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Click to enter > From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
< Previous Next > Contents Foreword by Monty Don 1 Summary 2 Introduction 6 About the research 7 National map of locations surveyed and main local supply chains 8 Defining local 10 Context 12 Characterising local food webs 20 Main findings 36 Local food and the local economy 37 Local food and the local community 49 Local food and the local environment 55 Local food and local planning policies 58 Main recommendations 60 Conclusion 64 Endnotes 66 Summary of mapping locations 69
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Foreword 1
Foreword
by Monty Don
It is a sign of our increasing separation from nature that we are losing
sight of where food comes from and how it is produced. The way we buy
it adds to this alienation. Food, once at the heart of towns and communities,
integral to their rhythm and reason, is often now a side show. It is sold in big
boxes on the edge of town. Much of what we buy is highly processed, over-
packaged, branded but anonymous, transported from anywhere available at
any time. It is hard to remember that these ‘food products’ come from plants
and animals, and are a result of myriad complex interactions of seasons and
soil, and from the toil of real people.
An important message of this report, and its companion reports from across
England, is that this direction of travel isn’t complete. It doesn’t have to be
a final destination. There still remain networks of producers, store and stall
holders established in their communities supplying the best fresh, local and
seasonal food. These ‘local food webs’ keep alive links to the recognisable
places and landscapes where food is grown, raised or made. The businesses
they support keep towns and nearby countryside diverse and distinctive.
They are rooted in place and linked to real, meaningful landscapes.
The 800 retailers and more than 1,700 producers identified in this project
show the diversity of these networks and the abundance they offer: from
Cheshire apple juices to Sussex fisheries, from Kent hops to Northumberland
vegetables, and from Cumbrian lamb to Devon beef. They, and many more Local food is a powerful way to
such networks and thousands more such businesses, are supplying food in form our own connections to
ways which bring people closer to the land through community farms and the land, landscape and nature
farmers’ markets, school meals and urban food growing, as well as in
traditional shops and markets.
But this report is an urgent call for action. In too many places these
networks are struggling to survive. The odds are stacked against them.
They must compete against the dominance of the big supermarkets, the
erosion of town centres with the corresponding loss of diversity of outlets
and small-scale producers and the disappearance of food from living streets.
These trends continue to change and challenge the way our towns and
countryside work and feel and the way our food is produced. They threaten
the diversity of the farming system and they force up the scale at which
farms can survive and rewrite how the land is managed.
There are many recommendations here of how we can support local
food. Government must fully support these food networks in its policies and
guidance. Equally local councils must build partnerships with businesses from
retailer to producer and their customers to nurture and grow local food webs.
But we too, as individuals and as consumers, make important choices which
shape the food system where we live. Local food is a powerful way to form our
own connections to the land, landscape and nature. It is a chance to enjoy
seasonal produce, to discover the best, most wholesome and freshest food
around and the most distinctive varieties and tastes. It is our chance to
support a food network that is rich with variety and diversity and meaning.
It is a chance we need to seize.
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
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Summary 2
Summary
This report presents findings and recommendations
from a five-year national project – Mapping Local
Food Webs – to engage local volunteers across England
to research their local food ‘webs’: the network of links
between people who buy, sell, produce and supply
food sourced locally.
The project builds a picture of local and its main ingredients, grown or
food webs, their character, benefits,
the challenges faced and the impact
that these networks have on people,
produced within 30 miles of where
it was bought. For all locations,
outlets were in a core study area of
61,000
their livelihoods and the character of a 2.5-mile radius circle centred on a Estimated number of jobs
their town and local countryside. town or city. Producers based within across England due to local
This report brings together findings a 30-mile supply zone beyond this food sales to shoppers
from 19 locations to describe local food were counted as local.
webs in national terms. We have
collated qualitative and quantitative Main recommendations
data from interviews in all locations
to generate combined statistics and
These recommendations are for
the Government, local authorities,
16.3
shared themes and issues. The report food retail businesses, local million
considers the scale and economic communities and individuals.
importance of local food webs in terms Further recommendations appear Number of customers
of jobs supported, turnover of outlets across the report. English local food outlets
and supply chain businesses, and 1 – Government should develop the could serve each week
also their social and environmental competition policy framework to
importance. We include analysis of the better support retail diversity and
challenging context in which these food entry to markets of new local food
webs operate including current policy.
We draw conclusions about how policy
entrepreneurs by preventing further
market concentration which could £2.7
change and actions can enable local act as a barrier for small and medium- Billion
food webs to grow and thrive for the sized businesses.
long-term future. 2 – Government should develop Potential annual sales
national planning policy guidance from independent local
Definition of a local food web and to provide stronger support for a food outlets in 750 towns
local food sustainable food system by showing
For the project we defined: how planning can promote and protect
across England
• a local food web as the network of the infrastructure and assets needed
links between people who buy, sell, to buy, grow, produce and distribute
produce and supply food in an area. local food.
