Golf science research at the beginning of the twenty-first century
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Journal of Sports Sciences, 2003, 21, 753–765
Golf science research at the beginning of the twenty-first
century
M.R. FARRALLY,1* A.J. COCHRAN,2 D.J. CREWS,3 M.J. HURDZAN,4 R.J. PRICE,5
J.T. SNOW6 and P.R. THOMAS7
1
Department of Physical Education, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, UK, 2Consultant, Callaway Golf Co.,
Sutton Coldfield, West Midlands, UK, 3Department of Exercise Science and Physical Education, Arizona State
University, Tempe, AZ, USA, 4Hurdzan Fry Golf Course Design Inc., Colombus, OH, USA, 5Golf Consultant,
Glasgow, UK, 6Agronomy Section, USGA, Far Hills, NJ, USA and 7Centre for Movement Education and Research,
Griffith University, Mt. Gravatt Campus, QLD, Australia
Accepted 10 May 2003
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, there are 30,000 golf courses and 55 million people who play golf
worldwide. In the USA alone, the value of golf club memberships sold in the 1990s was US$3.2 billion.
Underpinning this significant human activity is a wide variety of people researching and applying science to
sustain and develop the game. The 11 golf science disciplines recognized by the World Scientific Congress of
Golf have reported 311 papers at four world congresses since 1990. Additionally, scientific papers have been
published in discipline-specific peer-reviewed journals, research has been sponsored by the two governing
bodies of golf, the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews and the United States Golf Association, and
confidential research is undertaken by commercial companies, especially equipment manufacturers. This paper
reviews much of this human endeavour and points the way forward for future research into golf.
Keywords: balls, clubs, golf course, golf course design, golfer, golf injuries, golf performance, golf turfgrass.
Presentation of research findings in golf – a challenges to agronomists to provide high-quality
brief history playing surfaces, often in hostile terrains.
Meeting every 4 years since its inauguration, the
The idea for a golf science conference arose in the World Scientific Congress of Golf (WSCG) is the
Department of Physical Education of the University of forum recognized by the Golf Science Steering Group
St Andrews in 1988. At that time there had been of the World Commission of Science and Sports for the
sporadic publication of golf science in the scientific presentation of research. In addition to the four
literature, the United States Golf Association (USGA) congresses to date, there have been three interim
had set up a research unit alongside its testing rigs used conferences – in Tokyo in 1992, Coleraine in 1996
to ensure equipment conformed to the rules, and and Phoenix in 2001, with the Phoenix conference
manufacturers were beginning to take advantage of concentrating on putting science into practice.
new materials. The growth of prize money in the late Each of the four WSCG congresses produced peer-
1980s had stimulated a greater professionalism among reviewed proceedings in book form, the Science and Golf
players, which included the employment of sports series of books. The four proceedings to date (Cochran,
scientists, especially golf psychologists, to improve 1990; Cochran and Farrally, 1994; Farrally and
performance. Improvements in information and com- Cochran, 1999; Thain, 2002) contain 311 papers across
munication technologies have brought the game to a the 11 scientific disciplines recognized by WSCG.
global audience while broadening its appeal, stimulat- Table 1 shows the distribution of papers in these
ing a growth in golf course construction and setting new publications across the 11 golf science academic
disciplines.
The proceedings of the Tokyo conference have been
published (JSGS/NRAJ, 1992) and video recordings of
* Address all correspondence to Martin Farrally, Department of
Physical Education, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife the presentations were produced from the 2001
KY16 9DY, UK. e-mail: mrf@st-and.ac.uk Phoenix conference. Additionally, there has been
Journal of Sports Sciences ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online # 2003 Taylor & Francis Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/0264041031000102123754 Farrally et al.
Table 1. Spread of golf science papers across academic disciplines
Number of papers per publication
Cochran Cochran and Farrally and Thain
Discipline (1990) Farrally (1994) Cochran (1999) (2002) Total
The golfer
Biomechanics 8 15 5 1 29
Sports medicine 0 1 5 2 8
Physiology 2 0 4 5 11
Psychology 3 9 15 7 34
Pedagogy 8 3 9 10 30
Statistics 8 8 7 1 24
Equipment
Physics of club and ball 19 23 23 20 85
The golf course
Course architecture 0 1 2 0 3
Agronomy 5 20 8 15 48
Economics 4 10 5 6 25
Ecology 2 2 4 6 14
collaboration with Griffith University to produce a Titanium driver heads have reached a size inconcei-
collection of 26 papers (Thomas, 2001a) addressing vable in the days of persimmon or even 1980s steel
golf science issues in sport psychology, exercise science, heads. Hybrid heads made from two, three or more
sports medicine and coaching and learning. materials are appearing. All of these have arisen from
In 1996, a charitable trust was set up to protect the the application of science or new materials, so we can
interests of the WSCG, with trustees representing the state with some certainty that technology has made a big
two governing bodies of golf – the Royal and Ancient impact on the marketplace.
