FREEDOM OF THE PRESS 2015 - Harsh Laws and Violence Drive Global Decline April 2015
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Harsh Laws and Violence Drive Global Decline April 2015 FREEDOM OF THE PRESS 2015
Contents Press Freedom in 2014: Harsh Laws and Violence Drive Global Decline 1 Other Notable Developments in 2014 6 The Global Picture in 2014 7 Worst of the Worst 7 Regional Trends 9 Americas 9 Asia-Pacific 10 Eurasia 12 Europe 14 Middle East and North Africa 18 Sub-Saharan Africa 19 Conclusion 21 Rankings 22 Methodology 26 The extensive work undertaken to produce Freedom of the Press was made possible by the generous support of the Jyllands-Posten Foundation and the Hurford Foundation. Freedom House also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of the Lilly Endowment, the Schloss Family Foundation, the Stichting Democratie & Media, Free Press Unlimited, the Fritt Ord Foundation, the Reed Foundation, Leonard Sussman and the Sussman Freedom Fund, Ambassador Victor Ashe, and other private contributors. Research and editorial team on the cover Jennifer Dunham served as the project manager of Freedom Cover image by KAL. of the Press 2015. Overall guidance for the project was pro- vided by Arch Puddington, vice president for research, and Vanessa Tucker, vice president for analysis. Extensive research, editorial, analytical, and administrative assistance was provided by Bret Nelson, Elen Aghekyan, and Tyler Roylance, as well as by Karin Deutsch Karlekar, Sarah Cook, Michael Johnson, Matthew Coogan, and Megan Schultz. We would also like to thank our consultant writers and advisers and other members of the project team for their contributions.
Freedom
of the press
2015
Press Freedom in 2014
Harsh Laws and Violence Drive Global Decline
by Jennifer Dunham, Bret Nelson, and Elen Aghekyan
Conditions for the media deteriorated sharply in 2014, and new methods of content delivery, more and more
as journalists around the world faced mounting re- areas of the world are becoming virtually inaccessible
strictions on the free flow of news and information— to journalists.
including grave threats to their own lives.
While there were positive developments in some
Governments employed tactics including arrests and countries, the dominant global trend was negative.
censorship to silence criticism. Terrorists and other The number of countries with significant improve-
nonstate forces kidnapped and murdered journalists ments (8) was the lowest since 2009, while the num-
attempting to cover armed conflicts and organized ber with significant declines (18) was the highest in 7
crime. The wealthy owners who dominate private years.* The 18 countries and territories that declined
media in a growing number of countries shaped news represented a politically diverse cross-section—in-
coverage to support the government, a political party, cluding Greece, Hong Kong, Iceland, Serbia, and
or their own interests. And democratic states strug- South Africa—indicating that the global deterioration
gled to cope with an onslaught of propaganda from in press freedom is not limited to autocracies or war
authoritarian regimes and militant groups. zones. Also featured among the major backsliders
were Algeria, Azerbaijan, Egypt, Honduras, Libya,
Freedom of the Press 2015, the latest edition of an an- South Sudan, and Thailand.
nual report published by Freedom House since 1980,
found that global press freedom declined in 2014 to its
lowest point in more than 10 years. The rate of decline In a time of seemingly unlimited access
also accelerated drastically, with the global average
score suffering its largest one-year drop in a decade. to information and new methods of
The share of the world’s population that enjoys a Free
press stood at 14 percent, meaning only one in seven
content delivery, more and more areas
people live in countries where coverage of political of the world are becoming virtually
news is robust, the safety of journalists is guaranteed,
state intrusion in media affairs is minimal, and the press inaccessible to journalists.
is not subject to onerous legal or economic pressures.
The steepest declines worldwide relate to two factors: The nature of major changes over the past five years
the passage and use of restrictive laws against the is also striking. Since 2010, the most significant score
press—often on national security grounds—and the improvements have occurred in countries where the
ability of local and foreign journalists to physically media environment had been among the worst in
access and report freely from a given country, includ- the world. Tunisia, with a gain of 37 points, not only
ing protest sites and conflict areas. Paradoxically, in registered the biggest improvement over this period,
a time of seemingly unlimited access to information but was also the only country with large gains that
* Significant gains or declines are defined as shifts of 3 or more points in a country’s score, on a 0–100 scale.
www.freedomhouse.org 1Press Freedom in 2014: Harsh Laws and Violence Drive Global Decline
maintained a positive trajectory in 2014. While Myan-
Freedom of the Press mar and Libya have each earned net improvements of
Methodology 21 points, both suffered score declines in the past year
and remain in the Not Free category. In a disturbing
The Freedom of the Press report assesses the trend, several countries with histories of more demo-
degree of media freedom in 199 countries and cratic practices have experienced serious deterioration.
territories, analyzing the events and develop- Greece has fallen by 21 points since 2010, as existing
ments of each calendar year. Each country and structural problems were exacerbated by the economic
territory receives a numerical score from 0 (the crisis and related political pressures. Large five-year
most free) to 100 (the least free), which serves drops were also recorded in Thailand (13 points),
as the basis for a status designation of Free, Ecuador (12), Turkey (11), Hong Kong (9), Honduras (7),
Partly Free, or Not Free. Hungary (7), and Serbia (7).
Scores are assigned in response to 23 method- In 2014, influential authoritarian powers such as
ology questions that seek to capture the varied China and Russia maintained a tight grip on locally
ways in which pressure can be placed on the based print and broadcast media, while also seek-
flow of objective information and the ability ing to control the more independent views provided
of media platforms—whether print outlets, either online or by foreign news sources. Beijing and
broadcast stations, news websites, blogs on Moscow in particular were more overt in their efforts
public affairs, or social media that carry news to manipulate the information environment in regions
content—to operate freely and without fear of that they considered to be within their sphere of
repercussions. influence: Hong Kong and Taiwan for the former, and
Ukraine, Central Asia, and the Baltics for the latter.
Issues covered by the methodology include the
legal and regulatory environment in which me- The year’s notable improvements included three
dia operate; the degree of partisan control over status changes, with Guinea-Bissau, Madagascar, and
news content; political influences on reporting Ukraine moving from Not Free to Partly Free. Tunisia
and access to information; the public’s ability to maintained its reputation as the success story of
access diverse sources of information; viola- the Arab Spring, improving another 5 points in 2014.
tions of press freedom ranging from the murder However, other countries recording gains either made
of journalists and bloggers to other extralegal modest, tentative improvements in the wake of civil
abuse and harassment; and economic pres- strife—as in Central African Republic and Somalia—or
sures on media outlets and their means of featured authoritarian governments that have grown
distribution. more secure and less violently oppressive in recent
years, as in Zimbabwe.