The people, businesses, towns, 3 – Government should strengthen
villages and countryside in the the ability of the planning system to
web depend on each other ensure the vitality of town centres by
• local food as raw food, or lightly enabling local authorities to set
processed food (such as cheese, conditions on the location, scale and
sausages, pies and baked goods) accessibility of retail as well as to
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
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Summary 3
restrict the dominance of particular high levels of seasonal local food and turnover; by comparison at three
operators in local market areas. persuading others to do so. national chains one job is supported
4 – Government should provide per £138,000 to £144,000 of
strong leadership on sustainable Key findings annual turnover.2
food procurement by setting Local economies
challenging long-term targets for For the 19 locations surveyed combined Local food webs have other important
food procurement for its Whitehall our analysis shows that: economic benefits:
departments, agencies and other • local food sales through independent • distinctive, fresh local produce gives
non-departmental public bodies outlets support total turnover of £132 outlets a strong selling point
to increase food supplied from million a year; over half – £68 million • outlets contribute to the character of
sustainable sources. – can, we estimate, be attributed market and other towns, drawing
5 – Local authorities and other public directly to local food sales visitors and food tourists
bodies should form partnerships in • local food outlets support over 2,600 • networks of local outlets reduce risk
their areas to develop food strategies jobs full-time and part-time of which for producers of relying on fewer
and action plans. over 1,500 can be attributed directly larger contracts
6 – Local authorities updating their to local food sales • they offer markets for smaller
local plans in the light of the • there are 2,000 supply chain businesses producers (69% were micro-
National Planning Policy Framework providing locally sourced produce businesses and 28% small businesses)
(NPPF) should develop policies to to these locations supporting total • local food webs are vital seed beds
support local food networks by turnover of an estimated £718 for innovation and new enterprises
building on NPPF policies on retail million a year and employment of trialling products.
diversity and town individuality, support 34,000 people.
for markets and protection of fertile land. Local communities
7 – Businesses within local food Nationally, based on extrapolations Across the 19 locations surveys showed:
networks should work together to from data from all locations, we • local food outlets serve 415,000
promote awareness, access, broadly estimate: customer visits weekly; nationally,
affordability and availability of local • local food sales in some 750 towns across England such outlets could
food by developing a clearly defined across England through independent serve, we estimate, 16.3 million
‘local’ brand, developing shared delivery outlets (including social enterprises customers a week
and distribution services, and and co-operatives) could currently be • national supermarket chains
considering extended opening hours. £2.7 billion a year dominate grocery spending
8 – Supermarket chains should set • these outlets are supporting over (77% of all main shopping trips)
themselves demanding targets for 103,000 jobs (full-time and part- • shoppers gave convenience (44%),
stocking more local food in ways time), of which over 61,000 can be proximity/location (36%) and price
which reinforce trust in local food by attributed directly to local food sales.1 (24%) as the main reasons they
stocking fresh, seasonal local produce, • money spent in local food networks use supermarkets
clearly defining local food, minimising will be re-circulated within the local • despite this dominance of chains,
transport and committing to equitable economy for longer: it could be local independent stores and markets
trading with local food producers. contributing £6.75 billion of total matter to shoppers: one fifth of
9 – Community groups should engage value to local economies shoppers used independent stores
in initiatives to shape their local food • pound for pound, spending in for all or part of their main shopping;
networks such as food partnerships, smaller independent local food they account for 60% of extra or
neighbourhood planning, food web outlets supports three times the ‘top-up’ shopping visits
mapping and community food growing. number of jobs than at national • the main reasons for using
10 – Individuals can and should act grocery chains: outlets selling smaller independent stores were:
to change the way our food system significant to high percentages of quality/freshness/taste (46%),
works by shopping at a wide variety of local food support on average one specific products (32%) and local
outlets, supporting those that stock job for every £46,000 of annual produce (19%)
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
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Summary 4
• shoppers’ main reasons for buying way, and should be built on to convey
local food were: supporting local
farmers and producers (56%); quality
(54%); supporting the local economy
the wider environmental benefits of
local food. 34%
(51%); taste (41%); food miles (34%); There are other environmental benefits: Percentage of shoppers
value for money (19%); seasonal • local goes hand in hand with seasonal seeing cutting food miles as
food (19%). food and reinforces an understanding a key reason to buy local
of seasonality; it helps people to buy
Local food webs extend choices of food that needs less energy to produce
where to buy the freshest, high quality • local food needs less packaging
food and enable people to shop to
support local producers and the local
than food needing protection during
long-distance journeys
£6.75
economy, to reduce food miles and to • local food supports the viability Billion
eat seasonally. of independent outlets which keep
Short supply chains also mean buildings in use; especially in Estimated total value of local
closer connections to where food comes historic market towns this maintains food spending re-circulating
from and support an awareness of character, individuality and sensitive in the local economy
seasonality and the realities of food scale of use
production. Benefits also come from • local food webs underpin local
outlets selling local food being smaller diversity in the scale and type of
local shops anchored in their local
community: acting as social hubs;
farming in the area from livestock to
cheese to fruit cropping; they support £718
offering personal service and often
informal support for the elderly and
genetic diversity in traditional and
rare breeds, heirloom and heritage
million
less mobile ; and supporting a wide varieties not suited to large-scale Estimated annual turnover
range of very local good causes through processing and distribution systems. of local food suppliers
donations, gifts in kind, sponsorship
and advertising. The scale and character of local
we researched
food webs
Local environment This national project provides for the
• The concept of ‘food miles’ resonates first time strong evidence from across
with shoppers and businesses: 34% of England of the scale and attributes of
shoppers gave reducing food miles as local food webs. It confirms aspects of
a main reason to buy local food; local food networks that many people
numerous food web businesses cited instinctively understand. In certain
it as an advantage of local food linked towns – such as Ledbury, Otley, Penrith
to lower transport costs, freshness of and Totnes – there are relatively high
produce and less pollution. Local food numbers of outlets selling local
webs show producers across many produce, a large number of suppliers
locations clustered within 10-15 miles and good availability. For their size,
of outlets. Food miles indicate closer local food supports a relatively high
connection to food provenance as number of jobs and turnover in and
much as distance travelled. around these towns.
