Fertility and race perception predict voter preference for Barack Obama
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
Evolution and Human Behavior 31 (2010) 394 – 399
Original Article
Fertility and race perception predict voter preference for Barack Obama☆
Carlos David Navarretea,⁎, Melissa M. McDonalda , Michael L. Motta ,
Joseph Cesarioa , Robert Sapolskyb,c
a
Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
b
Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
c
Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
Initial receipt 7 October 2009; final revision received 5 May 2010
Abstract
Research shows that women more positively evaluate targets evincing cues of high male genetic quality as a function of fertility across the
menstrual cycle. Recently, a link between fertility and anti-black race bias has also been documented, an effect that is argued to serve a sexual
coercion avoidance function. Here we demonstrate that both effects can be operative toward the same male target depending on inter-
individual differences in race perception of the target. Across two studies, we found that the intention to vote for Barack Obama in the months
preceding the 2008 election increased as a function of conception risk across the menstrual cycle. In the second study, we found that the
effect is greatest among women who perceived him as more white than black, whereas the opposite was true among women who perceived
him as mostly black. Our findings tie together separate conceptual research threads on positive and negative evaluations of men by women
across the menstrual cycle — integrating them to shed light on women's voting preferences.
© 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Conception risk; Menstrual cycle; Sexual coercion avoidance; Race bias; Discrimination; Political psychology
1. Introduction particularly attuned to cues of attractiveness, power and
dominance in men around the phase of the menstrual cycle
In this article, we describe initial study results from a when conception risk is highest (e.g., Gangestad &
research program that explores how the psychology of Cousins, 2001). The second research thread suggests that
perceptual biases and evolved mate preferences interact and women may become more wary of men categorized as
how they may be related to current political and social dangerous agents as a function of conception risk. That is,
attitudes, particularly among women (Cheesman & Merikle, women more negatively evaluate men perceived as
1984; Sigelman, Sigelman, Thomas & Ribich, 1986). In sexually coercive to engage in sexual tactics at peak
doing so, we investigate how race perception, political fertility than at other times (e.g., Garver-Apgar, Gangestad
ideology and fertility shifts across the menstrual cycle are & Simpson, 2007).
related to women's voting preferences for Barack Obama in Along the lines of the second thread, recent research
the 2008 election. suggests that normally cycling women react more negatively
Two related, yet distinct, lines of research from within toward black American men as a function of increased risk of
evolutionary psychology are relevant to how women's conception (Navarrete, Fessler, Santos Fleischman & Geyer,
voting preferences might change as a function of fertility. 2009). The latter finding is argued to be the epiphenomenal
One line has shown that, perhaps due to fitness benefits output of a psychological system evolved to orient women to
conferred on one's offspring, normally cycling women are avoid sexual coercion and thus maintain the integrity of a
core feature of mammalian behavioral evolution: female
reproductive choice. Since women are more sensitive to cues
☆ indicating men's intentions to engage in coercive sexual
This material is based in part on support from the National Science
Foundation (Grant No. NSF-BCS-0847237).
tactics when they are ovulating (Garver-Apgar et al., 2007),
⁎ Corresponding author. they may therefore be motivated to avoid situations or agents
E-mail address: c.d.navarrete@gmail.com (C.D. Navarrete). appraised as a potential threat to one's reproductive choice
1090-5138/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.05.002C.D. Navarrete et al. / Evolution and Human Behavior 31 (2010) 394–399 395
(Chavanne & Gallup, 1998). Extending this logic, because 1.1. The role of race perception
black American men are typically stereotyped as dangerous
persons (Correll, Park, Judd & Wittenbrink, 2002; Devine, Because there are expected to be inter-individual differ-
1989; Donders, Correll & Wittenbrink, 2008), they fit the ences in the extent to which Barack Obama is mentally
category of agents that should be more negatively appraised represented as being more or less “black,” we expect that this
when the reproductive costs are particularly high (Navarrete should affect the relationship between conception risk and
et al., 2009), which is when they are most likely to conceive voting preference in ways consistent with this perspective.