Golf Club of St. Andrews (R&A) and the USGA – and The science involved in these developments has been
the University of St. Andrews. The World Scientific rigorous and the improvements in performance they
Congress of Golf Trust (WSCGT) was formed for the have brought about have been real, although, with one
purpose of promoting and stimulating golf-related exception, relatively small. Nevertheless, most golfers
scientific research by staging a world scientific congress believe the benefits to be greater than the scientific
of golf every 4 years. Ancillary objectives include predictions – to the extent that some people feel these
collating and distributing the proceedings of past and developments are spoiling the game and advocate a
future congresses, collecting other published scientific tightening of the rules on equipment to halt or even turn
papers and establishing a subscribing membership to back the effect of technology.
whom this information is made available electronically. The limits imposed by the rules on balls and, to a
Details of the Trust are available at www.golfscience. lesser extent, on clubs is one of the reasons why
co.uk and www.golfacts.com. scientific advances cannot have a dramatic effect on
their performance. The other reason is simply that we
are getting quite close to the limits that physical laws
Equipment (clubs and balls) place on the mechanical performance of balls and
clubs.
Research and the application of scientific methods in With clubs, new materials such as titanium, compo-
golf equipment have enjoyed a surge of activity in the sites and hybrids have helped create variety and
last decade or so. The practical outcome is evident in improvements. Technology’s most significant direct
the changed appearance and make-up of golf clubs and effect on performance in the last few years has been the
balls compared with those of 20 or 30 years ago. There development of the very large headed titanium driver.
are now few wooden woods or wound construction golf The thinness of its shell, particularly the face, has raised
balls. Most irons have cavity backs and most shafts, at the coefficient of restitution in club–ball impact enough
least on drivers, are constructed of graphite not steel. to add perhaps 10 yards (* 9 m) to a drive, a figureGolf science research 755
consistent with the increase in recorded Tour Profes- Human factors in golf performance
sionals’ drive distances over the last 5 years or so.
Another benefit of these large heads is their high At the Futures of Golf Congress in 2001, 27 different
moment of inertia, which reduces the distance loss factors related to the golfer were identified (Table 2).
experienced when the shot is not hit from the centre of The conclusions from this conference indicate that we
the face. The lightness of titanium has also enabled have only begun our journey of exploration into the
designers to use surplus mass to vary the location of the human factors of golf.
clubhead’s centre of gravity to produce different launch
conditions and thus different trajectories.
Motor learning and control
Ball technology continues to seek – with partial
success – constructions that minimize spin when it is Ericsson (1997, 2001) argued that expert performance
not wanted (e.g. in a drive) and maximize it when it is, is acquired through deliberate practice in a way that has
and to design dimple patterns that suit these construc- little in common with the popular conception of how
tions. Some attempts at ball–club optimizing have been everyday skills are acquired. Expert performance is
made, though generally the variety of shots that occur in achieved after many years of focused training in which
actual play make this a questionable goal because the the cognitive mechanisms needed to control and
same ball must be used with all clubs, or at least a range monitor performance are deliberately acquired and
of clubs on any one hole. refined. We do not know if this is achievable by all of
Perhaps more significant than any of these specific us or if there are constraints beyond our control.
developments has been the theoretical and experi- Zaichkowsky and Morris (2001), for example, obtained
mental work carried out by the larger manufacturers information on family influences on male professional
with the general aim of understanding and ultimately golfers when learning the game and examined players’
building sophisticated mathematical models of the attitudes towards introducing their children to the game
impact of club on ball and the flight of the ball. and them becoming elite players. They concluded that
Besides the specific improvements already mentioned differences in early experiences, preferences, opportu-
and others, these models can predict with consider- nities, habits, training and practice are the real
able accuracy the precise trajectory of a particular determinants of excellence in golf.