• The scale of environmental challenges On average across all locations the
Local food webs capture the
can prevent people believing they highest levels of local produce are
can make a difference. The food miles found at farmers’ markets and farm interactions between those
concept helps shoppers to change shops as expected, but also at butchers. who produce and buy food
their habits in a meaningful, intuitive They are closely followed by bakeries, from farmer to shopper
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
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Summary 5
general grocers and fishmongers with sales and collapse of high street chains should enable better enforcement of
high levels (50-75%), and delicatessens, have accelerated town centre decline. equitable supply chain relationships.
greengrocers and street market stalls Further store closures are forecast. But with the NPPF failing to strengthen
with significant levels (above 25%). town centre planning policy, ‘business
These traditional stores, some in Farming context as usual’ seems likely.
markets, are vital to thriving food webs. Farming, often undervalued, supports
Excellent farm shops and farmers’ the food chain, a major employer and Conclusion
markets can help increase access part of manufacturing and service Local food networks can address the
where such stores are few but generally industries. But the sector faces major range of challenges set out here in three
where traditional local shops have challenges. These include population important ways:
disappeared there are smaller networks growth, demand shift, climate change • by contributing to the strength of
of local producers and less varied local and resource depletion. Farming must smaller outlets, maintaining the
produce available. National supermarket produce more with fewer resources. attraction of town centres through
and some regional chains were present The food chain from farming to local food and contributing
in all locations. In the main, research domestic consumption has major towards their diversity, character
shows they do not stock a high impacts on greenhouse gas emissions and the community
percentage of local food – from 0-4% in production, transport and the home. • by providing channels to market for
at most by turnover – but with a few Food has major implications for energy new and micro, small and medium-
notable exceptions. use, water use and waste, and depletion sized businesses, supporting producer
of soils. The costs of many such businesses and enabling farming to
Wider context impacts are not reflected in the price remain diverse and varied in production
Local food webs capture the of food. There are other significant and outputs including values
interactions between those who farming trends: an increase in farm size supported by consumers such as
produce and buy food from farmer to and drop in farm numbers coupled with freshness, provenance and seasonality
shopper. They link the retail system rising imports in recent decades. Fruit • by encouraging engagement of
to the farmed land. is one example of how market forces consumers with food and, through the
shaped by price and supermarket power human scale and connection within
Retail and town centres have undermined domestic production. local food networks, enabling
Supermarkets have risen to dominate shoppers to understand the realities,
food retail and their growth has seen Land-use planning challenges and impacts of food
massive decline in smaller shops, Land-use planning through national production and to choose to make a
especially traditional specialist stores planning policy has a major role to difference individually and collectively.
– down from 120,000 (1950s) to 18,000 play in shaping retail development,
(late 2000s). Many such as butchers the nature of town centres and retail There is an urgent need for national
and greengrocers sold high proportions diversity. Policy since 1996 has and local government to act to put in
of local produce supplied through local sought to focus development on place the strong policy framework
wholesalers and direct to store. Their town centres to keep them vibrant. needed to protect retail diversity and
replacement by supermarkets with Despite supportive policy supermarket through it local food webs. Businesses,
(inter)national supply chains has expansion out of town and into the community and we as individuals
‘de-localised’ our food shopping. superstores has undermined centres, all have a role to play in supporting
Expansion of market share by weakened diversity and concentrated their future health.
chains has been fed primarily by ownership with fewer, larger companies.
out-of-town development of superstores These trends affect the markets for
and hypermarkets and this growth is producers. Loss of retailers has
set to continue despite recession: 44 narrowed their options. Supermarkets
million square feet of new supermarkets are able, through buyer power, to drive
with just 20% in town centres are down prices, forcing producers to scale
planned or have permission. Internet up. The Groceries Chain Adjudicator
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
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Introduction 6
Introduction
Food is an essential part of our lives. It has been
central to the nature of our towns and countryside
since the beginnings of civilisation.3
Farming has shaped England’s they are below the radar. But as Carolyn
countryside over millennia: the
food it produces and the landscapes
it maintains are invaluable assets.
Steel puts it: ‘Food is all about networks;
things that when connected add up to
more than the sum of their parts.’4
30 miles
Yet the wider role of food is being The overarching aim of this report The radius around a
forgotten. A multitude of factors is to make local food webs more visible location defined as the
has changed the way we buy, and and better understood – to put them local supply area
experience, our food. The weekly literally on the map – and make clear
supermarket shop has displaced food their ability collectively to make a
from market places and town centres. difference. In so doing, we argue that
The scaling up of our stores into retail
sheds has increased standardisation of
local food networks need sustained
support from individuals, the
1,873
food. National and global sourcing and community, business and policy- Number of shoppers
increased distribution distances mean makers locally and nationally.
food has to be packaged for transit This report begins with a summary
we interviewed
and for a long shelf-life. of the research and a discussion of
This system has disconnected us the challenges of defining local food.
from our food’s origins. Plants and
animals disappear into large sheds too.
