Bulletin - Spelling: past, present and future - Learning Difficulties Australia | Volume 50, No 2, Winter 2018
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Learning Difficulties Australia | Volume 50, No 2, Winter 2018
Bulletin
Spelling: past,
present and future
3 From the Spelling bees:
18
LDA Bulletin | Contents
LDA Council 2017-18
OFFICE BEARERS President a tool for
PRESIDENT
Professor Anne Castles Anne Castles improving
VICE-PRESIDENT literacy?
Ann Ryan
4 Council notes Nathaniel Swain
VICE-PRESIDENT
Dr Lorraine Hammond
TREASURER
Dr Pye Twaddell
SECRETARY
Jo Whithear
6 Can we teach
Spelling Fact
Sheet 20
COUNCIL MEMBERS Daniel to spell?
Dr Jennifer Buckingham
Ideology is
22
Lyn Franklin Jennifer Baker
Pamela Judge
Dr Wendy Moore dooming
Dr Bartek Rajkowski
9
Jan Roberts Cover Story thousands of
Prof Pamela Snow
Dr Nicole Todd Spelling: children to
Dr Robyn Wheldall a retrospective illiteracy
COMMITTEE CONVENORS
EXECUTIVE/ADMINISTRATION look at past Jo Rogers
Jo Whithear research and
PUBLICATIONS
practices
24
Wendy Moore
WEBSITE
Consultants’
Peter Westwood
Pye Twaddell Report
CONSULTANTS Ann Ryan
14
Ann Ryan
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Activities for
Lorraine Hammond Practising
LDA Contacts Spelling – Toxic
CORRESPONDENCE ADDRESS
PO BOX 4013
to Helpful
Box Hill South VIC 3128
Lyn Stone
ADMINISTRATION & MEMBERSHIP
Kerrie McMahon ldaquery@bigpond.net.au
GENERAL ENQUIRIES
ldaquery@bigpond.net.au
AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF LEARNING
DIFFICULTIES
BULLETIN AND eNEWS EDITOR
Wendy Moore pubs.media@ldaustralia.org
WEBSITE EDITOR
Pye Twaddell thelearn@bigpond.net.au
LDA MISSION
Learning Difficulties Australia is an association
of teachers and other professionals dedicated
to assisting students with learning difficulties
through effective teaching practices based on
scientific research, both in the classroom and
through individualised instruction.
THE BULLETIN
The Bulletin is produced by David Wilkins at
Silvereye Learning Resources with support from
the LDA Bulletin team. Members of the team are
Wendy Moore, Robyn Wheldall, Pamela Snow,
Roslyn Nelson and Molly de Lemos. We welcome
the submission of articles from LDA members
and others with an interest in learning difficulties
for possible inclusion in upcoming editions of
this Bulletin.
Please submit articles, correspondence about the
Bulletin, or letters for publication to the editor
(pubs.media@ldaustralia.org). For questions
about content, deadlines, length or style, please
contact the editor. Articles in the Bulletin do not
necessarily reflect the opinions nor carry the
endorsement of Learning Difficulties Australia.
Requests to reprint articles from the Bulletin
should be addressed to the editor.
The Bulletin is designed by Andrew Faith
(www.littledesign.studio)
Printed by The Print Team.
2 | Volume 50, No 2, Winter 2018
From the President
LDA Bulletin | Presidents Report
Anne Castles undergraduate students to improve
their spelling of difficult words. The
students’ word reading speed was then
measured for these same words. The
researchers found that the words that
improved in spelling accuracy were
subsequently read more rapidly than the
words that did not show improvement,
providing direct evidence that the quality
I
n this issue, we focus on spelling. of orthographic representations, as
I’m very pleased about this, indexed by spelling, is causally related
because spelling often feels like to reading efficiency. Findings such
the “poor cousin” of reading. The as this have important implications for
processes involved in learning to spell the remediation of both reading and
have not received anything like the spelling difficulties: we must remember
degree of research attention as those not to overlook spelling interventions as
involved in learning to read, and spelling a potentially valuable component of our
difficulties do not attract the same level toolkit when working with children with
of concern from teachers, parents, and learning difficulties.
clinicians as do difficulties in reading. Reading and spelling are closely
Why might this be the case? One linked, but also draw on different skills
widespread impression seems to be and processes. At the most basic level,
that a spelling problem is easily dealt spelling is a production task while
with – just use the spell checker! But, as
reading is one of recognition. That
we well know, the spell checker doesn’t
there are differences in the demands of
fix the many spelling errors that involve
reading and spelling is evident from the
producing another correctly spelled
existence of a small but distinct group of
word (for example, the ubiquitous their/
individuals who are unexpectedly poor
there confusion). There also seems to
spellers: their reading falls within the
be a sense that being a poor speller
normal range, but they fall well below
is just an annoyance rather than a
condition that will affect a child’s future average on measures of spelling. By
or their access to knowledge, education closely studying children who show this
or employment. But this is not so. profile, we can learn more about which
To cite just one example, in a 1991 skills are common across reading and
article in Business and Professional spelling, and which skills are distinct.