ball hit from any point on the face of a particular Practice must be designed to facilitate retention and
clubhead travelling in a specified direction without transfer of the motor skills (Christina, 2001). Inter-
even building the clubhead. In this sense, the biggest mittent feedback with variability of practice and
effect of science, technology and computing power controlled contextual interference facilitates play on
on golf equipment has not been directly apparent to the golf course. The goal of practice is that the learner
the users. The next few years will see further becomes more aware and cognitively involved in the
refinement of these models to include the golfer as learning process and, as a result, performs better
a component. A review of the impact of science and independently on the golf course.
technology on golf equipment is provided by Two other key components to explain and under-
Cochran (2002). stand learning in golf are observational learning
Table 2. Human factors: areas of study
Golfers Golf game Related fields
Professional issues Swing biomechanics Alternative therapies
Minority golf Short game Sport psychology
Golf and the brain Clubfitting Personality and golf
The junior golfer Putting Science and philosophy
Vision and golf Motor learning
Coaching Performance enhancement practice
Performing under stress/the yips Measurement in golf
Ageing and conditioning Golf injuries/rehabilitation
Adherence Exercise and nutrition
Women in golf Statistics
Instruction
Great golfers756 Farrally et al.
(modelling) and self-efficacy (situationally specific self- Vision has a direct effect on the golfer, since vision is
confidence). The modelling literature suggests that self- the primary sensory control system for most sport
models performing the desired behaviour are the performance. Vickers (2001) has studied vision from a
strongest correlate of improved performance (McCul- motor control perspective and has developed the
lagh and Weiss, 2001). Thus, recordings of one’s own importance of the ‘quiet eye’ to improve performance
best swing would improve performance more than in golf putting and other sports. ‘Quiet eye’ refers to the
viewing an ‘expert’. Self-efficacy, originally defined by consistent gaze maintained by expert golfers immedi-
Bandura (1977, 1982), is more closely related to ately before and during the putting stroke. This gaze
performance results than a general measure of self- control is related to enhanced performance.
confidence. Feltz (1982) used Bandura’s theory to The analysis of discrete skills has lagged behind that
explain an ‘anxiety-based’ model of avoidance beha- for putting performance, not only the ability to read
viour. Bandura (1977, 1982) also suggested that self- greens (for example, Pelz, 1994) but also the ability to
efficacy can indirectly influence performance through align the putter correctly (Potts and Roach, 2001).
persistence, effort, task choice, goal setting and attri- Indeed, alignment in all shots has received little
tion. research attention.
Biomechanics Statistics
Although biomechanical analysis of the swing has The wealth of data generated by tournament play
attracted considerable research (see, for example, the (score, handicaps, fairways found, greens in regulation,
29 studies reported in the proceedings of the and so on) has been a fertile ground for many
WSCG), it has yet to produce a convincing researchers. Yet there are serious traps for the unwary
explanation of the physics involved that makes a who wish to analyse performance. Unlike other sports
significant advance on the landmark work of Co- where the playing area is standardized for court
chran and Stobbs (1996), first published in 1968. dimensions, surface, environment (indoor sports) and
There has been much modelling and computer other variables that influence ‘scoring’, golf is rarely
simulation of the golf swing, recording of data from played under the same conditions, even on the same
instrumented clubs, attempts to quantify or categor- course. Consequently, one must be very wary of
ize subjective impressions and other studies of comparing data from the same competition year on
components of the swing, yet understanding of the year or aggregating data from several tournaments. This
golfer’s interaction with the club is still too crude to is well illustrated by Thomas (1994), who looked at
fit clubs to people properly. We are still a long way scoring improvement on the PGA Tour over 25 years.
from understanding the complex movement pattern Nonetheless, there is much interest in analysing
of the golf swing. competition scores, with further research necessary so
Although these studies provide information relative that a more logical handicapping system can be devised
to a portion of the swing, they do not study the swing (see, for example, Scheid, 1999).
from a multidisciplinary perspective. To attain an
accurate understanding of the motion, it is necessary
Exercise and nutrition
to combine the research of biomechanists, exercise
physiologists, physical therapists, psychologists and The physical demands of golf are not well understood,
motor learning and control experts (Martin, 2001). despite recent interest in improving strength and
Variability and consistency issues are also of interest flexibility so that driving distance can be improved.