The scores reflect not just government ac-
tions and policies, but also the behavior of the Increased use of restrictive laws
press itself in testing boundaries, as well as the Several countries in 2014 passed security or secrecy
influence of private owners, political or criminal laws that established new limits on speech and
groups, and other nonstate actors. reporting. After a coup in May, Thailand’s military gov-
ernment suspended the constitution, imposed martial
For a more detailed explanation of the method- law, shut down media outlets, blocked websites, and
ology and scoring process, see pp. 26–28. severely restricted content. Aggressive enforcement
of the country’s lèse-majesté laws also continued in
2014, and after the coup alleged violators were tried
in military courts.
In Turkey, the government repeatedly sought to
expand the telecommunications authority’s power to
block websites without a court order, though some of
the more aggressive legal changes were struck down
by the Constitutional Court. Other legislation gave the
National Intelligence Organization (MİT) vast pow-
2Freedom House
ers of surveillance and unfettered access to virtually cal trial in which prosecutors presented no credible
any information held by any entity in the country. The evidence. While all three were freed or released on bail
amendments also criminalized reporting on or acquir- in early 2015, at least nine journalists remain in jail on
ing information about MİT. terrorism charges or for covering the Brotherhood.
A Russian law that took effect in August placed new Ethiopia’s government stepped up its campaign
controls on blogs and social media, requiring all sites against free expression in April 2014 by arresting six
with more than 3,000 visitors a day to register with the people associated with the Zone 9 blogging collective
state telecommunications agency as media outlets. and three other journalists. In July, they were charged
This status made them responsible for the accuracy of with inciting violence and terrorism. Myanmar, which
posted information, among other obligations. had taken several positive steps in recent years,
suffered declines in 2014 due in part to an increase
Detentions and closures under existing security or in arrests and convictions of journalists. In July, four
emergency laws also increased in 2014. Azerbaijan reporters and the chief executive of the Unity Weekly
was one of the worst offenders, with nine journalists News were sentenced to 10 years in prison and hard
in prison as of December 1. Over the course of that labor, later reduced to seven years, under the colonial-
month, the authorities detained prominent investigative era Official Secrets Act for reporting on a possible
journalist Khadija Ismayilova of U.S.-funded Radio Free chemical weapons facility.
Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL), raided and closed RFE/
RL’s offices in the country, and interrogated the service’s Such restrictive laws are not only utilized in authori-
local employees. A number of well-known media advo- tarian environments. Mexico’s new telecommunica-
cacy groups were also forced to close during the year. tions law drew widespread objections from press
freedom advocates due to provisions allowing the
In Egypt, a court sentenced three Al-Jazeera journal- government to monitor and shut down real-time blog-
ists to seven or more years in prison on charges of ging and posting during social protests. South African
conspiring with the outlawed Muslim Brotherhood to authorities expanded their use of the apartheid-era
publish false news. The convictions followed a farci- National Key Points Act to prevent investigative jour-
Biggest Press Freedom Declines in 2014
-3 Venezuela
-3 Turkey
-3 Serbia
-3 Peru
-3 Iraq
-3 Cambodia
-3 Myanmar
-3 Botswana
-3 Azerbaijan
-4 South Africa
-4 Iceland
-4 Honduras
-4 Hong Kong
-5 Greece
-5 Egypt
-6 South Sudan
-11 Thailand
-11 Libya
-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
www.freedomhouse.org 3Press Freedom in 2014: Harsh Laws and Violence Drive Global Decline
nalists from reporting on important sites or institu- Venezuela, journalists became targets during clashes
tions, particularly when probing corruption by political linked to the widespread social protests that swept
figures. In South Korea, President Park Geun-hye’s the country in the first half of the year. Reporters in
administration increasingly relied on the National Brazil also encountered violence at protests before
Security Law to suppress critical reports, especially and during the World Cup; in February, a cameraman
regarding the president’s inner circle and the Sewol died after being hit in the head with an explosive. In
ferry disaster. Ukraine, in addition to four journalist deaths and other
violence associated with the separatist conflict in the
Physical violence and inaccessible areas
east, one journalist was killed and at least 27 others
The world’s growing number of areas that are effec-
were injured at the height of confrontations between
tively off limits for journalists include parts of Syria and protesters and police in the capital in February.
Iraq controlled by Islamic State (IS) extremists, states
in northeastern Nigeria where Boko Haram is active, Pressure through ownership
much of conflict-racked Libya, and Egypt’s restive Sinai In Russia and Venezuela, the media sector is increas-
Peninsula. In Mexico, Honduras, and other Central ingly owned by the state, private-sector cronies of the
American countries, intimidation and violence against political leadership, or business interests that “depoliti-
journalists continued to soar during the year, as gangs cize” their outlets by suppressing content that is critical
and local authorities sought to deter reporting on orga- of the government. In July, Venezuela’s oldest indepen-
nized crime and corruption in their territory. dent daily, El Universal, was sold to new owners. The
move came on the heels of ownership changes at two
Seventeen journalists were killed in Syria alone in other major private media companies in the country,
2014, according to the Committee to Protect Journal- Cadena Capriles and Globovisión. In all three cases,
ists (CPJ). The death toll, coupled with the high-profile respected reporters have left or been suspended since
murders of American freelance journalists James the ownership changes, primarily due to shifts in the
Foley and Steven Sotloff by IS militants, served as a editorial line that affected news coverage.
stark reminder that local reporters—who make up the
vast majority of the casualties—and freelancers do While somewhat more media diversity exists in
not have the extensive security safeguards afforded countries like Turkey and Ecuador, political leaders
to full-time staff at large news organizations like the have steadily tamed once-independent outlets, using
New York Times. To help address the problem, major various forms of pressure against private owners and
outlets and advocacy groups established global safety creating media sectors that are firmly tilted in the rul-
principles and practices in early 2015. ing party’s favor.