during the periovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle. Along these lines, we expected that the extent to which
If black American male targets may be more negatively women perceive Obama as black or white should predict the
evaluated when conception risk is high because they are strength of the relationship between conception risk and
typically categorized as belonging to a dangerous out-group, voting preference, such that, as perceptions of his skin tone
what might be said of black male targets that are not readily towards “whiteness” and away from “blackness” increase, the
categorized as such? Consider the case of Barack Obama. relationship between conception risk and political support for
Despite his mixed racial composition, it can be argued that him should become stronger. On the flip side, we expected
with respect to the conscious, declarative knowledge that that as perceptions of his blackness increases, conception risk
most Americans have about him, he is well understood to be should not lead to increased voter support, but may in fact be
black. In fact, he even believes as much: “I self-identify as negatively related to expressed intentions to vote for him.
African-American—that's how I'm treated and that's how
1.2. Adding political orientation to the mix
I'm viewed” (Lewan, 2008). Yet Obama's personal traits
strongly violate the black male stereotype, as many well- Knowing one's political orientation is an important
known facts about his life fit a very different stereotype— predictor of voting patterns (Sniderman, 2000). Since voters
one closer to that ascribed to white American male patricians on the left side of the liberal–conservative political spectrum
rather than that typically associated with black Americans. are likely to vote for the more liberal candidate, support for
For example, he has an advanced degree from an Ivy League Barack Obama will already be high. However, since
university, has children in elite private schools and was a conservatives are less likely to support liberal candidates to
former senator who became President of the United States. begin with, any increase in support for Obama as a function of
Likewise, he is often described in terms that are counter- conception risk is likely to be stronger for conservative
stereotypic to the black male archetype, such as “measured,” women, since they have a greater potential to switch their
“level headed,” “articulate” and “clean” (Thai & Barrett, usual voting preferences when the liberal target is attractive,
2007). As such, there is strong overlap between his personal charismatic and powerful. Thus we investigated the possi-
characteristics and the traits stereotypically associated with bility that the predicted results above would be moderated by
the category “white.” political orientation, such that the predicted effects would be
Because Barack Obama so powerfully violates the strongest among conservative women voters.
dangerous black male stereotype, many Americans may Here we report on the analyses of data from two separate
not, at some deep level, really perceive him as black, and, studies, one among university undergraduates and another
therefore, some women may not perceive him a threat to across a broad demographic sample of American voters. In
reproductive choice when conception risk is high. In fact, to doing so, we predicted that (1) voting preference for Barack
the extent to which he is not characterized as a threat, women Obama for US President would increase as a function of
should be attuned to his personal attributes befitting of an conception risk among normally cycling women; (2) voting
ideal mate of any race—namely, those traits that are preference as a function of conception risk would be
indicators of male genetic quality, such as his attractiveness, modulated by the extent to which women perceived
charisma, prestige and power. This information should be Obama as more or less black; and that (3) these effects
used in women's appraisals of the kind of man whose would uniquely predict voting preference not only when
interests should be catered to and supported, particularly political orientation is held constant, but that the effects
when conception risk is high. Therefore, contrary to the would be strongest among conservative women. Study 1
pattern found among fertile women toward unfamiliar black tested Prediction 1 among a university sample of white
male exemplars by Navarrete et al. (2009), we expect that women, while Study 2 examined all predictions across a
most normally cycling women would show conception risk large, demographically diverse sample.
patterns in positive evaluation that mimic those typically
displayed to men of high mate quality, not to stereotypic
black male targets. As such, we expected that, in a survey on 2. Study 1
political preferences conducted in the months leading up to
2.1. Method
the November 2008 Presidential Election, normally cycling
women would, on average, report that they would be more 2.1.1. Research subjects
willing to vote for Barack Obama for President as a function Participants were Michigan State University students,
of increased fertility across the menstrual cycle. who agreed to participate in a psychology pool prescreen396 C.D. Navarrete et al. / Evolution and Human Behavior 31 (2010) 394–399
survey between 1 September to 4 November 2008. Data was discussion websites, psychology-related websites, and was
culled from female participants who (a) were white US conducted between 1 August and 15 December 2008.
