes for immigrants perceive their environment to toward immigrants affected all of the
youth, including greater life satisfaction, be multicultural; that is, characterised by outcomes. Specifically, positive
fewer psychological symptoms and fewer culturally diverse groups in contact with national-level attitudes toward
behavioural problems (Ward, Liu et al., one another, a general appreciation of immigrants predicted less perceived
2010). cultural diversity, and policies and discrimination and greater life
Family obligations encourage practices that support and accommodate satisfaction while negative national-level
behaviours that are in line with cultural diversity (Stuart & Ward, 2018b). attitudes toward immigrants predicted
and religious norms and values; however, Stuart (2012) examined the influence more psychological symptoms and
this can be a source of stress for young of young Muslims’ perceptions of a behavioural problems. The findings
immigrants who are navigating more multicultural environment (PME) on highlight the significance of the context
than one culture. The challenges of psychological well-being in both New in which Muslims settle, particularly the
achieving balance can take a Zealand and the United Kingdom. She impact of pervading attitudes on
psychological toll, particularly when hypothesised and found that PME immigrant acculturation and well-being
impacted by family obligations. predicted positive outcomes, lower levels (Stuart & Ward, 2015; Ward & Geeraert,
I’m the oldest and have to set an of depression in New Zealand and both 2016).
example for my sisters, which I find lower levels of depression and higher life The broader international literature
really hard, extremely hard. satisfaction in the United Kingdom. shows that multicultural policies also
Sometimes I just want to let it go, but Controlling for age, gender, generation have implications for immigrant well-
I’m like nah, you have to do this for and refugee background, Stuart (2012) being and social cohesion. The presence
your family (Stuart, 2012, p.28). reported that there were significant of national multicultural policies is not
differences in perceptions of a only associated with more positive
Ultimately, the goals, aspirations, and multicultural environment in the two intergroup perceptions, including
experiences of young Muslims must be countries with New Zealand Muslims attitudes toward Muslims, but also with
interpreted in context. Family provides viewing the national context in more greater integration and better social
the most proximal and influential favourable terms. Moreover, British functioning in immigrant youth and more
context, but the intercultural context and Muslims reported more discrimination positive indicators of immigrant health
national diversity climate are also stress, depression and behavioural and wellbeing (Guimond et al., 2013;
important. problems than their New Zealand peers. Marks, McKenna, & Garcia Coll, 2018;
The Intercultural Context These results led to further exploration Vedder, van de Vijver, & Liebkind,
Success following resettlement is not of country-level factors that might impact 2006). For Muslims specifically,
only dependent upon the individual’s psychological adaptation and social multicultural policies are associated with
efforts, family support and community functioning in young Muslims. To these lower levels of discrimination and greater
contributions; it is also dependent upon ends, Stuart (2012) utilised data from the life satisfaction (Jackson & Doerschler,
the nature of the receiving community. 13-nation International Comparative 2016). This leads to the more serious
Schwartz et al. (2014) discussed this in Study of Ethno-cultural Youth, consideration of multicultural policies,
terms of contexts of reception, which extracting survey responses from young diversity-receptiveness and attitudes
have been conceptualised and Muslims and supplementing this with toward immigrants in general and
operationalised as “an immigrant’s New Zealand data. This resulted in a nine Muslim immigrants more specifically in
perception of welcomeness, opportunity country study that examined country- New Zealand, which are discussed in the
structure, and availability of social level indicators: % of Muslims in the next section.
supports in the receiving community” (p. population, a national index of diversity
2). Negative contexts have been shown to (see Berry, Westin, Virta, Rooney, &
Sang, 2006) and national-level positive
New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 48, No. 1 April 2019 41Being Muslim in New Zealand
100 0 = very unfavourable
90
100= very favourable
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Migrants (in …
0
Pakistan
United Kingdom
India
Philippines
Indonesia
Afghanistan
Somalia
Australia
South Africa
Malaysia
Iraq
Iran
USA
Samoa
China
Korea
Fiji
Figure 3. Favourability ratings of migrants (in general) from various source countries. Tonga
Multicultural New Zealand? response adjoins that of Great Britain of countries on a 0-100 scale with 0 being
Is New Zealand a diversity-receptive (45% agreement) while New Zealand has very unfavourable and 100 being very
environment for immigrants? The answer one in four persons overseas-born favourable. As can be seen in Figure 3,
depends on the context and basis for compared to 14.4% in the United immigrants from predominantly Muslim
comparison, but in general New Zealand Kingdom (Migration Observatory, 2018). countries are perceived less favourably
performs well on indicators of Data reported by Ward and Masgoret than those from other countries, and those
multiculturalism (Sibley & Ward, 2013). (2008) indicated that 89% of the 2020 from countries associated with refugee
The 2010 analysis of the Multiculturalism participants in their national survey resettlement (e.g., Afghanistan, Iran,
Policy Index for immigrant minorities in agreed that It is a good thing for a country Somalia) are perceived least favourably.