While some parts of the world are rendered inaccessi- In Greece, the new public broadcaster has faced alle-
ble mostly by chaotic violence, others are deliberately gations of political interference in hiring and editorial
barred to most reporters by repressive governments. content. Hungary remained a country of concern in
Prime examples include China’s Tibet and Xinjiang 2014, as the administration of Prime Minister Viktor
regions, Tajikistan’s Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Orbán continued to exert pressure on media own-
Region, Russian-occupied Crimea, and certain ethnic ers to influence coverage. Dozens of media workers
minority areas in Myanmar. Citizen journalists, activ- protested the dismissal of the editor in chief of Origo,
ists, and ordinary residents have managed to dis- a news website, after it published an article on alleged
seminate some information about conditions in these misuse of state funds.
regions, but it is no substitute for unfettered reporting
by professionals, and it is often easier to send news to Increased use of propaganda
the outside world than to reach audiences within the by states and nonstate actors
affected area. Among the most troubling trends identified in 2014
was the more active and aggressive use of propagan-
Street protests, though less deadly than armed da—often false or openly threatening—to warp the me-
conflicts, frequently proved dangerous for reporters dia environment and crowd out authentic journalism.
to cover in 2014. During the prodemocracy demon-
strations that broke out in Hong Kong in September, This phenomenon was especially pronounced in
journalists faced a sharp rise in violence, including Russia, where state-controlled national television sta-
multiple assaults on reporters near protest sites. In tions broadcast nonstop campaigns of demonization
4Freedom House
Countries with significant declines increasingly
outnumber those with significant gains
improveD declined
18
15
12 12 12
11 11 11 11
8
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
directed at the internal opposition, neighboring coun- The global average press freedom score has
tries whose policies have displeased Moscow, and the declined sharply since 2004
broader democratic world. Russian media played a
major role in preparing the Russian public for war with 44.5
Ukraine. As Dmitriy Kiselyov, head of the Kremlin’s
45 45.48
international news enterprise, asserted in April 2014,
“Information wars have already become standard 45.5
practice and the main type of warfare. The bombers
are now sent in after the information campaign.” 46
46.5
Neighboring countries have grappled with the problem
of Russian propaganda, in some cases resorting to cen- 47
sorship. Ukrainian authorities, facing a military invasion,
suspended the retransmission of at least 15 Russian 47.5
48.57
television channels by cable operators. Authorities
48
in Lithuania, Latvia, and Moldova—whose breakaway
territory of Transnistria is supported by Moscow—im- 48.5
posed suspensions or fines on some Russian stations
for reasons including incitement to war, disseminating 49
historical inaccuracy, and lack of pluralism of opinions 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
in news content. The government of Estonia did not
follow suit, instead approving the creation of a Russian- department issued almost daily directives ordering
language public channel, set to launch in 2015, as a news outlets and websites to use only information
means of countering Kremlin disinformation with hon- from the official Xinhua News Agency for coverage of
est reporting. Latvia and Lithuania also signaled plans breaking developments.
to expand Russian-language public programming.
Propaganda is not used exclusively by national gov-
Like the Kremlin, China’s Communist Party leaders ernments. Militant groups including IS have estab-
used state-controlled media to propagate official lished sophisticated media operations with potential
views and vilify their perceived enemies. State outlets audiences around the world, taking advantage of pop-
trumpeted the persona and slogans of President Xi ular social-media tools and even satellite television.
Jinping while airing televised confessions and “self- Democratic governments have been hard pressed
criticisms” by detained journalists, with both phenom- to combat messages that openly advocate violence
ena drawing comparisons to the Mao era. To ensure without restricting privacy, freedom of expression, and
that all media toed the line, the party’s propaganda access to information for their citizens.
www.freedomhouse.org 5BY POPULATION Press STATUS
WORLD: FreedomBYin 2014: Harsh Laws and Violence Drive Global Decline
POPULATION
S BY POPULATION WORLD: STATUS BY POPULATION
GLOBAL: status by population Other Notable Developments in 2014
In addition to those described above, four major phe-
t Free
ot Free
667,000
4,667,000
Not
NotFree
Free
3,162,940,027
nomena stood out during the year:
% 3,162,940,027 Hostile conditions for women journalists: Women
9% 44% journalists operated in an increasingly hostile environ-
44%
ment in 2014, and the rapid expansion of Twitter and
other social media as important tools for journalism
Partly Free Free has created new venues for harassment. This in-
Partly Free
3,070,963,460
Free
14%
3,070,963,460 14% timidation has proliferated and threatens to silence
42%
42% women’s reporting on crucial topics including corrup-
tion, politics, and crime. Although journalists covering
such topics have always been vulnerable, women now
encounter particularly vicious and gender-specific
e 3% attacks, ranging from smears and insults to graphic
ee 3%
004,000 999,180,643 threats of sexual violence and the circulation of per-
9,004,000 999,180,643
sonal information. Turkish journalist Amberin Zaman
GLOBAL: status by country described the wave of intimidation she has faced in
recent years as a “public lynching.”
Free 63 Partly Free 71
Partly Free 25 Free 63 Partly Free 71
Partly Free 25 32% 36%
50% 32% 36% The impact of the Ebola crisis: The Ebola epidemic in
50% West Africa resulted in several restrictions on press
freedom in 2014, although the three worst-affected
countries each handled the crisis differently. In Li-
Total
Total
beria, emergency laws, shutdowns and suspensions
s countries
countries
of media outlets, and bans on coverage—ostensibly
designed to avoid the spread of panic and misinfor-
199
199 mation—prevented the population from accessing
critical information and aimed to hide the short-
comings of the government’s response. In August,
a reporter for FrontPage Africa was arrested while
Not Free 65 covering a protest against the state of emergency.
Not Free 65
32% In October, the government limited media access to
32%
health care facilities, requiring journalists to obtain
explicit permission from the Ministry of Health and
Social Welfare before conducting interviews or using
recording equipment on clinic or hospital grounds.
Sierra Leone imposed less onerous restrictions on
the press, but nevertheless used emergency laws
to arrest and detain journalists for critical reporting.
In Guinea, a journalist and two other media workers
were killed by local residents as they attempted to
report on the crisis in a remote town, but the govern-
ment did not unduly constrain the activities of the
press during the year.
Deterioration in the Balkans: A number of countries
in the Western Balkans continued to exhibit a wor-
rying pattern of press freedom violations in 2014.