The ‘denaturing’ of food has added to
The first main section reviews the wider
context, considering national trends
in retail, pressures on agriculture,
804
our nature deficit – our decreasing and recent developments in planning The businesses we screened
contact with nature – at a time when policy, particularly for town centres. for sales of local food across
climate change and resource depletion The second main section builds on 19 locations
pose huge challenges. Farming faces the project findings to characterise
numerous challenges in an increasingly local food webs, the types of food
volatile future. At the same time, available, and business models.
recession and austerity bite and our The third main section brings
high streets are in crisis. together findings from 19 locations
These issues raise questions to form a national picture. These
about the sustainability of our food findings are divided broadly into
system. While some suggest that economic, social, and environmental
global economic and resource pressures themes, followed by analysis of local
make intensive large-scale production policies. They combine statistical and
systems inevitable, our analysis of local qualitative analysis from shoppers and
food webs suggests a different set of businesses to identify the benefits of
priorities for the future. Local food local food webs and the challenges
systems underpin the viability of they face. We set out recommendations
farming, support the economy of rural on how local food webs can be better
areas and towns, innovate and create supported and a conclusion.
jobs, build community and connections, Throughout the report we include
and enhance the countryside. The case studies which illustrate some of
businesses in these networks are most the attributes and benefits we explore
often small and dispersed. Individually or offer solutions and ideas for action.
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
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About the research 7
About the research
Background
The concept of a local food web stems from
the work of Caroline Cranbrook.
In 1998 Caroline grew concerned Hastings, Darlington, Norwich and primarily through interviews with
about the impact of a proposed Sheffield. Individual mapping locations local food web businesses and other
superstore on her local market town were selected on population size (below stakeholders such as local councillors,
of Saxmundham in east Suffolk. 10,000, 10,000–30,000, over 30,000), to town centre and market managers and
She produced research to show the achieve broad coverage of the relevant local chambers of commerce.
importance of the local food network. region and where there was good Data was entered and collated at
This research suggested local food support from local community groups. CPRE National Office and analysed
networks with similar benefits existed In each location a core study area was statistically and thematically to provide
elsewhere, but further evidence defined by a 2.5-mile radius circle, findings for each location report and
was needed. usually centred on the town or urban then to generate findings reported here.
area. Beyond that, a 30-mile radius circle Case studies from location reports are
Aims of the national project was defined as the local supply area. replicated here where relevant and are
The national Mapping Local Food Webs The project employed regional based on interviews with businesses
project engaged people in researching co-ordinators to recruit and support – supplemented by desk-based research
their own local food web in up to three local volunteers to research shoppers’ – and with other stakeholders including
towns and cities in each of the eight attitudes to local food, identify and volunteers, food activists, town and
English regions. The project was interview outlets selling locally sourced market managers and planners.
developed with support from Sustain food in the core study area, and For detail of the mapping research
and received funding for 2007 to 2012 interview a sample of their suppliers. process for individual locations see
from the Big Lottery Fund through the Co-ordinators carried out survey work Field to Fork location reports.
Making Local Food Work programme. alongside volunteers. Open public
The project aimed to: meetings and workshops were held to
• increase the local community’s involve and consult local residents and
understanding of the size and businesses, to raise awareness of issues,
importance of their local food web to gather information on barriers and
and its impact on local people’s lives, opportunities, and in several locations
livelihoods, places and the countryside to verify findings and explore actions to
• explore the relationships between support local food. Report writers and
what people buy and eat and the volunteers researched case studies
character of their town and the
surrounding countryside
• build support for greater local food Shopper surveys, business interviews and public meetings
production and better supply in
local outlets Engaging the local community Talking to businesses
• strengthen and secure local food webs Numbers of local Number of businesses screened in 19
across the country through local and volunteers involved: 262 locations (for sales of local food): 804
national action and policy change. Numbers of shoppers Number of outlets interviewed: 403
interviewed: 1,873 Number of supply chain businesses
Overview of project activities Number of public meetings held interviewed: 219
The project explored 19 locations from (launch meetings/workshops): 52 Number of case study interviews: 102
2009. These included markets towns Number of people attending and
such as Totnes, Ledbury and Penrith contributing views: 1,735
and larger urban areas including
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Maps 8
Map of locations surveyed and
supply chain links identified
KEY
Supply chain links
Boundary of local food supply area
Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB)
Hexham National Park
Settlements
Penrith
Darlington
Otley
Burnley
Sheffield
Knutsford
Newark on Trent
Norwich
Shrewsbury
Birstall
Reproduced from Ordnance Survey digital map data © Crown copyright 2012. All rights reserved. Licence numbers 100047514, 0100031673.
Kenilworth
Ely
Ledbury
Faversham
Yeovil Haslemere Hastings
Totnes N
0 20 40 km
Map Scale @ A3: 1:2,000,000 W E
S
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Maps 9
Local supply chain
into Darlington
Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2011
N
W E
S
Core study area and location of main
local food outlets in Darlington
KEY
Meat/processed meat
Fruit/vegetables
Dairy
Cereals
Eggs
Fish/shellfish
Drinks
Preserves
Baked goods
Other
Supply chain link
Multistage supply chain link
Boundary of core study area
Boundary of local food supply area
Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB)
National Park
Settlements
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Defining local food 10
Defining local food
The term ‘local’ is deceptively simple. It is used widely
and loosely but in many ways which defy definition.
Take the example of the local shop: Defining ‘local food’ area to be processed and packaged
surely a shop close to home. But There is no legal definition of local food elsewhere – sometimes exported to
how close is close, and how distant is in use, except reference in a relatively do so – then transported to regional
not local? Setting a boundary is more obscure EU regulation on food hygiene distribution centres before being
difficult than it seems and depends on for animal products.9 The Policy delivered to the store where it is sold.
context: a rural local shop may be in the Commission on the Future of Farming This means food produced within a few
next village several miles away; in town and Food, set up by the UK Government miles of a store may have travelled
it might be at the end of the street. in 2002 to advise on a sustainable hundreds of miles to get there.