Communication Quarterly, researchers I hope that you find the articles in
Robert Schramm and Neil Dortch report this issue illuminating and informative,
on a survey of 142 recruiters from a and I further hope that this focus on
range of companies. The recruiters were spelling will stimulate more interest in,
asked about the aspects of resumes that and attention to, this important domain
influenced their interest in interviewing a of learning.
prospective employee. Over 90% of the
LDA’s president, Dr Anne Castles, is
recruiters responded that a resume with
Research Chair in the Department
more than one spelling error would lead
them to be disinterested in a candidate. of Cognitive Science at Macquarie
Acquiring basic spelling and writing University. Her research has
skills is important, and arguably more so a particular focus on reading
in our modern era of texting, tweeting, development and developmental
and social media. dyslexia. Anne is Chair of the NSW
Another reason that spelling is Centre for Effective Reading and a
important is that knowing the precise steering committee member of the
spellings of words helps people to Australian Brain Alliance. Anne has
read them. In research reported in been a member of the LDA Council
Scientific Studies of Reading in 2017, since 2009 and is on the editorial
Gene Ouellette and colleagues trained board for five academic journals.
Volume 50, No 2, Winter 2018 | 3
Council notes
LDA Bulletin | Council notes
Wendy Moore children with developmental disorders Professional
that impact on language and literacy
development, including language Development
impairment, autism and dyslexia. This has been a very busy year for LDA
organised professional development
Mona Tobias Award events. In May, Dr Judi Humberstone
Alison Clarke is a speech pathologist presented a very useful session on
from Melbourne. She is a passionate dyscalculia and the difficulties students
advocate for evidence-based practice experience in developing mathematical
and developed the website Spelfabet. understandings. Then in June, Jenny
Baker delivered a very well received full
LDA AGM Alison helps parents, teachers and
day session on developing sentence
others incorporate this evidence-
LDA Members and guests are invited to complexity in written expression.
based approach into high-quality
attend LDA’s AGM and the conferring of Attendees at both sessions walked away
initial instruction and early intervention
Awards on Saturday, 22 September. with new knowledge and insights which
through the provision of resources
Time: 1.00–3.30pm, AGM and Award they will be able to apply straight away in
and timely advice with her blog and
Winners’ acceptance addresses their work with students.
engaging videos that demystify what it
Place: Treacy Centre – 126 The The packed LDA professional
means to teach reading, spelling and
Avenue, Parkville, Melbourne learning schedule has two more exciting
writing effectively.
Afternoon tea will be provided – events coming up with sessions in
please RSVP to Kerrie McMahon, Bruce Wicking Award Adelaide, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney.
LDA Administration Officer by email:
Ray Boyd is the principal of West
ldaquery@bigpond.net.au. Kate Nation - Reading and
Beechboro Primary, a high performing
language comprehension
LDA Awards school in Perth. Through his enduring
difficulties: research-practice
commitment to teacher-directed
LDA is very pleased to announce
instructional practices and evidence- links and applications for
the recipients of the 2018 LDA and
based literacy instruction students, the classroom
AJLD Awards, including the inaugural
staff at West Beechboro Primary Melbourne: Friday 21 September
Rosemary Carter Award. These awards
are designed to recognise outstanding School ensure students are not 2018 Treacy Centre, 126
work in the field of learning difficulties. ‘defined by their post-code.’ Because The Avenue, Parkville
They are open to both members and of Ray’s commitment effective Adelaide: Monday 24 September
non-members of LDA. This year’s literacy instruction, students who might 2018 Education
awards will be presented at the LDA otherwise have experienced difficulties Development Centre
AGM on September 22 at the Treacy learning to read achieve success. (EDC), 4 Milner Street,
Centre in Melbourne. Hindmarsh
Rosemary Carter Award
For more information about the Sydney: Friday 28 September
awards, application processes, and Fay Tran is the inaugural recipient of 2018 Mantra Parramatta,
previous winners, visit the Learning the Rosemary Carter Award. Fay is cnr Parkes St & Valentine
Difficulties Australia website. an outstanding consultant member Avenue, Parramatta
who has contributed to the field of LDA is honoured to present Kate
AJLD Eminent Researcher learning difficulties through her work Nation – Professor in Experimental
Award with students as a learning support Psychology and Fellow of St.
Professor Kate Nation is Professor in teacher at Geelong Grammar and John’s College, Oxford, Director of
Experimental Psychology and Fellow of following her retirement as an LDA ReadOxford, Partner Investigator
St. John’s College at Oxford University Consultant providing private tuition. ARC Centre for Excellence, and
in the UK. Professor Nation’s research Fay’s commitment to evidence-based LDA’s 2018 Eminent Researcher
is concerned with the psychology practice saw her resist pressures to Award winner – in Melbourne,
of language, especially reading and abandon the phonics approach for the Adelaide and Sydney. Kate will
its development. She is interested teaching of initial reading in the 80s consider the complexity of reading
in how children learn to read words and 90s, and she was successful in by constructing meaning from print,
and comprehend text, and more ensuring that direct teaching of phonics highlighting why children may
generally, the relationship between was maintained at her school. Fay is the struggle to understand what they
spoken language and written language. author of Teaching Kids to Read, and read, and discuss evidence-based
Alongside her research on typical through her website Learning2Read she interventions for children with poor
development, Professor Nation studies provides a wealth of information and reading comprehension, considering
language and cognitive processes in resources for parents and teachers. implications for the classroom.
4 | Volume 50, No 2, Winter 2018Professor Nation’s work is of direct News from the Website
LDA Bulletin | Council notes
relevance and critical importance to
The LDA website provides members
everyone working with children with
and those interested in supporting
language and literacy difficulties.
students with learning difficulties with
Registrations have been strong for
a treasure trove of information. Some
these workshops and we are expecting
new functionality has been added to the
that they will generate a lot of interest
website recently.
and discussion.