These media environments feature several common
problems: the use of defamation and insult laws by
politicians and businesspeople to suppress critical
6Freedom House
reporting; progovernment bias at public broadcasters; and 65 (32 percent) were rated Not Free. This bal-
editorial pressure from political leaders and private ance marks a shift toward the Partly Free category
owners that leads to self-censorship; harassment, compared with the edition covering 2013, which
threats, and attacks on journalists that go unpunished; featured 63 Free, 68 Partly Free, and 66 Not Free
and opaque ownership structures. Macedonia’s score countries and territories.
has declined 10 points in the past five years, making it
the worst performer in the region. Several opposition- The report found that 14 percent of the world’s inhabit-
oriented outlets have been forced to close during this ants lived in countries with a Free press, while 42
period, and journalist Tomislav Kezarovski remained in percent had a Partly Free press and 44 percent lived in
detention throughout 2014 on questionable charges Not Free environments. The population figures are sig-
that he revealed the identity of a protected witness in nificantly affected by two countries—China, with a Not
a murder case. In Serbia during the year, the adminis- Free status, and India, with a Partly Free status—that
tration of Prime Minister Aleksandar Vučić sought to together account for over a third of the world’s more
curb reporting on floods that hit the country in May than seven billion people. The percentage of those en-
and directed increasingly hostile rhetoric and harass- joying a Free media in 2014 remained at its lowest level
ment at independent journalists; such pressure alleg- since 1996, when Freedom House began incorporating
edly motivated broadcasters to cancel major political population data into the findings of the report.
talk shows. Conditions in Montenegro have deteriorat-
ed since Milo Đukanović returned to the premiership After a multiyear decline in the global average score
in 2012, with independent outlets such as Vjesti, Dan, that was interrupted by an improvement in 2011,
and the Monitor suffering lawsuits, unprosecuted there was a further decline of 0.74 points for 2014,
physical attacks, and hostile government rhetoric. bringing the figure to its lowest level since 1999 and
marking the greatest year-on-year decline since 2005.
Persistent concerns in the United States: The All regions except sub-Saharan Africa, whose aver-
United States’ score fell by one point, to 22, due to age score improved slightly, experienced declines of
detentions, harassment, and rough treatment of varying degrees, with the Middle East and North Africa
journalists by police during protests in Ferguson, showing the largest net decline. In terms of thematic
Missouri. Meanwhile, press freedom advocates categories, the drop in the global average score was
remained concerned about certain practices and driven primarily by decline in the legal score, followed
policies of the federal government, including the by the political score; the economic score showed the
Obama administration’s relatively rigid controls on smallest amount of slippage.
the information coming out of the White House and
government agencies. Although the U.S. Justice De- Worst of the Worst
partment said in December that it would no longer The world’s 10 worst-rated countries and territories,
seek to compel New York Times journalist James with scores of between 90 and 100 points, were Be-
Risen to reveal a source in a long-running case, the larus, Crimea, Cuba, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Iran,
Obama administration has used the 1917 Espionage North Korea, Syria, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.
Act to prosecute alleged leaks of classified informa- Crimea—analyzed separately for the first time in the
tion eight times, more than all previous administra- current edition—and Syria joined the bottom-ranked
tions combined. Revelations of surveillance that cohort in 2014. In these settings, independent media
included the bulk collection of communications are either nonexistent or barely able to operate, the
data by the National Security Agency (NSA) and the press acts as a mouthpiece for the regime, citizens’
targeted wiretapping of media outlets continued access to unbiased information is severely limited,
to reverberate in 2014, as fears of monitoring and and dissent is crushed through imprisonment, tor-
the aggressive prosecution of alleged leakers made ture, and other forms of repression. Crimea became
journalists’ interactions with administration officials subject to Russian press laws after its occupation
and potential sources more difficult. and annexation in early 2014, and its media faced
restrictive regulations and widespread violence. Iran
The Global Picture in 2014 continues to earn its place among the Worst of the
Of the 199 countries and territories assessed for Worst as one of the world’s leading jailers of journal-
2014 (two new territory reports, Crimea and Somalil- ists, including Washington Post correspondent Jason
and, were added), a total of 63 (32 percent) were Rezaian, who has been detained without charge
rated Free, 71 (36 percent) were rated Partly Free, since July 2014.
www.freedomhouse.org 7Press Freedom in 2014: Harsh Laws and Violence Drive Global Decline
Biggest Gains and Declines, 2010–2014
Free PARTLY FREE NOT FREE
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Tunisia 37
Myanmar 21
Libya 21
Côte d’Ivoire 15
Togo 11
Zimbabwe 11
Afghanistan 8
Niger 8
Georgia 7
-7 Honduras
-7 Hungary
-7 Serbia
-8 Azerbaijan
-8 Egypt
-9 Hong Kong
-10 Macedonia
-11 Central African Republic
-11 Turkey
-12 Ecuador
-13 Mali
-13 Thailand
-15 Bahrain
-21 Greece
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Historical Trends in Press Freedom
Percentages of countries in the three press freedom categories
Free PARTLY FREE NOT FREE
57%
39% 36%
32% 34% 34% 35% 32%
32%
23% 26%
20%
1984 1994 2004 2014
8Freedom House
Regional Trends
Americas
EURASIA: STATUS BY POPULATION AMERICAS: STATUS BY POPULATION ASIA-PACIFIC: STATUS BY PO
EURASIA: STATUS BY POPULATION AMERICAS: STATUS BY POPULATION ASIA-PACIFIC: STATUS BY PO
Violence, Intimidation Behind Downward Trajectory
As journalists faced violence and intimidation from americas: status by population
Not
NotFree Partly Not
PartlyFree
both government authorities and criminal elements, Free Partly
Free
several countries in the Americas, including Ecuador,
Free Free
367,630,951
Not Partly
1,897,170
Free
235,599,000
Honduras, Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela, received their 367,630,951
38% 1,897,170
47%
Free
235,599,000 413,182,000
82% 38%
worst
82% press freedom scores in over a decade. The re- 413,182,000
43% 47%
1,903,336,027
gional average score fell to its lowest level of the past 43% 1,903,336,027
48%
five years, with declines across the legal, political, and 48%
economic categories.