citizens, (b) did not suffer from chronic health problems, (c) Observations were culled for adult, non-pregnant, premen-
had menstrual cycles of normal length, (d) were not pregnant, opausal women who were not currently using oral contra-
(e) were willing to state their voting preference and (g) and ceptives and who reported menstrual cycles of normal
were not currently using hormonal contraceptives. Analyses length. Of these, observations were removed for women who
described below include observations from 62 white women did not plan to vote in the 2008 General Election,
aged 18–22 (mean=18.91, S.D.=1.04). participated after the November 4 election, could not identify
Barack Obama in a photo and who did not agree to the item
2.1.2. Procedure
“I answered all items honestly.”
Participants completed an online survey described as a pre-
Data were analyzed for 186 white and 38 non-white
screen for various laboratory experiments. The survey
women aged 18 to 50 (mean=22.61, S.D.=6.73). Cycle
consisted of various psychological measures of social
length was standardized to a 28-day cycle because of the
attitudes, personality and demographic background. Embed-
wide array of health, age and other demographic differences
ded within the questionnaire was an item that read, “Which
in the sample (Puts, 2006), and the forward-counting method
candidate do you think you will support in the November 2008
(Gangestad & Thornhill, 1998) was used to assess cycle
Presidential Election?” The options were (1) John McCain,
timing, as no follow-up questionnaire was administered.
Republican; (2) Barack Obama, Democrat; (3) a different
Conception risk values were calculated using the method
candidate; and (4) I will not support any candidate/not sure.
described in Study 1 (Wilcox et al., 2001).
2.1.3. Conception risk
Two questionnaire items assessed position in the 3.1.2. Procedure
menstrual cycle by asking the respondent to provide the Participants completed an online survey that consisted of
dates of the onset of her last two menstrual periods. Dates various social attitude, image evaluation and demographic
were affirmed for participants via a follow-up Internet items. Embedded within the questionnaire was an item that
questionnaire that was completed on the day of their next read, “Which candidate do you think you will support in the
period. From these dates, the length of the menstrual cycle November 2008 Presidential Election?” The options were (a)
and the current day into the cycle were inferred (Gangestad Barack Obama, Democrat; (b) John McCain, Republican; (c)
& Thornhill, 1998). Participants' degree of fertility (or a different candidate; (d) not sure/undecided; (e) will not
conception risk value) corresponding to the day of the cycle vote; or (f) decline to state. The survey included an item
was estimated using actuarial pregnancy risk data (Wilcox, assessing political orientation (1=Liberal to 7=Conservative)
Dunson, Weinberg, Trussell & Baird, 2001). Each partici- and ended with a series of demographic questions. Upon
pant was assigned a value from 0 to .094, with higher values completion, participants were directed to a webpage that
denoting greater conception risk (mean=.04, S.D.=.03). described the goals of the study.
2.2. Results 3.1.3. Skin color perception bias
In response to the voting preference question, 39% chose Also embedded within the survey was a measure that
Barack Obama, 49% chose John McCain and 12% chose assessed the extent to which participants perceived Barack
neither candidate or were unsure. To assess the effect of Obama as more or less black or white. An electronic color
conception risk on voting preference, we conducted a point- swatch presenting 10 different skin-tone options was
biserial correlation analysis where conception risk was the presented to study respondents with an item probing “[w]
independent predictor and preference for Obama was the hich color do you think best represents Barack Obama's
dichotomous outcome variable (1=Vote for Obama, 0=All correct skin-tone?” Participants indicated their choice by
other options). checking a box under the estimated color tone (see Fig. 1
Consistent with our prediction, the analysis revealed a for scale).