Local can also be set against much future for the food and farming sectors
larger geographical areas – regional, in England, stated in its 2002 report Different modes of defining
national or global. that ‘once local food becomes more ‘local food’
Local can also mean different things established, DEFRA, the Food Standards Local food has nevertheless been
to different people, and is used in Agency and FFB [Food from Britain] will defined in a number of ways which are
different ways depending on the need to devise an enforceable definition relevant to our project. Kneafsey et al.
purpose. In terms of food, there has of “local” [as] a necessary first step for define three overlapping modes to
been a rapid growth of interest in local the full benefits of local branding to be which a fourth (d) is added below.13
in recent years. Farmers’ markets, realised.’10 However, FSA research
community-supported agriculture, showing that consumers have differing (a) Local food defined according to
vegetable box schemes and local food views on the meaning of ‘local food’ led product, process and place attributes
festivals have mushroomed across the them to conclude that it would not be This definition attributes particular
country. These support a natural and possible to provide a definition for foods to a district or geographical area,
simple association of local food and regulatory purposes.11 based on special attributes such as
proximity – geographical closeness – There are further barriers to soils, topography, climate, local skills
and are represented by businesses and establishing a tight definition of and knowledge. The best-known
initiatives rooted in the area. However, local food, particularly for legal or example is the French Appellation
supermarkets, operating nationally and certification use. Food production d’Origine Contrôlée system, now
internationally, now reserve shelf space systems ‘can consist of complex extended across the EU via the
to sell popular local or regional foods; networks of relations stretched over Protected Designation of Origin (PDO)
in some cases a region or country can a variety of spatial scales’: even for and Protected Geographic Indication
be described as a ‘local’ source.6 Where simple commodities many of the (PGI) systems. UK products covered
the boundaries lie between a local area resources required to produce them – include Melton Mowbray pork pies,
and the next scale up is open to debate, seeds, fertiliser, pesticides, machinery Yorkshire Triangle rhubarb and
and ultimately depends on the context – are likely to be produced in many West Country Farmhouse Cheddar.14
and the uses to which any definition is different places.12 While few would The regulations are legally binding,
put.7 Research for the Food Standards claim that all such inputs need to which protects small producers from
Agency (FSA) found that consumers or could be locally produced, the imitation and consumers from
also interpret the term differently importance of the issue is clear when deceptive claims. These products do not
with 40% of respondents seeing it as Brazilian soybeans – a driver of have to be sold locally, which shifts the
within a 10-mile radius, 20% within Amazonian deforestation – may be definition away from point of sale.
the same county, 20% from a number used to fatten chicken, pork or beef sold
of neighbouring counties and 20% as ‘local’ in the UK. This complexity is
from a region.8 compounded by distribution systems
which, for economic and logistical
reasons, require food produced in one
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Defining local food 11
(b) Local food produced, processed Association, a sustainable local food Defining ‘local food webs’ in
and retailed within a defined radius economy is ‘A system of producing, the project
Definitions based on distance (usually processing and trading, primarily of While the definition of local food
within 30 miles) or geographical area sustainable and organic forms of food remains unresolved, this project needed
(such as a county) have an appealing production, where the physical and a working definition for survey work to
simplicity. In England CPRE has economic activity is largely contained proceed. The academic review which
promoted a definition of local food as and controlled within the locality underpinned our research described
food produced, grown and processed or region where it was produced, local food webs as ‘networks of
within 30 miles of the store. This which delivers health, economic, relationships between food producers,
distance has also been adopted by a environmental and social benefits to processors, retailers and consumers
number of large retail chains including the communities in those areas.’15 which deliver economic, social and
Waitrose, Asda, Booths and The Sustain’s definition incorporates environmental benefits within a defined
Cooperative. Tesco uses a county or similar criteria such as proximity, geographical radius’.19 This combines
neighbouring county definition. The fair or co-operative trade, and being concepts b) and c) above. It also
National Farmers Retail and Markets environmentally beneficial or benign.16 recommended defining the scale of a
Association (FARMA) has developed this Research in the US for Congress also retail study area and local area for food
definition into a set of certification suggests the category of ‘local’ based supply. This conceptual understanding
criteria for farmers’ markets to protect on attributes ‘mostly based on supports the final definitions used in
their integrity. It uses 30 miles as the consumer perceptions of certain the project. To ensure the research
ideal radius, but this can be stretched desired social or supply-chain remained practical for volunteers as
to 50 miles for larger cities, or coastal or characteristics in producing “local” well as enabling CPRE to quantify
remote regions, with 100 miles as the foods, such as production by a small and compare the importance of food
maximum recommended. FARMA also family farm, urban farm or garden, or webs in different areas, the standard
recognises distinct geographical areas farm using sustainable agricultural definitions below were used across
such as counties and National Parks. practices’.17 These factors link to many all locations.
others which influence demand for local
(c) Local food that delivers food, such as quality and freshness, Project definitions
certain benefits traceability, supporting the local Our research was based on:
Sustain and The Soil Association have economy and environmental impacts. • a core study area for researching food
developed definitions based on criteria outlets, based within a 2.5-mile radius
related to food’s social, environmental (d) Local based on type of outlet circle from the centre of the location
and economic benefits. For The Soil The US Congress research above goes • a local supply area, covering a 30-mile
on to suggest a further definition based radius circle beyond this.
on type of outlet. This is where ‘local’
refers to the ‘types of marketing A local food web is the network of
channels used by farmers to distribute links between people who buy, sell,
food from the farm to the consumer’. produce and supply food in an area.