The overall figures for the Americas are significantly
influenced by the open media environments of North
Not Free
America and much of the Caribbean, which tend Not Free
185,296,000
Partly
to offsetFree
the less18%
rosy picture in Central and South 185,296,000
19%
Partly
51,795,000Free
America. In Latin18%America, meaning the Spanish- and 19% Free 5
51,795,000
Portuguese-speaking parts of the region, only three (15 Free 5
187,3
Free 0% 187,
percent)
0Free 0% of the countries were rated Free, and just 2 per-
0
cent of the population lived in Free media environments. americas: status by country
Partly Free 15
Despite the diplomatic opening Free
between
0 the United Partly Free 15 Partly Free 13
Partly Free 3 43%
Partly
23%Free 3
States and Cuba and the 0% 0 of over 50
Free
resulting release 43% Partly Free 13
32.5%
23% prisoners in late December,
political 0%journalists were 32.5%
still behind bars during 2014, and official censorship
remained pervasive, leaving Cuba as the worst per-
former in the region with a score of 91.
Total Total Total
Mexico, already
Total
countries
suffering from endemic violence that
Total
countries Total
countries
makes it one countries
of the13most dangerous places in the world countries
35 countries
40
13 its lowest score in over a
to be a journalist, received 35 40
decade—falling two points to 63—after the passage of
a new law that allows the government to track mobile-
telephone users and monitor or shut down telecom-
munications during protests.Not Free 10a more oner-
In addition, Not Free 5 Free 15 N
ous registration process hasNot Free
77%
made 10 difficult for
it more Free 5
Not14% 43%15
Free N
77% 14% 43%
www.freedomhouse.org 9
MIDDLE EAST: STATUS BY POPULATION SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA: STATUS BY POPULATION WORLD: STATUS BY POPress Freedom in 2014: Harsh Laws and Violence Drive Global Decline
community radio stations to obtain licenses. courts continued to issue censorship orders, fines, and
jail sentences to critical journalists and bloggers.
In Ecuador, hostile rhetoric from the government com-
bined with pervasive legal harassment of journalists
Significant gains and declines:
and media outlets led to a two-point decline, to 64.
Honduras’s score declined from 64 to 68 due to
The enforcement of the 2013 Communication Law,
the filing of sedition charges against a reporter
whose controversial provisions included the cre-
covering a political dispute and the passage of a new
ation of two powerful regulatory bodies, added to an
environment marked by self-censorship and intimida- secrecy law, which is currently suspended. Further-
tion. Having been subject to fines and sanctions and more, official censorship combined with media owners’
publicly denounced by officials, several major outlets nearly unconditional support for the government,
reduced the frequency of their production and distri- stifling critical journalism and adversely affecting
bution, modified their editorial lines, or closed entirely, Honduras’s media diversity. Journalists continued to
decreasing media diversity. face intimidation and deadly violence in 2014.
The relationship between the government and criti- Peru’s score declined from 44 to 47 due to an
cal press outlets in Argentina remained tense in increase in death threats and violence against
2014. Although journalists reported an opening in journalists, ongoing impunity for past crimes, and a
which some administration officials gave interviews lack of political will to address the problem.
to critical outlets, the threat of harsh legal penalties
persisted. Juan Pablo Suárez, editor of the online Venezuela’s score declined from 78 to 81 due to
daily Última Hora, was charged with “inciting collec- an increase in the number of threats and
tive violence” and “terrorizing the population” after physical attacks against the local and foreign press,
he refused to hand over footage of a police officer which hampered their ability to cover the news freely.
being arrested. The transparency of media ownership structures was
lacking, and state-exacerbated economic problems,
Brazil’s media face enduring threats from violence and including high inflation and difficulties obtaining
impunity as well as judicial censorship. Four journalists foreign currency for purchasing newsprint, have had
were killed in 2014, and several more were attacked an adverse effect on the financial viability of print
while covering protests against inflation, government media. Some outlets laid off workers and struggled to
performance, and World Cup expenditures. Meanwhile, secure credit to fill financial gaps.
Asia-Pacific
Declines in East and Southeast Asia
The Asia-Pacific region features considerable subre- Peace and Order (NCPO), suspended the constitution
gional diversity. The Pacific Islands, Australasia, and and imposed martial law, removing legal protections
parts of East Asia have some of the best-ranked media for journalists. Multiple radio and television stations
environments in the world, while conditions in South were shut down, the media were prohibited from cov-
Asia, Southeast Asia, and other parts of East Asia are ering opposition members, and journalists frequently
significantly worse. Asia includes the world’s worst-rat- faced attacks and arbitrary detention.
ed country, North Korea (97 points), as well as several
other highly restrictive media environments, such China, still home to the world’s most sophisticated cen-
as China, Laos, and Vietnam. These settings feature sorship apparatus, declined from 84 to 86 points, mark-
extensive state and party control of the press. ing the country’s worst score since the 1990s. During
2014, propaganda authorities tightened control over
Thailand tied with Libya for the greatest net decline liberal media outlets and alternative channels of news
(11 points) in 2014 as a result of the May coup d’état. dissemination. Previously existing space for investi-
The military junta, known as the National Council for gative journalism and politically liberal commentary
10Freedom House
AMERICAS:STATUS
AMERICAS: STATUSBY
BYPOPULATION
POPULATION ASIA-PACIFIC:STATUS
ASIA-PACIFIC: STATUSBY
BYPOPULATION
POPULATION EUROPE:STATUS
EUROPE: STATUSBY
BYPOPU
POP
shrank noticeably, continuing a trend of ideological dis- Asia-Pacific: status by population
cipline that began when Xi Jinping assumed the leader-
PartlyFree
Partly Free
ship of the Chinese Communist Party Free
Free
first time in several years, professional
in 2012. For the
367,630,951
journalists from
367,630,951 Not
Not PartlyFree
Partly Free
1,897,170,460
1,897,170,460 Free
Free
established
413,182,000
detention 43%
43%
38%
38%
news outlets were subjected to long-term
413,182,000
and imprisonment alongside freelancers,
Free
Free
1,903,336,027
1,903,336,027
47%
47% 407,012,000
407,012,000
66%
66%
online activists, and ethnic minority reporters. New 48%
48%
regulations intensified ideological requirements for
journalist accreditation and restricted reporters’ ability
to publish articles in foreign and Hong Kong–based
news outlets, leading to the firing of several journalists
during theNotyear.