significant relationship between conception risk and voting To create the stimuli for this task, we calculated a color
preference [r(62)=.28, p=.03], such that the higher the risk of estimate of Barack Obama's skin tone from a sample of
conception, the greater the probability of intending to vote photos found on the Internet. Nine additional colors were
for Barack Obama. created from the average skin-tone color by increasing or
3. Study 2
3.1. Method
3.1.1. Participants
Respondents for an Internet survey were recruited via Fig. 1. Scale used to assess perceptual bias of Barack Obama's skin color.
online advertisements posted to classified pages, political Value 5 is correct.C.D. Navarrete et al. / Evolution and Human Behavior 31 (2010) 394–399 397
decreasing the luminosity of the color and were presented to Table 1
survey respondents in a swatch chart ranging from dark (1) Regression table
to light (10) with the correct option (5) about midway in the b S.E. z β
spectrum (Fig. 1). Perceptual bias .16 0.12 1.41 .06
Barack Obama's correct skin tone was calculated by Conception risk 17.88 7.62 2.35 .10
averaging the pixel color across the first 50 unique images of Conservatism −1.48⁎⁎ 0.21 −7.01 −.63
Perceptual Bias×Conception Risk 12.62⁎⁎ 3.89 3.24 0.18
him found on Google and Yahoo! Images, using the search
Perceptual Bias×Conservatism −0.10 0.10 −1.04 −0.02
term “Barack Obama.” As both of these search engines Conception Risk×Conservatism −3.89 6.01 −0.65 −0.03
generate their list orders according to the popularity of the Perceptual Bias×Conception 4.32⁎ 1.79 2.42 0.09
result, these are likely to be the most-seen images among Risk× Conservatism
Internet users at the time the swatches were generated. Intercept 0.85 0.22 3.89 –
Within each picture, all non–skin tone was erased. A Results of a full logistic regression model where voting preference for
computer program calculated the average pixel color for each Barack Obama is predicted by perceptual bias, conception risk, conservatism
image, ignoring any pixel with a red, green or blue and their cross products.
⁎ p=.02.
component of intensity higher than 225 or lower than 35. ⁎⁎ pb.001.
Removing these pixels corrected for the biasing effects of
shadows, facial hair or light reflection. These images formed
the average pixel color of 98694C (RGB) or 21° hue, 31%
saturation and 42% luminosity. Nine additional colors were we conducted a simple effects analysis (Aiken & West,
created from the average skin-tone color by increasing or 1991), where the relationship between conception risk was
decreasing the luminosity of the color in 4% increments. assessed at high and low levels of perceptual bias (±1 S.D.
below and above the mean). The analysis revealed that
3.2. Results and discussion conception risk was related to increased voting preference
for Barack Obama when perception of his skin color was
In response to the voting preference question, 62% chose biased toward the white side of the continuum (b=1.28,
Barack Obama, 25.5% chose John McCain and 12.5% chose χ2=10.54, p=.001, β=.28), but not when perception was
neither candidate or were unsure. As in Study 1, voting biased toward the black side (χ2b1). When simple effects
preference was separated into a binary outcome variable were assessed at ±2 S.D., the effect for white perceptual bias
(1=Obama, n=139; 0=another candidate, n=85). Replicating was strongly affirmed (b=2.03, χ2=11.29, p=.0008, β=.44),
the effect reported in Study 1, a point-biserial correlation but black perceptual bias led to decreased support for
analysis revealed that conception risk was positively related Obama as a function of conception risk (b=.94, χ2=5.46,
to preference for Barack Obama over other candidates [r p=.02, β=−.23). That is, holding political ideology constant,
(224)=.14, p=.04]. the intention to vote for Barack Obama in the 2008
To investigate the moderating role of race categorization, Presidential Election rose as a function of conception risk,
we created a logistic regression model where preference for
Obama was the outcome variable, and perceptual bias
(mean=6.32, S.D.=1.92), conception risk (mean=.03,
S.D.=.03), conservatism (mean=3.52, S.D.=1.51) and their
cross products were the independent variables. Robust
standard errors were calculated from logit coefficients, and
variables were zero centered before being simultaneously
entered (Aiken & West, 1991). Full model results are
reported in Table 1 (β denotes standardized estimates from a
linear model).