This lists ‘direct-to-consumer outlets’ The people, businesses, towns, villages
such as road-side stands, on-farm and countryside in the web depend on
stores (farm shops), farmers’ markets each other, and this interdependence
and community-supported agriculture benefits livelihoods, quality of life and
(CSA), and ‘intermediated outlets’, the quality of places.
Sourced within 30 miles – such as grocers, restaurants and This project defined local food as
regional distributors.18 raw food, or lightly processed food
definition of local food used (such as cheese, sausages, pies and
by Asda, Booths, CPRE, East baked goods) and its main ingredients,
of England Co-op, FARMA grown or produced within 30 miles of
and Waitrose where it was bought.20
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Context 12
Context
Local food webs are about connections: the interactions between
those who buy, sell and produce food, and the relationship
between where food is produced and where it’s consumed.
The concept goes beyond that of a the grocery chains: the Competition (excluding co-ops, discount groups
supply chain to look at the retail Commission found that ‘the number and independents) operated some
system, and food’s wider impact on the of larger stores [over 2,320m2] located 8,400 stores, including over 5,400
quality of places, the environment and out-of-town increased from just under supermarkets (over 3,000 square feet).24
community life in both urban and rural 300 in 1980 to more than 700 by 1990 Further research by commercial
areas. Because of the breadth of the and to almost 1,500 in 2007’.22 property adviser CBRE reported in
idea, many factors in the wider national The net effect has been to move late 2011 that this expansion is set
and international context are relevant shopping out of towns to their margins to continue well into the future with:
to local food webs. or elsewhere, as well as to increase • almost 4 million square feet of
car-based shopping. This scaling up new grocery retail space under
Retail and town centres by national chains with access to construction
The ‘death of the high street’ high levels of capital leaves smaller • planning permission already given
The state of the nation’s high streets is independent stores – which to national chains for another 21.4
the subject of much media coverage proportionately sell much higher levels million square feet
and an area of great concern. The 2000s of local food – losing trade, as town • applications submitted for a further
saw the economy buoyed by a retail centres where they operate struggle 19 million square feet
and house-price boom – and rising to compete. • more than 80% of new space in
debt. With the 2008 crash, growth out-of-town developments.
turned to recession. Other trends The expansion of the supermarkets
affecting how, where and when we shop Supermarkets have expanded in other This 44 million square feet (4.01 million
are well analysed in the Portas Review. respects. Firstly, the number of stores m2) of projected development is
Portas recognises that the nation’s high operated by the national grocery equivalent to 1,635 new superstores
streets are changing in multiple ways.21 chains has continued to grow rapidly (at 2,500m2).25
across all scales – convenience Secondly, the market share of the
The growth of out-of-town shopping stores, supermarkets, superstores multiples has escalated. Competition
A key trend over the past three decades and hypermarkets. BBC research for Commission statistics show the market
has been the development of ‘supersize’ Panorama in 2010 gave an overview of share of ‘large or regional grocery
regional shopping centres, often the expansion of supermarket stores of retailers’ expanding from 20% in 1950
heralded as drivers of regeneration and the ‘big four’ (Tesco, Asda, Sainsbury’s, (estimated) to 44% by 1971 to 85%
retail growth. These may be out-of-town Morrisons) from 2004 to 2010, by 2007.26 Most recent 2012 figures
centres (Lakeside in Essex, Bluewater in shown below.23 In 2012, the multiples indicate supermarket chains account
Kent), or developed within urban areas
(such as London’s newest Westfield Table A: Number of supermarket stores
shopping centres at White City and
Stratford). Both represent a challenge to Location (by postcode) 2004 2010
existing town centres and high streets.
Birmingham 19 104
These are complemented in many
towns and cities by the move to Bristol 19 76
out-of-centre stores and retail parks,
Cleveland 7 59
which have enabled retailers to expand
massively from relatively constrained Nottingham 12 82
town centre sites into superstores. In
Sheffield 16 104
the vanguard of this trend have been
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Context 13
for 97-98% of grocery sales, with the stores mentioned above and of can bring a vicious cycle: stores close
‘big four’ around 75-76%.27 e-commerce. The decline in spending down, leading to still lower footfall,
Thirdly, buildings have become on the high street as a percentage of leading to further store closures. Fewer
physically much larger. Between 2006 total retail spending illustrates the shops and shoppers in town centres
and 2010, Tesco increased the number long-term nature of the problem: may weaken traditional specialist food
of its Extra hypermarkets (above 60,000 from 49.4% in 2000 to 42.5% in stores – butchers, greengrocers,
sq ft) by 50%, from 118 to 177.28 Huge 2011, to a projected 39.8% by 2014.31 fishmongers and markets, many of
superstores have appeared not only in Conversely, though not seen as a sign which are key outlets in local food webs.