Spelling: Beyond the Alphabetic LDA Bookshop
Principle The new, revitalised, LDA Bookshop
was launched in late May and has got
Perth: Saturday 20 October 2018 Edith
off to a great start. The online bookshop
Cowan University Lecture Theatre
features a carefully curated selection of
building 10, room 131
books for LDA members and visitors,
Sarah Asome will present a systematic
founded on evidence-based research,
explicit evidence-based approach to
which bridge the gap between research
teaching spelling, focusing on teaching
and practical teaching resources.
spelling as a ‘process’, based on the
The LDA Bookshop is regularly
structure of the English Language
updated with new resources and
including phonology, syllabication
recommendations from LDA members
(structural analysis) and morphology.
are welcomed. If you come across a
Explanatory session notes and hands-on
book which you believe will be helpful
practice will be provided. Participant
to other LDA members, then please let
will learn:
us know via the Contact page on the
• basic procedures for spelling regular
LDA Bookshop website. All suggestions
1-syllable words based on sound-
will be reviewed and if aligned with
symbol relationships, (phonology)
the bookshop’s guidelines, they will be
• basic procedures for spelling
added where we can offer them to LDA
irregular words,
members at a reasonable price.
• spelling rules for 1-syllable words,
To see for yourself and to make
• basic procedures for spelling
suggestions, click on the LDA Bookshop
multisyllabic words on syllables,
link on the home page of the LDA website.
(structural analysis),
• spelling rules for adding suffixes,
(morphological principles).
Sarah Asome is a dyslexia specialist
and the Learning Support Leader at
Bentleigh West Primary School in
Victoria. She has been instrumental in
leading change at BWPS, which has
led to a significant increase in their
students’ literacy levels, with the 2018
NAPLAN results now placing BWPS as
a high performing school. Sarah also
continues to support many colleagues
state and nationwide in implementing
evidence-based literacy instruction in
their schools. In 2015, Sarah Asome
was awarded ‘Outstanding Primary
Teacher in the VEEA awards. Sarah
is featured in “Outside the Square“,
a DVD resource for teachers, and
in 2017 appeared on Insight – ‘A
teacher Who Changed My Life’. Sarah
regularly presents at state and national
conferences in relation to literacy and
dyslexia. She is an inspirational ball of
energy and passion.
Volume 50, No 2, Winter 2018 | 5Can we teach Daniel
LDA Bulletin | Can we teach Daniel to spell?
to spell?
Jennifer Baker examines How does Daniel significant
degree of
the importance of mental process sounds and difficulty began
graphemic representations letters? emerging when
(MGR) and rapid Daniel is somewhat typical of the it became
children we work with in our clinic. He time for Daniel
automatic naming (RAN) to cease the
has a profile of strong phonological
through a case study of a awareness but very low rapid automatic overt sounding
out strategies
typical bright young boy naming (RAN). Maybe this recurring
and begin
profile is suggestive of the rigorous
who really struggles with phonological awareness (PA) training transitioning to
spelling. that children in Western Australia
a more orthographic approach to both
reading and spelling. As soon as he was
receive in the junior primary years.
required to make graphemic choices for
Maybe the children who are now most
phonemes such as in “turn”, “tern” or
at risk for reading failure are the ones
“turn”, he experienced confusion. He
who have attained average PA skills
failed to form robust mental graphemic
through classroom programs, but whose
representations (MGRs) of words and as
RAN remains weak (as there are no
such, he failed to develop automaticity
reliable evidence-based methodologies
of spelling and reading.
to improve RAN exclusively).
On the Comprehensive Test of
“Daniel, which of these two words is
Phonological Processing (CTOPP-2)
What does this look
spelt correctly?”
freind or friend (Wagner, Torgesen, Rashotte and Pearson, like?
“I’m sorry Jenny, I don’t know; they both 2013), Daniel’s profile is asymmetrical, • Over reliance on phonemic analysis
weigh the same in my mind!” unbalanced enough to force him into an Daniel will “sound out” complex
Daniel is 11, and this is how over-reliance on the phonological route to words that can no longer be satisfied
he explains the fact that he has not reading and spelling acquisition, thus not with a purely phonic approach:
established a robust mental graphemic allowing him access to the orthographic speshel /special furies / furious
representation for the word “friend” route. His results show that: • Inconsistency
within his orthographic memory. He • Phonological awareness is at the Daniel will spell the same word with
cannot “call it up” and visualise what 97th percentile two or three different versions within
it looks like. He cannot select which • Phonological memory is at the 50th the one text:
representation is the correct one – both percentile dangeres dangeris dangruss
words “weigh” the same in his mind! • Rapid automatic naming (Symbolic: • Violations
letters and numbers) is at the 9th Daniel will encode words using
What does Daniel’s percentile violations of English spelling
• Rapid automatic naming (Non- orthography:
profile look like? symbolic: colours and objects) is at jummped barscket
Daniel is a very bright young boy with the 12th percentile • Lack of automaticity
high verbal language skills. At the Daniel relies on mnemonics for
word level, his spelling and reading What does this mean words such as “because” that he
are all well below average and this has
impacted on his functional literacy skills,
in terms of his literacy should have automatic access to by
his age.
particularly in written expression where development? In a spelling test of words taught in
he is operating at the 12th percentile In term of his literacy development, this a previous week, his self-talk reveals the
(on the Oral Written Language Scales means that in the early stages of spelling struggle he experiences with accessing
(OWLS) Written Expression Subtest) and reading, Daniel was well equipped new learning:
(Carrow-Woolfolk, 2011). Reading to engage in phonemic awareness. He come
comprehension is just within average could sound-out and synthesise words “Is that ‘came’ or ‘come’? I can
range, boosted by sophisticated world with relative ease, and he could spell never remember.”
knowledge and intrinsic linguistic phonetically regular words that were came
capability but hampered by poor single relatively complex (such as wombat, because
word accuracy and fluency. hundred and contact). However, a “Big elephants can always
6 | Volume 50, No 2, Winter 2018understand small elephants.” rapid automatic naming (RAN) accounts What did Daniel’s
LDA Bulletin | Can we teach Daniel to spell?
because for much of the fluency we strive for
breakfast with reading and spelling acquisition; therapy “look like”?