21 countries ranked New Zealand fourth to be made up of different races, religions Indeed, there is a marked split in the
equal with Finland after Australia, and cultures, significantly more than favourability ratings with immigrants
Canada and Sweden (Multiculturalism found in Australia (85%) and the from all and only Muslim majority
Policy Index, 2010). New Zealand was European Union (36-75%). Relatedly, countries receiving an average evaluation
more recently ranked a close second to 80% agreed that It is important to accept falling on the unfavourable side of the
Iceland as the most immigrant-accepting a wide variety of cultures in New 50.0 midpoint. Moreover, when asked
country based on the Migrant Acceptance Zealand, and 82% endorsed integration, a about perceptions of immigrants of
Index used in a Gallup poll of 138 cornerstone of multiculturalism, different faiths, Christians were viewed
countries. While this may sound very compared to only 21% agreeing with most favourably, followed by Jews,
impressive, it is noteworthy that the index assimilation and 28% with separation. Buddhists, Hindus and Muslims, with
was based on three questions: whether However, not all immigrant groups are each group significantly differing from
immigrants living in the country, an perceived in equally positive terms. the other. Overall, these findings seem to
immigrant neighbour, and an immigrant Favourability ratings of immigrants from converge with research by Shaver and
marrying into your family is a good thing seven countries of origin showed that colleagues that reported markedly
or a bad thing (Esipova, Fleming, & Ray, immigrants from white, English-speaking warmer feelings toward “immigrants”
2017). International Ipsos (2017) polling countries (e.g., Australia, Great Britain) compared to Muslims, although tests for
showed less favourable results. New were viewed most favourably, Asian and significant differences were not included
Zealand was ranked 18th among 25 Pacific countries (e.g., China, Samoa) (Shaver et al., 2016; Shaver, Sibley,
countries when it came to agreeing with occupied an intermediate position, and Osborne, & Bulbulia, 2017).
the statement that there are too many those from Somalia were viewed The survey also examined perceptions
immigrants in the country; 44% of New significantly less favourably than all of threat in connection with Muslims in
Zealanders (in a range 15-83% across other groups. A subsequent study New Zealand. Perceptions of realistic
countries) agreed this was the case. examined attitudes toward Muslims, threat (i.e., threat and competition over
However, it is difficult to develop a sampling approximately 300 New tangible resources) were low; 18% and
nuanced interpretation of these data given Zealanders from the electoral roll (Stuart 19% of respondents, respectively, agreed
the marked variation in the actual number & Ward, 2009). Respondents were asked that immigrants from Muslim countries
of immigrants across the participating to rate the favourability of their have a negative effect on the country’s
countries. For example, New Zealand’s perceptions of immigrants from a variety economy and take jobs away from New
New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 48, No. 1 April 2019 42Being Muslim in New Zealand Zealanders. Perceptions of symbolic Prior to the Christchurch tragedy we have halal options?” Beyond threat were markedly higher with 44% young Muslims in Auckland, Wellington providing opportunities for Muslims to agreeing that Muslim values are not and Christchurch offered suggestions on practice their religion freely, it is essential compatible with New Zealand values and how to move forward in managing the for New Zealanders to critically appraise 52% agreeing Muslims do not share our risks associated with racism and and ultimately minimise the negative and worldview. While New Zealanders discrimination and in meeting the stereotypic portrayal of Islam and positively value diversity as a general challenges of achieving belonging and Muslims in the national media (Ward et principle, there is a noticeable difference inclusion. Their commentaries were al., 2016). Although Muslim youth have between principles and practices. highly insightful and reflected a keen suggested the use social media to promote Maintaining heritage cultures and sense of social accountability, with many positive representations, it is not solely sustaining cultural diversity require of their recommendations in accordance their responsibility to do so. Indeed, accommodation by majority groups, and with intergroup theory and research. The Stuart’s (2012) research indicates that New Zealanders appear at best only widespread perception of Muslims as there are feelings of helplessness, at least moderately accommodating. Forty-four terrorists and the stereotyped view of to some degree, and an insidious belief per cent of the respondents would not oppressed Muslim women were often that negative portrayals are “inevitable” want a mosque in their neighbourhood, cited hardships. Pervasive ignorance, in light of socio-political circumstances. and 47% agreed there was no place for reflected in a lack of basic knowledge of But I can’t do much about it. It’s not burqas in New Zealand- even though Islamic concepts, such as “halal” and like I can go to newspaper and tell 64% believed we should recognise “haram,” was seen as a marker of social them to stop doing that. That’s why I Muslim holidays and celebrations. This exclusion and as impacting negatively on think if you want to correct that I principle-practice gap is what relations between Muslims and non- should lead by example. If the media Yogeeswaran and Dasgupta (2014) refer Muslims. These misconceptions and says that Islam is violent then I should to as abstract versus concrete construals misunder-standings brought out a sense not be violent. I think that if we are of multiculturalism, noting that abstract of social responsibility in youth to act as misunderstood, then we correct them, construals are less threatening and less Muslim ambassadors and to “represent that is all (Stuart, 2012, p. 38). likely to fuel prejudice. Islam in the right way.” Accordingly, the Nevertheless, youth are right to be Beyond these descriptive analyses, we community