large urban centres but attached to of resilience, new outlets have been The trend to e-commerce in food is
small market towns, where they can opening: noticeably convenience food most obviously seen in the move to
dwarf the existing retail offer. For stores, supermarkets, charity shops, online ordering for home delivery by
example, Hexham, Northumberland pawnbrokers, pound shops, credit the likes of Ocado, Waitrose, Tesco and
(population 11,000), has a Tesco Extra unions and shoe shops.32 The overall Sainsbury’s. Potentially more positive
store which accounts for 45% of all impact of this decline is fewer shoppers, for local food is the growth of weekly
main shopping trips in the Tynedale spending less. Town centres lose their box schemes. There are many smaller
district. Kingsbridge, Devon (pop. 6,000) attractiveness to high-spending such schemes but the major market
has recently acquired a 3,700m2 shoppers, leaving those who are less share belongs to Abel & Cole and
superstore and Blandford Forum in mobile or cannot afford to travel to cope Riverford. Riverford currently delivers
Dorset (population 9,000) awaits a with a declining centre. Their shopping around 40,000 boxes of organic fruit
4,066m2 superstore development.29 choices are limited further. and veg a week in the UK from regional
Fourthly, the grocery multiples have Recent research by Deloitte farms. Riverford advertises that it does
expanded from convenience (everyday) suggests further significant reductions not air freight and has a strong emphasis
goods into comparison goods – items – ‘by as much as 30-40% are foreseeable on seasonal and local, though how
such as homeware, stationery, flowers, over the next 3-5 years’ – in the portfolios much would meet our project definition
books, electricals, pharmacy products of stores held by retailers, a rate of loss (sourced within 30 miles) is not clear.37
and clothes as well as fuel. It is well likely to seriously damage already
known that Tesco takes £1 in every £8 fragile town centres.33 Other changes
of total retail spend in the UK but Related – directly and indirectly –
Sainsbury’s is now the seventh largest Fundamental changes to the way to these significant changes in town
clothing retailer by volume.30 Shoppers we shop centre retail are other trends. Recent
may be left with little reason to visit the There has also been a marked shift to decades have seen steep declines in:
town centre, threatening a whole range online shopping, or e-commerce, which • traditional specialist shops –
of outlets. As the centre declines, is likely to continue to grow rapidly: smaller stores have been disappearing
smaller shops find it increasingly hard internet sales of all goods have doubled since before the meteoric rise of
to compete and traders disappear, since 2000 from 5.1% to 10.2% – and supermarkets, but there seems little
leaving less choice, not more. even this may be an underestimate, doubt that competition from chains
according to the Local Data Company.34 has weakened and subsequently
The decline of town centres They anticipate internet sales could caused the closure of thousands of
The recent recession has led to reach 12.2% by 2014 and 20% by independent shops, including
widespread failure of high street 2020. Shopping on mobile devices butchers, greengrocers, bakeries,
businesses, including household names (m-commerce) is another emerging off-licences and fishmongers,
such as Woolworths, Barratts, Focus DIY, trend: BIS data indicates a growth of permanently changing the character
Comet, Peacocks, Habitat and Clinton over 500% in the past two years.35 of many if not most towns
Cards. Town centre vacancy rates None of this analysis considers food • pubs, which were closing at a rate of 40
average 14% nationally, though they retail as a discrete category, but there a week in 2009 and 25 a week in 201038
vary considerably. As well as the effects are clear implications. Virtual sales • bank branches and post offices –
of the recession, other trends behind reduce real footfall in town centres and over 2,300 rural post offices closed
this include the growth of out-of-town local high streets.36 The loss of trade between 1999 and 2009
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Context 14
• village stores, with an estimated 400 long about the forces which shape the challenges the global food
closing a year39 food system and the wider impact our system faces.
• traditional farm and food distribution food choices may have. But our food • Climate change will alter patterns of
infrastructure, including abattoirs, supply – and our local food webs – do rainfall, affect crop growth and the
livestock auctions and wholesalers.40 not operate in a vacuum. They depend way ecosystems function and mean
upon regional, national and global forces, more extreme weather events, causing
Scale of the food sector 41 from trade, finance and policy systems production and price volatility; this
The importance of agriculture to the to resource and environmental issues. presents ‘the challenge of feeding a
national economy is often undervalued. larger global population ... while
Around 2% of the UK workforce – Global issues – The Foresight report 43 delivering a steep reduction in
some 185,000 people – work in primary In 2011 the Government published the greenhouse gas emissions’.
production: growing crops, raising Foresight report on The Future of Food • Competition for key resources
livestock and harvesting the land and and Farming which draws on advice related to food production: pressures
sea. They supply around 60% of our from a lead expert group, several on land for food production
national food requirement, and hundred researchers as well as over 100 (soil erosion and degradation,44
contribute 7% of the £412 billion peer-reviewed evidence papers. The salinisation, desertification, use
turnover of the food supply chain – report sets out six important drivers of for biofuels, loss to development);
almost £30 billion annually.42 change which ‘will converge in the food increased global energy demand
Farming underpins the food supply system over the next 40 years’ to create leading to increased prices and price
chain, which employs more than 3.5 ‘the perfect storm’: volatility, with knock-on effects on
million people and generates £87.4 • Global population growth from the energy-intensive fertilisers and
billion in Gross Value Added (GVA). Food current seven billion to eight billion fishing costs; rapidly increasing
manufacturing and processing account by 2030 then a likely nine billion or global water demand even as aquifers
for 370,000 jobs and £78 billion in more by 2050; this will occur become depleted.
turnover; it is questionable how much particularly in Africa and will be • Changes in consumers’ values and
of this would take place without marked by movement from rural to ethics, which will influence policy
home-produced ingredients. Similarly, urban areas. and consumption patterns on issues
the success of many shops and • Increased demand per person linked such as national food sovereignty,
restaurants, from the humble fish-and- to rising incomes, particularly for technologies (GM, nanotechnology,
chip shop to triple-starred Michelin meat and fish in emerging major cloning), environmental sustainability
restaurants, depends on the freshness economies such as Brazil and China; and biodiversity, and fair trade and
and quality of British produce. this will increase pressure on land, social concerns.