“break the fast.” it is considered to be a microcosm of I elected to present Daniel as a case
brackfast the reading system, providing an index study for the purpose of exploring
elephant of one’s abilities to integrate multiple orthographic processing to develop
“el – e ………just figuring out if it’s neural processes. Administration spelling competency. The primary
‘ph’ – I think I got it wrong.” of RAN tasks provides insight into reason for doing so was to reflect on
eliphant whether a student is equipped with the what did not work and to speculate on
dangerous ability to form strong, robust MGRs. what would have been a more effective
“If I got that right, I’d be surprised.” The nature of the relationship between treatment regime for him.
Dangers RAN and MGRs is not definitive, When I was treating Daniel in the
however it can be hypothesised that clinic several years ago, the universal
What were his goals for RAN “taps into” a student’s naming
focus for intervention was on a much
intervention? speed for orthographically-presented
more analytical and cognitive approach
that involved teaching the student words
The overall goals for intervention were stimuli. Children with average to
at a “meta” level and providing them
to develop accuracy, fluency and high RAN cope much better with the
with semantic as well as morphological
automaticity at word level for reading establishment of robust MGRs than
explanations for the structure of certain
and spelling in order to improve his children with poor RAN.
words. Armed with this theoretical
functional literacy ability. It was vital rationale, I embarked on a model of
to develop robust mental graphemic How do we form intervention that was heavily weighted
representations (MGR) from Daniel’s robust mental towards morphology, semantics and
existing “fuzzy” MGRs.
graphemic etymology and less geared towards all
those techniques that we now know are
What do we representations? vital for the establishment of robust MGRs.
mean by robust Ehri (2014), Moats (2000), Kilpatrick When he was 11, I worked with
mental graphemic (2015) and Apel (2011) provide us with Daniel for 4 weeks on the ‘ous’ ending
some of the best advice for facilitating in approximately 12 words. He received
representations? the development of robust MGRs. They 4 one-hour sessions and approximately
We want every single word that a child propose the following principles to 20 minutes of each session was devoted
has to read or spell to end up becoming employ within any literacy program at to this goal. Home practice was set at 3
what is commonly known as a “sight” Tier 1, 2 and 3 levels: twenty-minute sessions per week.
word (Kilpatrick 2015 and Apel 2011). • Use a “speech to print” The issue in therapy was that no
This is a word that is deeply embedded approach; capitalise on our innate matter what rule or concept was taught
in a reader’s orthographic word bank understanding of sounds in words to Daniel, he always demonstrated
so that individuals can access that • Show children the placements for thorough understanding of it within
representation rapidly and efficiently. different phonemes; use puppets, the lesson, but generalisation was slow
Once a word has been stored accurately, models or videos and inconsistent.
it is considered to be a robust mental • Don’t spend too much time on The first strategy was to divide the
graphemic representation (or MGR). unnecessary tasks of phonological “ous” words into those with positive
There is some contention awareness; focus on synthesis and and negative connotations. Positive
surrounding the use of the word “sight” analysis (but build in more complex words included: fabulous, tremendous,
to refer to words stored as MGRs. This marvellous, joyous, famous and
manipulation at a later phase)
is because the semantic connotations generous. Negative words included:
• Introduce words for reading at
of the concept “sight” suggests to some dangerous, jealous, nervous, ridiculous
VC (vowel + consonant) and
that the words must be taught by highly and serious. It was assumed that
CVC (consonant + vowel +
visual mechanisms, as if by “sight” attaching contrastive meaning to the
consonant) as soon as there are
when nothing is further from the truth! words would facilitate his memory of
enough phoneme:grapheme
Apel (2011) explains that the way the system.
correspondences to do so
to build up “sight” words is through In addition, the syntactic role of
• Continually engage in
the development of robust MGRs. the morphological ending ‘ous’ was
phoneme:grapheme mapping examined and reinforced. Daniel was
He clarifies, “MGRs contain specific
• Integrate spelling with reading; they told that the ‘ous’ turned a word such
sequences of graphemes representing
help each other! as ‘danger’ which was a noun into an
written words. MGR knowledge is one
aspect of orthographic knowledge; when • Use decodable readers. Allow adjective ‘dangerous’. The same could
one has a clear mental image of a word, students to ‘access’ words with be said for ‘fame’ to ‘famous’ and joy’ to
then correct writing and reading of that confidence; help them to learn how ‘joyous’ etc.
word should occur.” (p.593) words work Another phonological strategy was to
• Repeat the reading and spelling divide words into syllables and recognise
How do we measure processes at word and text level; this how the ‘ous’ ending was embedded
will help to build up robust MGRs
mental graphemic • Build in phonemic and graphemic
in the final syllable (and contained the
schwa sound). Daniel was required
representations? manipulation as advanced to read these words, break them into
Norton and Wolf (2012) explain that phonological awareness activities syllables, sound them out, write them
Volume 50, No 2, Winter 2018 | 7into sentences and finally use them in Where to next? first- and second-grade students from
LDA Bulletin | Can we teach Daniel to spell?