FreeA crackdown on social-media platforms
Not Free
that began in 2013 with increased restrictions on the
185,296,000
185,296,000
prominent 19%Sina Weibo microblogging service expanded
19%
in 2014 to Tencent’s WeChat instant-messaging pro- Free 5%
Free 5%
gram, further limiting the ability of ordinary users and 187,325,692
187,325,692
journalists to share uncensored information.
Beijing’s Partly
influence over15Hong Kong was also felt during
Asia-PACIFIC: status by country NotFree
Not Fre
Partly Free
Free 15
the year, as foreign PartlyFree 13
Free13 2%
2%
43%and local companies with main-
43% Partly Free 14
Free14
PartlyFree 12
Free12
land Chinese business interests felt compelled to pull 32.5%
32.5% 35% Partly
35% 29%
advertisements from news outlets that were critical 29%
of the central government. The website of Apple Daily,
a popular tabloid that was sympathetic to prodemoc-
racy protesters, suffered several major cyberattacks in
Total
Total
2014, including one of the largest recorded denial-of- Total
Total Tota
Tota
countries
countries
service attacks to date. Press freedom in Taiwan was countries
countries count
countr
35
35
also negatively affected by the attack, as Apple Daily’s 40
40 42
42
Taiwan edition remained inaccessible to some overseas
readers for nearly two months.
In Afghanistan, there was an increase in attacks
Not
Not
against 55
Freeworkers
Free
media Free
Free
as security in the 15
15
country NotFree
Not 13
Free13
14%
began to14% 43%
43% of
deteriorate following the withdrawal 32.5%
32.5%
international combat troops. The media in Pakistan
faced greater editorial pressure from the military and
www.freedomhouse.org 11
SUB-SAHARANAFRICA:
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA:STATUS
STATUSBY
BYPOPULATION
POPULATION WORLD:STATUS
WORLD: STATUSBY
BYPOPULATION
POPULATIONPress Freedom in 2014: Harsh Laws and Violence Drive Global Decline
partisan groups, exacerbating an already challenging impunity for the organizers of such attacks; and new
and dangerous environment for journalists and push- financial burdens on some media as companies felt
ing the country’s score to its lowest level since 2007. pressure to pull advertising from outlets that were
India, the world’s largest democracy, achieved another critical of Beijing.
peaceful transfer of power through elections in 2014,
yet its press freedom score declined to its lowest level Myanmar’s score declined from 70 to 73,
in over a decade due to an increase in the use of defa- reversing a three-year trend of improvements, as
mation cases against journalists and a higher level of journalists faced an increased threat of arrests, prosecu-
self-censorship caused by editorial interference from tions, and closures of media outlets. Many journalists
media owners in the lead-up to the elections. were arrested and received prison terms, and foreign
journalists encountered harsher visa restrictions.
Significant gains and declines:
Thailand’s score declined from 64 to 75 due to
Cambodia’s score declined from 66 to 69 due to
the suspension of the constitution and the
the high level of self-censorship by Khmer-
imposition of martial law by the NCPO. The military
language journalists, the lack of access to a diversity
government shut down privately owned television and
of viewpoints in Khmer-language media, and an
radio stations, which were only allowed to reopen
increase in violence against journalists in 2014.
after content restrictions were put in place; used regu-
latory bodies to monitor media and control content;
Hong Kong’s score declined from 37 to 41 due to
and prohibited interviews with opposition politicians,
a surge in the number of violent attacks against
activists, and dissidents. The junta was also accused
journalists and other media workers, both during the
of arbitrarily detaining journalists without access to
prodemocracy protests and in retaliation for reporting;
legal counsel, amid allegations of torture.
Eurasia
Shrinking Space for Dissent
The Eurasia region’s average score remained the worst da—especially regarding the conflict in Ukraine—to
in the world in 2014, with declines in key countries achieve this end, suppressing independent report-
and the addition of a separate assessment for Crimea ing and deploying state-controlled outlets to attack
driving the figure sharply downward. It is notable that domestic dissent and foreign adversaries.
four of the 10 worst press freedom environments in
the world—Belarus, Crimea, Uzbekistan, and Turk- Under Russian occupation, Crimea’s once-pluralistic
menistan—are found in Eurasia. media environment was battered by the closure and
blocking of Ukrainian outlets and the imposition of
The most dramatic change in the region occurred in restrictive Russian media regulations. There were
Ukraine, which moved from Not Free to Partly Free. The also numerous incidents of intimidation and violence,
fall of President Viktor Yanukovych’s authoritarian gov- contributing to an exodus of journalists from Crimea
ernment led to decreases in political pressure on state and perilous conditions for those who stayed.
media and hostility toward independent voices. How-
ever, these gains were partly offset by the effects of the In Azerbaijan, the government unleashed a major
conflict in the country’s eastern regions, which created crackdown on independent media, employing threats,
extensive dangers and obstacles for journalists. At least raids, restrictive laws, and prosecutions. Journalists
five journalists were killed in Ukraine in 2014, including and bloggers faced fabricated charges and arbitrary
one who died during the Euromaidan protests in Kyiv. detention, and at least eight remained in prison at
year’s end, making Azerbaijan the worst jailer of jour-
The Russian government tightened its grip on news nalists in Eurasia. Economic and political pressures,
and information in an already constricted media including the freezing of assets and intimidation, led
environment. Authorities used a mixture of legislative to the closure of multiple organizations that support
changes, economic pressure, and strident propagan- journalists’ rights, among them the Media Rights
12Freedom House
EURASIA:
EURASIA:STATUS
STATUSBY
BYPOPULATION
POPULATION AMERICAS:
AMERICAS:STATUS
STATUSBY
B
eurasia: status by population
Institute and the local offices of the international ad-
Not
NotFree
vocacy group IREX. Authorities also raided and closed
the Azerbaijan bureau of RFE/RL, one of the strongest
independent outlets available in the country.
Free
235,599,000
235,599,000
Partly
PartlyFree
Fre
413,182,000
413,182,000
82%
82%
43%
43%
Moldova, which took another step closer to the Euro-
pean Union after signing an Association Agreement in
June, remained a country of particular concern in 2014.