recommended and initiated concerned about media portrayals. also tested integrative models of attitudes various outreach activities, including Research by Rahman and Emadi (2018) toward immigrants. In the earlier study of open days at mosques, dialogues between found a growing number of narratives national households, we hypothesised government and the Muslim community, linking Islam to “terrorism” and “jihad” and found support for a model whereby and sharing the celebration of Eid. In so much so that by 2016 New Zealand multicultural ideology and contact short, increasing contact between news outlets reported on “Islamic exerted both direct and indirect (via Muslims and non-Muslims was strongly terrorism” almost seven times more often threat) effects on attitudes toward encouraged (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006, than on Islam more generally. This immigrants. More specifically, in 2008), with members of the Muslim provides further insights into the research addition to predicting more positive community leading such initiatives by Shaver et al. (2017), which examined attitudes, multicultural ideology and (Ward et al., 2016). The merit of these exposure to news among a national contact also predicted lower perceived recommendations was borne out in our sample of over 16,000 New Zealand threat, and threat in turn predicted more Jusoor Tawaasul: Building Bridges residents. In support of media-induced negative attitudes toward immigrants workshop that brought together 24 Islamophobia, their results indicated that (Ward & Masgoret, 2008). In the latter ethnically diverse Muslims and non- greater news exposure was associated study with participants sampled from the Muslims aged 13-14 years at a with increased anger and reduced warmth electoral roll, we went beyond integrated Wellington girls’ school. When the towards Muslims. threat theory (Stephan & Stephan, 2000) students discussed the most important Beyond the positive influence of and the multiculturalism hypothesis things that they learned at the workshop, contact and the negative outcomes linked (Berry, 2006b) and introduced Intergroup unity emerged as a key theme. As one to the portrayal of Muslims in the media, Emotion theory (Mackie, Devos, & participant noted “We may look different, social psychological theory and research Smith, 2000), proposing and confirming but we can all have the same problems tell us that a sense of shared identity that the effects of threat on attitudes and we are the same on the inside.” reduces perceived threat (Rousseau & toward Muslims were partially mediated Other recommendations for moving Garcia-Retamero, 2007) and induces by the negative emotions of anger and forward were seen to require more more positive intergroup emotions (Ray, fear (Lescelius, Ward, & Stuart, 2019). widespread and proactive commitment to Mackie, Rydell, & Smith, 2008). This is Overall, the models demonstrate that both accommodating diversity in New in line with the guiding theme of the situational factors, such as intercultural Zealand. For Muslims to participate in the recent memorial service in Christchurch: contact, and individual differences (such wider community, socially and Ko tātou, tatou- we are one. But we need as a general acceptance of diversity), economically, in educational, to ask ourselves if this is something that contribute to more positive attitudes recreational and workplace settings, it is we have achieved or can truly realise. toward immigrants in general and important to ensure access to halal food Specifically, how do we move from Muslim immigrants more specifically; and prayer spaces, as well as alternatives symbolic representations of togetherness however, perceived threat and negative for modest dress for Muslim women. in discourse, which is both easier to emotions adversely impact these Paraphrasing one of our workshop accomplish and more likely to occur, to attitudes. participants, “if we can have vegan and engaging in intercultural contact, Moving Forward gluten free food in restaurants, why can’t reducing negative stereotypes and New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 48, No. 1 April 2019 43
Being Muslim in New Zealand
enhancing inclusion, which require effort common belief “this is not us.” Yet, what that were left in solidarity wilt? How do
and commitment from everyone. It is now we thought would never happen did; a we build upon our emerging awareness
time to put the means of achieving unity group of innocent people who were a part for the future, rather than looking back
into action, to share the responsibility for of our community were killed and wondering why things have not
change and to create an environment indiscriminately, solely on the basis of changed? Once the shock, anger, and
where everyone feels safe and all their religious beliefs. These people felt grief have passed, this is the challenge all
communities work together. We must not safe, but they were not protected. We can New Zealanders must face. Hopefully,
seek to simply react to violence when it no longer ignore prejudice and hate, nor the voices from our Muslim community
occurs, but to destroy the seeds of hate the fact that Islamophobia is a real threat offer some signposts as to how we can
before they take root. to social cohesion for everyone in a move forward together.
After the terrorist attack, the public multicultural society. So how do we move
rallied together finding comfort in the forward as a community after the flowers
Acknowledgements: The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support from the Royal Society of New Zealand James Cook
Fellowship, Foundation for Research, Science and Technology (FRST), Building Research Capacity in the Social Sciences
(BRCSS), and the Office of Ethnic Communities for the studies reported here. We are also grateful to the Federation of Islamic
Associations of New Zealand (FIANZ) and Multicultural New Zealand (MNZ) for their assistance in connecting us with Muslim
youth.
Correspondence concerning the article should be addressed to Colleen Ward, Centre for Applied Cross-cultural Research and
School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6140. E-mail: Colleen.Ward@vuw.ac.nz
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