paragraph level texts. low socioeconomic status homes: a
The issue for Daniel is that he can
A decodable text that focused on ‘ous’ feasibility study. Language, Speech and
understand how words work; he has
endings was employed for the purpose of Hearing Services in Schools, 44 (April),
strong linguistic and morphological
repeated readings and dictation. 161-173.
awareness. He can process the
Daniel was provided with multiple Berninger, V., Abbott, R., Nagy,
phonemic, morphological and semantic
opportunities to read and spell the word W., & Carlisle, J. (2010). Growth
aspects of the word selections, but
under timed as well as untimed conditions. in phonological, orthographic and
he cannot “tip” over into orthographic
morphological awareness in Grades 1 to
What went wrong? processing where he develops robust
6. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research,
MGRs of these words because his RAN
By normal standards, this therapy 39, 141-163.
is too weak to allow him to do so. And
regime could be considered as providing Bryant, P., Nunes, T., & Barros, R.
so, it is necessary to “trim” the word
a reasonable scope of activities and (2014). The connection between
list and reduce the number of items
approaches necessary to bond the children’s knowledge and use of grapho-
he must learn. It is also important to
phonemes to the graphemes in this phonic and morphemic units in written
do more mental processing of the
selection of words and develop mental words, where he is required to hold text and their learning at school. British
graphemic representations of these the word at a mental level and identify Journal of Educational Psychology, 84,
words for him. However, a four week and manipulate the phonemes and 211-225.
period of intervention was insufficient to graphemes contained within it. More Carrow-Woolfolk, E. (2011) Oral and
achieve this process, and the selection repeated reading and more encoding Written Language Scales, Second
of techniques did not include enough of of the selection of words will also assist Edition (OWLS-II). USA, Western
the following: to develop stronger MGRs. Daniel is Psychological Services.
1. phoneme:grapheme mapping very aware of his difficulties and gives
(sound out “s.t.r.a.p” while mapping Goodwin, A., & Ahn, S. (2010). A meta-
me encouragement, saying, “I think
out the letters) analysis of morphological interventions:
this new method is working for me
2. repeated reading of single words effects on literacy achievement of
Jen”, but until I can test his spelling of
3. phoneme manipulation (listen to the children with literacy difficulties. Annals
“dangerous” and he writes, “dangerous”
word “strap”. Take out the “a” and of Dyslexia, 60, 183 - 208.
I will not be happy with my methodology!
put in a “i”. What word have you Graham, S., & Santangelo, T. (2014).
made?) Jenny Baker has worked in the Does spelling instruction make students
4. grapheme manipulation (Make language and literacy arena for over better spellers, readers and writers?
“strap” into “strip” using letter tiles) thirty years and now runs a busy A meta-analytic review. Reading and
5. identifying graphemes at a mental private practice in W.A. with 21 Writing, 27, 1703 - 1743.
level (hold the word “strap” Speech Pathologists working with
Hilte, M., & Reitsma, P. (2011).
inside your head. Now tell me students of all ages with literacy
Activating the meaning of a word
what is the fourth sound? What is issues. Jenny has presented workshops
facilitates the integration of orthography:
the second sound?) on spelling and written expression at
evidence from spelling exercises in
Because he had such strong many events conducted by Speech
beginning spellers. Journal of Research
phonological awareness skills and Pathology Australia as well as The WA
in Reading, 34(3), 333-345.
well developed phonological memory, Dyslexia SPELD Foundation (DSF); she
teaches fourth Year Speech Pathology Kessler, B., & R. Treiman (2003). Is
Daniel was well able to divide words into
students about theoretically sound English spelling chaotic? Misconceptions
syllables and sound out each syllable
and empirically researched practices concerning its irregularity. Reading
in order to identify the placement
underpinning the assessment and Psychology, 24, 267-289.
of the ‘ous’ ending. Daniel was able
to complete all activities related to intervention of literacy skills. She is Siegel, L. (2008). Morphological
the teaching of this set of words and an advocate for the vital role Speech awareness skills of English language
sustained high accuracy over four Pathologists play in the research learners and children with dyslexia.
weeks, which led me to believe that based diagnosis and remediation of Topics in Language Disorders, 28(1),
he had achieved the goal, however learning difficulties. 15-27.
when he was tested in the sixth week, References: Wagner, R.K., Torgesen, J.K.,
most attempts represented his original Rashotte, C.A. & Pearson, N.A. 2013
Apel, K., et al. (2004). Integration
primitive phonic encoding of words: Comprehensive test of phonological
of language components in spelling.
joyes / joyous X processing-second edition (CTOPP-2).
In E. Silliman & P. Wilkinson (Eds.),
marvelus / marvellous X Austin, Texas. PRO-ED.
Language and literacy learning in
nervous / nervous
schools (pp. 644–660). New York:
posoners / poisonous X
Guildford Press.
rediculous / ridiculous X
tremendous / tremendous Apel, K. (2011). What is orthographic
dangers / dangerous X knowledge? Language, Speech, and
enormous / enormous Hearing Services in Schools, 42, 592-
fabuless / fabulous X 603.40
famiss / famous X Apel, K., Brimo, D., Diehm, E., & Apel,
generes / generous X L. (2013). Morphological awareness
jealous / jealous intervention with kindergartners and
8 | Volume 50, No 2, Winter 2018LDA Bulletin | Spelling: a retrospective look at past research and practices
Spelling:
a retrospective
look at past
research and
practices
Peter Westwood explains
that we have learnt a lot
about spelling over the
last hundred years and
teaching needs to more
consistently put into
practice the methods that
have been shown to work.