Consistent with expectations, the analysis revealed a
significant main effect for conception risk (Table 1), which
was qualified by a significant two-way interaction with
perceptual bias (Conception Risk×Perceptual Bias), such
that perception of Obama's skin tone amplified the positive
relationship between conception risk and voting preference.
A significant three-way interaction among these variables
emerged (Conception Risk×Perceptual Bias×Conservatism),
such that conservatism was found to moderate the relation- Fig. 2. Logistic regression estimates for the likelihood of voting for Barack
Obama (“Vote for Obama”) as a function of conception risk and perceptual
ship between conception risk and perceptual bias. bias. For visualization purposes, observations are bifurcated along the lines
To elucidate the nature of the predicted two-way of respondents' perception of Obama's skin color as belonging on the light
interaction between conception risk and perceptual bias, side (“Obama is White,” ≥5) versus the dark side (“Obama is Black,” ≤4).398 C.D. Navarrete et al. / Evolution and Human Behavior 31 (2010) 394–399
conception risk was positively associated with support for
Obama. However, conception risk was negatively related to
support for Obama when his skin tone was perceived to be
very dark.
Our findings are consistent with the notion that voter
support for Obama increases as a function of conception risk
when he is perceived as white, but decreases when he is
perceived as black. That a decrease in support for Obama
may occur among women who perceive him as black is
consistent with previous findings suggesting that unfamiliar
men associated with danger pose adaptive problems for
women at peak fertility (Garver-Apgar et al., 2007) and black
men in particular (Navarrete et al., 2009). Importantly,
although these effects hold fast when controlling for the
effects of political orientation, they are amplified among
Fig. 3. Estimated likelihood of voting for Obama as a function of conception conservative women. Taken together, these results show
risk, perceptual bias and political orientation. For visualization purposes, how differences in perception can interact with conception
observations are bifurcated by categories as described in Fig. 1 and separated
by conservatism at the median (Liberals b4, Conservatives ≥4).
risk changes across the menstrual cycle, with outcomes that
modulate the otherwise powerful effects of political ideology
in predicting voter preferences.
but only when women perceived Obama as more white than It is known that preexisting knowledge structures about
black, and that this was not true among women who social categories can influence basic perceptual processes in
perceived him as more black than white. On the contrary, the a “top-down” fashion (Bruner & Postman, 1947; Bruner &
latter appeared to be less likely to vote for Obama when Klein, 1960; Cavanaugh, 1991; Correll et al., 2002; Duncan,
conception risk was high, although the effect was detectable 1976), such that people can sometimes perceive things quite
only at the extreme margins of perception. Fig. 2 provides a differently depending on their motivations to do so. Our
visual representation of these findings. findings highlight the potential for research programs
To investigate how these effects held across the political informed by an evolutionary perspective to shed new light
liberal–conservative continuum, we inspected the slopes for on political preferences and suggest that there may be an
the predicted interaction (Conception Risk×Perceptual Bias) evolved political psychology that is specific to women —
at high and low levels of conservatism (±1 S.D.). Simple one that is linked to women's mate choice preferences that
effects assessed when conservatism was high showed that are under the influence of their reproductive physiology
the predicted two-way interaction was caused primarily by (e.g., Feinberg et al., 2006; Fessler & Navarrete, 2003;
women at the right side of the liberal–conservative Gangestad, Garver-Apgar, Simpson & Cousins, 2007;
dimension (b=1.13, χ2=17.04, pb.0001, β=.25), compared Garver-Apgar et al., 2007; Garver-Apgar, Gangestad &
to those on the left (b=.36, χ2=1.58, p=.21, β=.10). Graphical Thornhill, 2008; Garver-Apgar, Gangestad, Thornhill, Miller
inspection of these slopes (Fig. 3) suggests that the & Olp, 2006; Jones et al., 2005, 2008; Pillsworth &
moderating role of political ideology was in part due to Haselton, 2006).