In total, the food supply chain – water and other resources, raising
from production through processing serious questions about the The food system and
to the retail and hospitality sectors – sustainability of food production. environmental issues
accounts for 10% of UK GVA, making it • The way the food system is managed This section sets out environmental and
the fifth largest contributor to GVA. At a at national and international levels: socio-economic challenges the UK food
time when the Government is seeking issues include the globalisation of and farming system faces.
to rebalance the economy away from markets; the emergence of new food
financial services, farming and the food superpowers in BRIC nations (Brazil, Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
industry can play an important role, Russia, India, China); consolidation Food production, distribution and
particularly by reducing imports and of retail, food processing and consumption contribute significant
potentially exporting, in redressing the agribusiness into few very large GHG emissions globally and nationally.
imbalance in the UK’s external trade. transnational corporations; the role of Energy, mainly produced from burning
subsidies and market interventions; fossil fuels, is needed at every stage
Global food and farming issues the ability of political and of the food system: to drive farm
The plentiful supply of food in our institutional frameworks to enable machinery; to produce inorganic
shops discourages us from thinking too collective responses to the many fertilisers such as nitrates; in food
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Context 15
400 70%
Estimated number of village Amount of land area in
stores that close each year England that is farmed
manufacturing, packing, transport The loss of these and other habitats Refrigeration
and retail, particularly for refrigeration; is linked to major declines in diversity Refrigeration makes up around 15% of
in catering; for cold storage and in plants, terrestrial invertebrates and total food chain emissions in the UK, or
cooking in the home. Further sources vertebrates. At the end of the 20th 3-3.5% of the UK’s total GHG emissions.57
of emissions include methane from century, some 333 farmland species Supermarkets tend to be more energy
livestock, manure and food waste (broadleaved plants, butterflies, intensive than other food shops.58
in landfill, and loss of stored carbon bumblebees, birds and mammals) were Unlike greengrocers, supermarkets
through cultivation and degradation declining due to agricultural practices. often put fruit and vegetables in
and from cultivating wetlands. Meat Numbers of farmland birds fell by 40% refrigerated cabinets. They also tend
and dairy account for around 8% of UK between 1970 and 2000, and a further to have longer opening hours (in some
food consumption-related GHGs. 4% since. The number of bee colonies cases 24 hours a day).
Globally, agriculture causes an in England has declined by 54%
estimated 10%-12% of GHG emissions45 since 1985.52 Waste
– more if the effects of land-use change An estimated 20 million tonnes of CO2
such as deforestation are considered. Transport is associated with avoidable food and
In the EU, the figure is around 9% for The transport of food is the single drink waste in the UK each year.59
agriculture (2005 data), but nearer 31% largest energy user in the food system Waste occurs at every stage of the
for the whole supply chain from field and accounts for around 3.5% of the food supply chain – agriculture,
to fork.46 Food generates around 18% UK’s total GHG emissions.53 There are food manufacturing and packaging,
of total UK GHG emissions, and 30% also additional impacts such as distribution, retail, storage at home and
if emissions from land-use change damage to roads and verges from during preparation for consumption.
abroad to supply UK food consumption heavy goods vehicles (HGVs), noise There are opportunities to significantly
are included.47 and air pollution as well as congestion. reduce waste at every stage.
Main UK GHG emissions related to food
Biodiversity and landscape transport are UK HGVs (29%), consumer Water
In the UK the quality of the natural cars (23%), sea transport (15%), air The UK’s water footprint – the total
environment and farming are transport (12%) and overseas HGVs amount of freshwater used to produce
intimately connected. Some 70% of the (12%).54 A quarter of UK HGV movements all the goods and services in the
land area in England is farmed,48 and relate to food transport.55 Air freight country – is 102 billion cubic metres
much of the landscape is semi-natural, contributes disproportionately to total per year, equivalent to 4,645 litres per
shaped by agriculture over millennia. transport GHG emissions: only 1.5% of person per day. Agriculture accounts for
The post-war modernisation of fruit and vegetables are transported by around three-quarters of this – but 62%
agriculture has increased productivity, air, but they make up 40% of all fruit of the water we use is imported ‘virtual’
but at a heavy cost to the environment. and vegetable transport emissions. water, making the UK the world’s sixth
From 1947 to 1990, over 335,000km of Between 1992 and 2010, food air miles largest net importer of virtual water. Oil
hedgerows were lost, with 100,000km increased by 262%, although they have crops, cotton, livestock, and coffee, tea
alone from 1984 to 1990.49 Semi- recently stabilised; customer car travel and cocoa take up the largest share of
natural grasslands have suffered huge increased by 31% and urban kilometres the UK’s external water footprint.60
loss through conversion to arable since – a measure of congestion – by 26%. UK food consumption has a
the 1940s, with 90% of wildflower-rich Main reasons are people are driving considerable impact on the water
meadows lost.50 Much of what remains further to shop owing to the rise of footprints of other countries. Spain
is now protected in Sites of Special out-of-town grocery stores, increased contributes 3% of the UK’s total
Scientific Interest (SSSIs) and Special demand for overseas goods and more agricultural water footprint through
Areas of Conservation, but only 26 of transport between businesses as more exporting water-intensive products
710 areas/SSSIs on enclosed farmland processing and packaging of food such as salad crops, olives, grapes,
are in ‘favourable condition’. Pond takes place.56 oranges, rice and certain meat products.
numbers and quality have declined, Some of these are produced in water-
especially in arable areas.51 stressed regions like Almeria, where
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