Volume 50, No 2, Winter 2018 | 9S
pelling has been a popular focus in print giving practical guidance on
LDA Bulletin | Spelling: a retrospective look at past research and practices
of attention for researchers over how to teach spelling (e.g., Tidyman,
many generations. Some of this 1919). Unfortunately, rote learning and
attention has been directed to memorisation remained the principal
studying students who find spelling an methods of learning to spell.
extremely difficult skill to master. This Among the writers and researchers
short article provides a brief overview of with greatest impact on classroom
some of the past research and teaching practice at that time was Grace Fernald.
practices with due reference to the She produced the Teachers’ Manual
attitude towards learning and teaching of Spelling in 1918, based on her own
that prevailed at particular times. teaching experience. Fernald’s little book
is amazing in that she was addressing
Earliest studies what are still current matters of interest,
The earliest published work that I can namely visual and auditory perception,
locate that specifically addresses spelling visual imagery and memory, the learning
is a paper by Wyckoff (1892) with the of phonetic and non-phonetic words,
title Constitutional Bad Spellers. It may and how best to develop automaticity
represent the first serious consideration (which she called ‘spelling habit
given to students who had a learning formation’). It is interesting to note
disability affecting their encoding of that the opening sentence in Fernald’s
simple tests used together (spelling and
words. This was the same time period 1918 manual is: ‘The complaint is very
mental arithmetic) were highly sensitive
when attention in Germany and the UK common that the present age is one of
for detecting students described in those
(and later in Scandinavia) was being poor spellers’. Perhaps nothing changes
in 100 years, given the concern today days as ‘backward’ or ‘innately dull’ —
given to a phenomenon that was at first
over declining spelling standards of we prefer to say ‘students with learning
termed ‘word blindness’. This disability
school students and university graduates difficulties’. One of his most widely used
affected a small number of extremely
in the US, Australia and Britain (ACARA, publications at the time was Mental and
poor readers of normal intelligence
2017; Elliott et al., 2016; Meeks, Kemp Scholastic Tests (Burt, 1921) containing
and who were free from any sensory
& Stephenson, 2014; Paton, 2012; well-designed assessments for spelling.
impairment (Hinshelwood, 1895;
Queen’s English Society, 2018). Burt’s interest in spelling went
Kussmaul, 1877; Morgan, 1896). We
refer to this condition now as ‘dyslexia’ or The same year that Fernald beyond testing. He also made
‘reading disability’. All these students with published her manual, Hollingworth recommendations concerning teaching
very poor reading skills were found also to was producing a monograph titled approaches for students who were poor
be extremely weak spellers; and Carman the Psychology of Special Disability spellers. For example, he suggested that
(1900) believed that their problem was in Spelling (1918), drawing on the learners who had difficulty detecting
due to ‘poor observation of small details information that was becoming sounds within spoken words should
of words in print’. This obsession with increasingly available on the topics be taught by a visual approach (e.g.,
visual perception as the key to spelling of ‘word-blindness’ and ‘alexia’. flashcards). However, if a student was
ability has continued even up to today, Hollingworth’s book is available to be weak in visual memory he or she should
both in the teaching practices we use read online by entering the title at: instead engage in word building with
and in the focus of much of the research www.hathitrust.org letter cards to become familiar with
(Westwood, 2015). In the beginning, In the United States in the letter sequences and spelling patterns.
poor auditory skills and lack of phonic 1920s, Gates was writing about the More recent research has questioned
knowledge were relatively overlooked as development of spelling ability in his the validity of this simplistic ‘modality
contributory factors in spelling difficulties. volume The Psychology of Reading and matching’ approach in remedial teaching
The early part of the twentieth Spelling (Gates, 1922). Looking at that (Kavale & Forness, 1987; Willingham,
century was a very active time for book now, it seems that he placed too 2005). Current research suggests that
research into spelling. Excellent reviews much emphasis on visual memory as rather than trying to bypass a so-called
of this period can be found in Gruppe the principal influence on the ability weaker modality we need instead to
(1913) and Hollingsworth (1918). It to spell. His section on ‘how to learn integrate both auditory and visual
was an era when there was no doubt to spell a word’ describes exactly what perception in the teaching of spelling.
in educators’ minds that spelling amounts to the popular ‘look-say-cover- In particular, activities to improve
was a skill that needed to be taught, write-check’ method, although he does phonemic awareness and phonic skills
not left to incidental learning. Time not refer to it by that name. should accompany activities such as
was allocated in most primary school The late educational psychologist flashcard recognition and repeated
timetables for spelling instruction; Sir Cyril Burt has been discredited for writing as an aid to spelling. During
and there was a clear expectation that his work on twin studies in the UK, Burt’s time, the importance of training
students would work hard to become but his earlier work on basic academic phonemic awareness (detecting the
competent spellers. Efforts were made to skills was very sound. He referred to separate sounds that make up spoken
develop materials such as graded word ‘reading, spelling and arithmetic’ as the words) for reading and spelling had not
lists and ‘word families’ that could be most important subjects to be taught been explored—that did not occur until
used by teachers to develop students’ in the primary school curriculum. Burt research in the 1980s (e.g., Bradley &
spelling ability and test their progress was the first to provide classroom tests Bryant, 1983).