ceiling effects among liberal women, who would have voted Research on implicit social cognition has shown that the
for Barack Obama regardless of their reproductive state. influence of accessible cognitive content on judgment and
Nonetheless, the results demonstrate a striking role for behavior occurs automatically and without conscious
conception risk variance in modulating the well-known awareness (e.g., Amodio & Devine, 2006; Bodenhausen,
effect of political ideology in predicting voting preferences. Macrae & Sherman, 1999). These are features of human
perceptual systems that may be part of a broad psycholog-
ical system for motivated, adaptive self-deception (Krebs &
4. General discussion Denton, 1997). Given that humans generally do not have
introspective access to their own motivated psychological
Across two separate samples we found that, in the months processes (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977), such influences are not
leading to the 2008 Presidential Election, fertility changes easily corrected. As such, our findings raise the question of
across the menstrual cycle were related to voting preferences whether Barack Obama's success as a politician may in part
among normally cycling women, such that as conception risk be due to the possibility that, at a nonconscious yet operative
rose, support for Barack Obama for President of the United level of cognitive processing, most American voters may
States rose as well. In the second sample, we found that the not consider him to be black. The effect that we found
relationship between conception risk and support for Obama across both studies — that increased risk of conception
was dependent on perceptions of his skin tone, such that the leads to greater political support for Obama — is consistent
lighter his skin was perceived to be, the more strongly with this interpretation.C.D. Navarrete et al. / Evolution and Human Behavior 31 (2010) 394–399 399
Acknowledgments Gangestad, S. W., Garver-Apgar, C. E., Simpson, J. A., & Cousins, A. J.
(2007). Changes in women's mate preferences across the ovulatory
cycle. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 151–163.
We thank Jim Sidanius, Dan Fessler and Ron Dotsch for Gangestad, S. W., & Thornhill, R. (1998). The analysis of fluctuating
their helpful comments on an earlier draft of this asymmetry redux: The robustness of parametric statistics. Animal
manuscript, and Simone Terfa and Sarah Dumouchelle for Behaviour, 55(2), 497–501.
laboratory assistance. Garver-Apgar, C. E., Gangestad, S. W., & Simpson, J. A. (2007). Women's
perceptions of men's sexual coerciveness change across the menstrual
cycle. Acta Psychologica Sinica Special Issue: Evolutionary Psycholo-
References gy, 39(3), 536–540.
Garver-Apgar, C. E., Gangestad, S. W., & Thornhill, R. (2008). Hormonal
Aiken, L., & West, S. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting correlates of women's mid-cycle preference for the scent of symmetry.
interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Evolution and Human Behavior, 29, 223–232.
Amodio, D. M., & Devine, P. G. (2006). Stereotyping and evaluation in Garver-Apgar, C. E., Gangestad, S. W., Thornhill, R., Miller, R. D., & Olp,
implicit race bias: evidence for independent constructs and unique effects J. J. (2006). MHC alleles, sexual responsivity, and unfaithfulness in
on behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(4). romantic couples. Psychological Science, 17, 830–835.
Bodenhausen, G. V., Macrae, C. N., & Sherman, J. S. (Eds.). (1999). On Jones, B. C., DeBruine, L., Perrett, D., Little, A., Feinberg, D., & Law
the dialectics of discrimination: Dual processes in social stereotyping. Smith, M. (2008). Effects of menstrual cycle phase on face preferences.
New York: Guilford Press. Archives of Sex Behavior, 3(1), 78–84.
Bruner, J. S., & Klein, G. S. (1960). The functions of perceiving: New Jones, B., Perrett, D., Little, A., Boothroyd, L., Cornwell, R., Feinberg, D.,
Look retrospect. In B. Kaplan, & S. Wapner (Eds.), Perspectives in et al. (2005). Menstrual cycle, pregnancy and oral contraceptive use alter
psychological theory (pp. 61−77). New York: International Univer- attraction to apparent health in faces. Proceedings of the Royal Society of
sities Press. London, B, 272(1561), 347–354.