In addition to problematic regulatory decisions, media
ownership is concentrated and opaque, and the year’s
parliamentary elections, along with the crisis in Ukraine,
fueled more partisan news coverage. Not
NotFree
Free
185,296,000
185,296,000
Partly
PartlyFree
Free 18%
18% 19%
19%
Significant gains and declines: 51,795,000
51,795,000
Azerbaijan’s score declined from 84 to 87 due to Free
Free 0%
0%
the government’s heavy-handed attempts to 00
punish independent journalists through arrest, impris-
onment, physical intimidation, and verbal harassment. eurasia: status by country Partly Free15
PartlyFree 15
The government also used raids and arbitrary criminal Partly Free33
PartlyFree Free00
Free 43%
43%
investigations to impede the operations of or close 23%
23% 0%
0%
multiple media organizations.
Ukraine’s score improved from 63 to 58 and its
status improved from Not Free to Partly Free due
to a number of positive changes in the media environ-
Total
Total Tota
Tot
ment after the collapse of the Yanukovych government, countries
countries count
coun
despite a rise in violence against journalists associated 13
13 35
35
with the Euromaidan protests and the subsequent
conflict in eastern Ukraine. The level of government
hostility and legal pressure on the media decreased, as
did political influence on state-owned outlets. There
were also improvements to the law on access to informa- Not Free10
NotFree 10 Not Free55
NotFree
tion and in the autonomy of the broadcasting regulator. 77%
77% 14%
14%
www.freedomhouse.org 13
MIDDLE
MIDDLEEAST:
EAST:STATUS
STATUSBY
BYPOPULATION
POPULATION SUB-SAHARAN
SUB-SAHARANAFR
AFPress Freedom in 2014: Harsh Laws and Violence Drive Global Decline
ATUS BY POPULATION ASIA-PACIFIC: STATUS BY POPULATION EUROPE: STATUS BY POPULATION
S BY POPULATION ASIA-PACIFIC: STATUS BY POPULATION EUROPE: STATUS BY POPULATION
Europe
Fraying at the Edges EUROPE: status by population
Free Free
ee Free 367,630,951 Not
Not
Partly
Partly
Europe boasts a concentration of
Free
Free
high-performing
1,897,170,460 Free
Free
Partly
Partly
Free
Free
Free
367,630,951 1,897,170,460
Free
countries, including Norway and47% Sweden, the world’s
38%38% 47%
407,012,000
407,012,000 132,147,000
132,147,000
top-ranked states with overall scores of 10. These
1,903,336,027
1,903,336,027
66%66% 21%21%
countries provide ample space for independent, di-
48%48%
verse voices, and journalists rarely face intimidation or
physical attacks. However, they and other high-ranking
European nations have struggled in recent years to
regulate hate speech without damaging freedom of
expression. NotNot
FreeFree
77,193,000
77,193,000
Although Europe retains the highest level of press 13%13%
FreeFree
freedom in the world, its regional 5% 5% score
average
declined for a second consecutive year in 2014. Over
187,325,692
187,325,692
the past decade, incremental erosion of the legal and
economic environments, as well as interference with EUrOPE: status by country
15
the ability of journalists to cover the news in person, NotNot 1 1
FreeFree
have given Europe
Partly
Partly Free
the world’s second-largest net
13 13
Free
14 14
FreeFree
2%2%
decline since32.5%
32.5%
2004, after Eurasia.
35%
Partly
Partly 12 12
FreeFree
35% 29%
29%
Greece experienced yet another year of political
interference and lack of transparency at the new
public broadcaster, New Hellenic Radio, Internet,
Total
otal Total
Total
and Television (NERIT). Changes to broadcasting Total
Total
ountries
untries countries
countries
legislation further barred the media market to new countries
countries
3535 4040
entrants, which are already constrained by the
government’s refusal to issue new licenses. Also
4242
in 2014, DIGEA, a company whose shareholders
include major private channels, secured a monopoly
on digital broadcast transmissions through a tailored
29 29
FreeFree
15 15
FreeFree competition. Not Free 13
Not Free 13 69%
43% 69%
43% 32.5%
32.5%
14Freedom House
Among other problems in Hungary, RTL Klub, one of high-level corruption—on charges of establishing an
the two biggest private television stations, was dispro- armed terrorist organization.
portionately affected by an advertising tax. However,
a proposed “internet tax,” which would have levied a
charge against data transferred online, was defeated Significant gains and declines:
in October after opponents mounted large-scale Greece’s score declined from 46 to 51 because
demonstrations. of further government and partisan interference
in the media, as seen in restrictive legislative changes
Political and economic pressures also played a role to the broadcast market, the creation of a monopoly on
in a score decline for Iceland in 2014. The state’s digital transmissions through a flawed tender, and
dominant position in the broadcast market and tighter politically biased news coverage surrounding elections.
control of the public broadcaster, Ríkisútvarpið (RÚV),
have weakened the independence of the media sec- Iceland’s score declined from 12 to 16 due to
tor, as has editorial interference from private owners. political interference with the work of journal-
Defamation remains a criminal offense in Iceland, ists, who face the threat of criminal defamation
despite the government’s recent efforts to make the charges and the possibility of retaliatory dismissal by
country an international haven for critical voices. employers. Partisanship affects the private media, and
the state has exerted increasing influence on the
Expansive national security laws remained an issue of media sector through its dominance in the broadcast
concern in the United Kingdom following revelations market and tighter editorial control of the public
of wide-ranging surveillance by the Government Com- broadcaster.
munications Headquarters and a raid on the news-
room of the Guardian newspaper in 2013. In France,
Serbia’s score declined from 37 to 40 due to
the far-right National Front party continued to deny
increased government harassment of journal-
access to the investigative outlet Mediapart; the year
ists and restrictions on their work, as well as a
also featured the removal of journalists from political
decrease in the diversity of media after the cancella-
events, the harassment and intimidation of journalists
tion of major political talk shows.
at protests, and cyberattacks on news websites.