over time (e.g., Ayres, 1915; Starch, that can yield what he termed ‘spelling Through the 1930s into the
1915). Handbooks also appeared ages’; and he was convinced that two 1950s, attitudes in schools were still
10 | Volume 50, No 2, Winter 2018positive towards the teaching of spelling look-cover-write-check to increase visual It is pertinent to note that the
LDA Bulletin | Spelling: a retrospective look at past research and practices
as an important literacy skill. In 1951 imagery of word forms. inclusion of morphology (the study of
it was written “Every good teacher is small units of meaning within words) in
eager to help pupils spell better so that Remedial teaching spelling and reading programs is now
they will not be handicapped when took a wrong turn regarded as cutting-edge pedagogy
they need to write. Accuracy in written (e.g., Crosson & Moore, 2017;
While mainstream education in the
communication is a serious matter” Hammond, 2017; IDA, 2017; Zoski
1960s and 1970s was undervaluing
(Hildreth, 1951, p.245). & Erickson, 2017), so Morphographic
the direct teaching of phonics and
In those years, teachers in the Spelling was thus ahead of its time.
spelling skills, remedial and special
US were relying on advice from books
education headed off in any entirely
such as Teaching Spelling (Hildreth,
different direction anyway, believing
Whole-language was
1955), an important text because it
that poor spelling and reading may be far from whole
acknowledges the role of phonics in
due to deficits in underlying processes, The 1980s and 1990s saw schools
attempting to spell unfamiliar words.
such as faulty visual discrimination, in the US, Britain and Australia adopting
Teachers in the UK and Australia came
confusion over right and left, and the whole-language approach for literacy
to rely on guidance from materials
inefficient eye tracking. This belief led teaching. This grew out of the creative
authored by Schonell (1932; 1942).
to the introduction of ‘ability training’ writing movement together with the
I recall being given a copy of his
programs such as the Frostig Visual- growing influence from constructivist
Essentials of Teaching and Testing
Perceptual Training Program (Frostig & theories of learning. In whole-language
Spelling when I took up my first teaching
Horne, 1964). This program aimed to approaches, specific skills such as
position in a primary school in 1959.
improve processes that were believed spelling and phonic decoding were
I was told to give my students a set
to underpin reading and writing by not to be a main focus of instruction;
number of words to learn each week
providing worksheets that claimed to instead it was believed that the
and to test their spelling regularly. I did
improve hand-eye coordination, figure emphasis should be on reading for
as I was told.
ground discrimination, form constancy, meaning and writing for real purposes.
and spatial relationships. Despite the
Spelling instruction brief popularity of this program in
Students were encouraged to guess
words in their reading and to invent
falls out of favour the US, research by Jacobs (1968), the spelling of any word they wanted to
Then came the 1960s. This was the Friesen (1969) and others could find use when writing. Their teachers were
beginning of the period in which creative no supportive evidence of its efficacy. not expected to mark written work too
writing became the ultimate goal in The activities are too far removed harshly lest this crush imagination and
literacy education. Teachers were from working with words to have any creativity. Practice exercises for spelling
encouraged to believe that spelling effect on children’s spelling or reading were taboo. One of the main arguments
ability would develop incidentally when ability—even though they may get from the disciples of whole-language
students wrote freely every day about better at completing the worksheets. approaches was that English spelling
exciting topics, and when they were Meta-analysis of data from studies of is so unpredictable that it is useless to
encouraged to invent the spelling of any perceptual training programs usually try to spell words by attending to their
words they wished to use. The idea that yields negligible effect sizes (Hattie & component sounds. This is nonsense,
spelling should be taught as a separate Yates, 2014). because at least 80 per cent of words
skill was frowned upon, much in the can be written correctly or almost
same way that teaching phonics was A glimmer of light correctly by using sound-to-letter
frowned upon later during the reign The introduction of a program first titled correspondences. That percentage
of the whole-language approach. The Morphographic Spelling (Dixon, 1976) increases significantly if a speller also
1960s also saw look-and-say whole word and later renamed Spelling through knows a wide range of commonly
recognition emerge as the main way Morphographs (Dixon & Engelmann, occurring letter groups (orthographic
that reading was to be taught in primary 2007) was a serious attempt to swim units) that represent pronounceable
schools. Phonics teaching became against the tide of incidental learning. parts of words, such as -ing, -ous, un-,
much less popular, although some This direct instruction program was -tch, - nk, - sk, str-, -ight.
teachers had the good sense to continue designed to teach spelling to 4th Grade
using the method. and older students by focusing on mastery …at least 80 per cent of
In the late 1960s, Peters explored of root words, prefixes and suffixes. words can be written
the weaknesses in the argument Many features of the program adopt a
that spelling is caught not taught behavioural teaching approach, with correctly or almost
(Peters, 1967). Her conclusion was modelling of responses, guided practice, correctly by using sound-
that spelling does indeed need to be reinforcement and corrective feedback.
to-letter correspondences
taught. However, she continued with the The approach was utterly shunned by
belief that visual perception and visual mainstream disciples of creative writing,
Some educators argue that the
memory (together with an easy style of who were always appalled by any notion
whole-language approach did not have
handwriting) contribute most in learning of direct teaching that focused on a single
a negative impact on students’ spelling
to spell. She felt that the key was to train skill. This morphographic approach was
standards because they learned to spell
children to attend closely to commonly (and still is) used mainly in remedial
by writing every day; but the evidence
occurring letter sequences that are education settings. For a thorough review
suggests otherwise (Westwood &
found within many different words. She of direct instruction approaches for
Bissaker, 2005). For example, testing
favoured teaching strategies such as spelling see Hempenstall (2015).