Bruner, J. S., & Postman, L. (1947). Tension and tension-release as Krebs, D. L., & Denton, K. (1997). Social illusions and self-deception: The
organizing factors in perception. Journal of Personality, 15, 300–308. evolution of biases in person perception. In J. A. Simpson, & D. T.
Cavanaugh, P. (1991). What's up in top-down processing? In A. Gorea Kenrick (Eds.), Evolutionary Social Psychology (pp. 21−48). Mahwah,
(Ed.), Representations of vision: Trends and tacit assumptions in vision NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
research (pp. 295−304). London: Cambridge University Press. Lewan, T. (2008). Attitudes toward multiracial America evolving. USA
Chavanne, T. J., & Gallup, G. G. (1998). Variations in risk taking behavior Today, Retrieved from 1-12-2009 from http://www.usatoday.com/news/
among female college students as a function of menstrual cycle. Evo- nation/2008-06-15-race_N.htm.
lution and Human Behavior, 19(1), 27–32. Navarrete, C. D., Fessler, D. M. T., Santos Fleischman, D., & Geyer, J.
Cheesman, J., & Merikle, P. M. (1984). Priming with and without (2009). Race bias tracks conception risk across the menstrual cycle.
awareness. Perception and Psychophysics, 36, 387–395. Psychological Science, 20(6), 661–665.
Correll, J., Park, B., Judd, C. M., & Wittenbrink, B. (2002). The police Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know:
officer's dilemma: Using ethnicity to disambiguate potentially threaten- Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231–259.
ing individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, Pillsworth, E. G., & Haselton, M. G. (2006). Male sexual attractiveness
1314–1329. predicts differential ovulatory shifts in female extra-pair attraction and
Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotyping and prejudice: Their automatic and male mate retention. Evolution and Human Behavior, 27, 247–258.
controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Puts, D. (2006). Cyclic variation in women's preferences for masculine
56, 5–18. traits. Human Nature, 17, 114–127.
Donders, N. C., Correll, J., & Wittenbrink, B. (2008). Danger stereotypes Sigelman, C. K., Sigelman, L., Thomas, D. B., & Ribich, F. D. (1986).
predict racially biased attentional allocation. Journal of Experimental Gender, physical attractiveness, and electability: An experimental
Social Psychology, 44, 1328–1333. investigation of voter biases. Journal of Applied Social Psychology,
Duncan, B. L. (1976). Differential social perception and attribution of 16(3), 229–248.
intergroup violence: Testing the lower limits of stereotyping of Blacks. Sniderman, P. M. (2000). Taking sides: A fixed choice theory of political
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 590–598. reasoning. In M. D. M. Arthur Lupia, & S. L. Popkin (Eds.), Elements of
Feinberg, D., Jones, B., Law Smith, M., Moore, F., DeBruine, L., Cornwell, reason: Cognition, choice, and the bounds of rationality. New York:
R., et al. (2006). Menstrual cycle, trait estrogen level, and masculinity Cambridge University Press.
preferences in the human voice. Hormones & Behavior, 49(2), 215–222. Thai, X., & Barrett, T. (2007). Biden's description of Obama draws scrutiny.
Fessler, D. M. T., & Navarrete, C. D. (2003). Domain-specific variation in CNN.com, Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/2007/POLITICS/01/31/
disgust sensitivity across the menstrual cycle. Evolution & Human biden.obama/ on 1/12/2009.
Behavior, 24(6), 406–417. Wilcox, A. J., Dunson, D. B., Weinberg, C. R., Trussell, J., & Baird, D. D.
Gangestad, S. W., & Cousins, A. J. (2001). Adaptive design, female mate (2001). Likelihood of conception with a single act of intercourse:
preferences, and shifts across the menstrual cycle. Annual Review of Sex providing benchmark rates for assessment of post-coital contraceptives.
Research, 12, 145–185. Contraception, 63(4), 211–215.You can also read