The Turkish media environment continued to dete- Turkey’s score declined from 62 to 65 due to a
riorate as the government moved more aggressively number of legislative changes and continuing
to close the space for dissent. In addition to enact- state efforts to influence reporting through intimida-
ing new legislation that expanded both government tion and economic incentives. New laws restricted the
powers for website blocking and the surveillance freedom of journalists to report on national security
capability of the intelligence service, officials detained and empowered the intelligence service to access a
prominent journalists from the newspaper Zaman wide range of information without oversight, while
and the Samanyolu Broadcasting Group—which were amendments to the internet law increased authorities’
largely critical of the government and reported on power to block online content.
www.freedomhouse.org 15Freedom of the press 2015 Free Partly Free Not Free
freedomhouse.org
170
P
Partly Free 3 Free 0
23%Free 3
Partly 0%
Free 0
23% 0%
Total
countries
Total
13
countries
13
Not Free 10 No
77%
Not Free 10 N
77%
Middle East and North Africa
Tunisia Stands Out Amid Violence,
MIDDLE EAST: Repression
STATUS BY POPULATION
MIDDLE EAST: STATUS BY POPULATION
After historic gains in the Middle East in 2011, only one
Middle east and north africa:
country has continued to make progress toward fulfill- status by population
ing the promise of the Arab Spring. Tunisia registered
the best score of any Arab country in over a decade,
Not Free
Not Free
although it remained Partly Free. Conversely, Egypt and
386,849,000
Libya, two other countries that saw dramatic improve-
93%
386,849,000
ments in 2011, maintained a pattern of backsliding.
Egypt’s score of 73 is its worst in 11 years, marking not 93%
only the reversal of gains it made following the ouster
of longtime dictator Hosni Mubarak, but also a regres-
sion toward the most repressive years of the Mubarak
era. Libya’s score also continued to drop as a civil war
affected the post-Qadhafi media environment.
The long-running conflict in Syria exacerbated condi-
tions in that country and contributed indirectly to de- 19,620,000 8,208,000
clines in Iraq, including through the rise of IS. The war Partly Free 5%
19,620,000
Free 2%
8,208,000
also put pressure on Lebanon, whose score reached Partly Free 5% Free 2%
a five-year low of 55 due to a marked increase in libel Middle east and north africa:
cases against journalists in 2014. Penalties included Free 1
Status by country
Partly Free 3 5%
jail time and exorbitant fines, and many publications
16%Free 3 Free 1
faced multiple suits from the same aggrieved party. Partly 5%
Moreover, rulings from Lebanon’s Court of Publica- 16%
tions during the year indicated a reflexive bias against
the media and political motives behind many cases.
While Israel remains the region’s only Free media envi- Total
ronment, the score for the West Bank and Gaza Strip de- countries
Total
clined by two points to 84 as a result of the war in Gaza. 19
countries
Not only were members of the media killed and injured
during the conflict between Israel and Hamas militants,
19
but both Israeli and Palestinian authorities restricted
journalists’ movement in Gaza and the West Bank.
Not Free 15
In the Persian Gulf, Qatar passed a new cybercrime 79%
Not Free 15
law that included onerous penalties for “false news” 79%
18Freedom House
and defamation, though there are hopes that a new Egypt’s score declined from 68 to 73 due to
Open Data Policy will improve transparency and ac- arrests of journalists and a number of deeply
cess to government sources. The media in Bahrain flawed court cases that resulted in harsh punish-
continued to suffer from self-censorship and persecu- ments for journalists and media workers. The hostile
tion, and citizen journalists who dared to report on environment has led to an increase in self-censorship
ongoing protests through social media increasingly and a drop in media diversity, with many outlets
faced government reprisals. The United Arab Emirates becoming ardent supporters of the regime.
remained one of the most repressive media environ-
ments in the region, belying its image as a cosmopoli- Iraq’s score declined from 69 to 72 due to an
tan oasis among conservative authoritarian regimes. increase in censorship regarding coverage of IS
and Iraqi security forces, including internet blackouts
Elsewhere on the Arabian Peninsula, Yemen’s score in the summer of 2014. The perilous security environ-
declined two points to 78 as both government and ment also made it more difficult and dangerous to
Houthi rebel forces targeted journalists, and the me- report from large parts of the country.
dia faced greater pressure to serve political interests.
Saudi Arabia’s autocratic regime bolstered existing Libya’s score declined from 62 to 73 due to the
media restrictions with the passage of harsh antiter- continued deterioration of the security environ-
rorism legislation and increased arrests of critics. ment, which denied journalists access to many areas.
Media workers were vulnerable to attacks, abductions,
and assassinations, and they also faced prosecution
Significant gains and declines: for defamation and other criminal offenses. Media
Algeria’s score declined from 59 to 61 and its outlets came under acute pressure to adhere to the
status declined from Partly Free to Not Free due views of the dominant militia groups in their area, as
to restrictions imposed on the media during the 2014 the civil war exacerbated political polarization.
presidential election. A January law placed content
limitations on privately owned television channels, Tunisia’s score improved from 53 to 48 due to
and government agencies withdrew advertising from the ratification of the 2014 constitution, which
media outlets that covered opposition parties. Foreign guarantees freedom of speech and freedom of the
journalists were denied entry visas, had their visas press, as well as incremental decreases in editorial
restricted, or faced obstacles to access on the ground. pressure and attacks on journalists.
Sub-Saharan Africa
Ongoing Cycles of Repression and Recovery
Sub-Saharan Africa was the only region to show In Nigeria, little reporting was possible from areas of the
improvement in its average score in 2014, registering northeast controlled by Boko Haram, and the military in-
a modest quarter-point increase. Most countries that creased its efforts to punish critical coverage of its opera-
earned improvements started from a low baseline, tions against the extremist group. In June, soldiers seized
such as Central African Republic and Guinea-Bissau. pressruns of several newspapers, including the Nation,
Meanwhile, press freedom conditions remained dire in Daily Trust, and Leadership, from key distribution points
Equatorial Guinea and Eritrea, which rank among the in a coordinated nationwide effort. An army spokesper-
Worst of the Worst. Their authoritarian governments son said the seizures were a “routine security action.”
continued to use legal pressure, imprisonment, and
other forms of harassment to suppress independent Four traditionally strong performers in southern Af-
reporting. Other poor performers in the region—includ- rica—Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, and South Africa—
ing Ethiopia (83), Sudan (81), and The Gambia (81)— experienced unusually turbulent years. Increased
found new ways to constrain the already-limited space efforts by governments to limit reporting on sensitive
in which journalists can operate. Ethiopian authorities issues, and arrests of and violence against journalists,
stepped up arrests of independent journalists, includ- contributed to declines in their press freedom scores.
ing the Zone 9 bloggers, leading more than 30 to flee
the country during the year, according to CPJ. In Kenya, security legislation passed in December 2014
www.freedomhouse.org 19You can also read