Volume 50, No 2, Winter 2018 | 11of a large number of students in South Coupled with this renewed attention Bowers, J.S., & Bowers, P.N. (2017).
LDA Bulletin | Spelling: a retrospective look at past research and practices
Australia found a decline in spelling to phonics, research has also discovered Beyond phonics: The case for teaching
standards between 1978 and 1993, the benefits of introducing ‘word study’ children the logic of the English spelling
particularly in the primary school to help reveal connections between system. Educational Psychologist, 52, 2:
years. And by 2004, average spelling phonological, morphological and 124-141.
standards had not returned to the level orthographic structures within words Burt, C. (1921). Mental and scholastic
of 1978. It is unlikely to be coincidental (Bowers & Bowers, 2017; Crosson tests. London: P.S. King.
that South Australia embraced whole- & Moore, 2017; Gray, Ehri & Locke,
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. (1983).
language most enthusiastically in the 2018). The current view is that children
acquire the ability to spell on the Categorizing sounds and learning to
period from 1980 to 1999, and the
basis of their increasing phonological, read: A causal connection. Nature, 301,
teaching of phonics and spelling was
linguistic and semantic knowledge, as 419-421.
well and truly put on the back burner.
well as from very frequent exposure to Carman, E.K. (1900). The cause
Input from cognitive words in print (Treiman, 2017). Explicit of chronic bad spelling. Journal of
Pedagogy, 8: 86 – 87.
psychology teaching methods are most effective for
addressing and integrating these areas Cole, P., & Chan, L. (1990). Methods
In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers of knowledge. and strategies for special education.
who were far removed from whole-
Sydney & New York: Prentice Hall.
language ideology were discovering that
students’ reading comprehension, writing Research has strongly Crosson, A.C., & Moore, D. (2017).
skills and spelling could be improved When to take up roots: The effects
supported a view that
significantly if they were explicitly taught of morphology instruction for middle
to use strategies for approaching these phonic knowledge does school and high school English learners.
tasks systematically (e.g., Cole & Chan, contribute greatly to Reading Psychology, 38, 3: 262-288.
1990; Lyndon, 1989; Zutell, 1979). For the development of Davis, B.G. (2013). Research-based
example, when students are given words spelling: Sitton spelling and word study.
to learn they also need to be taught to independent spelling ability Online article accessed 20 June 2018
examine each word and decide whether at: http://eps.schoolspecialty.com/
it can be written correctly by ‘spelling Finally, recent research has
downloads/research_papers/series/
it as it sounds’, or whether it is non- continued to investigate the effects that
SSWS_research.pdf
phonetic and needs to be mastered digital technology (including spell-
checkers) is having on the spelling Dixon, R. (1976). Morphographic
by strategies such as look-cover-write-
ability of students. Elliott et al. (2016) spelling. Chicago, IL: SRA.
check or repeated writing. The use
of cognitive strategy training is now have reviewed the literature in this Dixon, R., & Engelmann, S. (2007).
strongly recommended and has gained area and conclude that to date there is Spelling through morphographs.
acceptance in many classrooms since no clear evidence of negative effects. Columbus, OH: SRA/McGraw Hill.
the 1990s (Davis, 2013; Hepplewhite, Rather than proving to be detrimental to Ecalle, J., Magnan, A., Bouchafa, H., &
2008; Tompkins, 2010; Westwood, spelling, technology has given us useful Gombert, J.E. (2009). Computer-based
programs and apps that can be used training with ortho-phonological units in
2014). The approach can be regarded as
by students for learning to spell (Ecalle dyslexic children: New investigations.
‘teaching spelling as a thinking process’.
et al., 2009; Hetzroni & Shrieber, 2004;
Dyslexia, 15, 3: 218-238.
Current developments Kast et al., 2011; Wu & Zhang, 2010).
Elliott, G., Green, S., Constantinou,
It is a very positive sign that the revised Peter Westwood is a retired academic F., Vitello, S., Chambers, L., Rushton,
National Curriculum in the UK, the who now freelances as an education N., Ireland, J., Bowyer, J., and
modified Australian Curriculum, and the writer and editor. He is widely Beauchamp, D. (2016). Variations
Common Core State Standards in the published in the field of education with in aspects of writing in 16+ English
US have all strengthened the amount his best-selling text Commonsense examinations between 1980 and
of attention given to phonics, word Methods for Children with Special 2014. Research Matters: A Cambridge
knowledge and spelling. Research has Needs (Routledge) now in its 7th Assessment publication, Special Issue
strongly supported a view that phonic edition. Routledge also publishes his 4. http://www.cambridgeassessment.
knowledge does contribute greatly to the book Teaching Spelling: Exploring org.uk/Images/340982-research-
development of independent spelling commonsense strategies and best matters-special-issue-4-aspects-of-
ability, as well as strengthening reading practices. Peter is a Life Member of writing-1980-2014.pdf (accessed 19
skills — but some schools are still doing Learning Difficulties Australia. April 2018)
far too little teaching of decoding and
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important to discover how much coverage and numeracy: National Report for development of visual perception. MA
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12 | Volume 50, No 2, Winter 2018visual perception. Follet Pubishing. Jancke, L., & Meyer, M. (2011). 20 April 2018)
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Gates, A. (1922). The psychology Computer-based learning of spelling Schonell, F. (1932). Essentials in
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