specifically for the ageing population. Perhaps surprisingly, there has been little research into
the relationship between flexibility and performance,
although Cheetham et al. (2001) have shown that early
Video and vision in golf
in the downswing more highly skilled golfers rotate the
The recent introduction of interactive video analysis shoulders in relation to the hips more than less skilled
systems that can be used by teaching professionals has golfers, indicating that greater trunk mobility may
generated interest in examining the usefulness of video benefit performance. Verstegen (2001) emphasized
and other visual techniques in teaching golf. For the importance of core stability and individualized
example, Guadagnoli et al. (2001) investigated the strength and flexibility programmes combined with
effects of verbal and video feedback in learning a basic nutrition to enhance performance. It is self-evident that
golf stroke. Their results demonstrated that the video an increase in power in those muscles active in the golf
and video plus verbal groups outperformed the verbal swing will improve performance, but researchers are not
group on post-test accuracy distance. yet able to tell us how to design a physical trainingGolf science research 757
programme tailored to an individual player’s weak- stability actually makes the desired moves possible
nesses (Chettle and Neal, 2001). (Draovitch, 2001).
It has been shown that the aerobic fitness of some
female US Tour professional players may be so low as
Adherence in golf
to impair performance (Crews et al., 1986), but there
has been no new research to determine whether the An important concern of today’s golf market is
greater interest in physical conditioning during the last adherence or retention. Approximately 3.5 million
few years has improved this position. Carlson et al. people join the game and an equal number leave the
(2001) suggested that aerobic training can reduce the game annually. Even the average number of rounds
response to stress (i.e. cortisol) and has the potential to played per golfer per year has remained at 21 for
improve concentration. Two meta-analyses of studies in some time (Frank, 2001). Thus, there has been no
the sport and exercise literature support these sugges- significant growth in the game over the past 9 years.
tions (Crews and Landers, 1987; Etnier et al., 1997). Golf 20/20 was initiated to study this issue and to
For older recreational golfers, golf has an aerobic develop strategies with a goal of doubling the number
component (Stauch et al., 1999) and there are clear of golfers by the year 2020. This will be accomplished
health benefits from an improved aerobic fitness either by reducing the outflow of golfers annually or
(Magnusson, 1999; Broman, 2001). It would be by engaging the interested bystanders to participate
interesting to study the incidence of osteoporosis in on a consistent basis. Strategies proposed to do this
golfers as they age. include reducing the intimidation factor, reducing the
Physiological stress from the environment is a cost, providing alternative play to reduce the time
factor in certain golf tournaments. McLellan (2001) involved and facilitating the transition from learning
overviewed the physical and physiological factors to play. What is important to bear in mind is that this
governing heat exchange between the body and the pattern of flow in and out of the game is not different
environment and provided recommendations for for golf. Approximately 12 million people join the
optimizing golf performance in hot environments. It YMCA yearly and 12 million leave annually (Dish-
would be worthwhile to know more about how man, 2001). Dropout rates are also similar in other
performance is affected in some players towards the programmes, such as psychological interventions and
end of a tournament round in hot and/or humid those for weight loss and smoking cessation. Research
conditions, and the successful strategies to adopt to in other areas suggests that whatever target you
minimize performance decrement. market to increase participation, about 3% will try
Along these same lines, Manore (2001) approached the game and 1% will come back (Dishman, 2001).
performance from a nutritional perspective and empha- Therefore, targeting a large market may be very
sized the importance of fluid intake. Dehydration is one beneficial.
of the key physiological stress factors inhibiting perfor-
mance in golf. In addition, eating carbohydrates every
Sport psychology
3 h to fuel the brain and nervous system is critical in
sport, including golf. Players and coaches readily acknowledge the impor-
tance of mental skills in golf, particularly at the highest
standards of competition (Thomas, 2001b). There has
Prevention and treatment of injuries
been considerable research into the psychology of golf
Surveys (Finch et al., 1994; McNicholas et al., 1994) performance in some key areas such as anxiety (Hardy
have shown that injuries in golf are relatively common and Mullen, 2001), pre-performance routines (Feltz
when compared with other sports. There has been some and Landers, 1983; Kingston and Hardy, 2001), mood
research into back pain (Sugaya et al., 1994) and wrist state (Mathers and Cox, 2001), personality (Graham,
pain (Dalgleish et al., 2001), two of the most common 2001), attention (Crews and Landers, 1993) and
causes of referral in golfers, but we have yet to imagery (Grove et al., 2001; Beauchamp et al., 2002;
understand their aetiology and use that understanding Taylor and Shaw, 2002). Some findings have chal-
to treat injuries most appropriately. In addition, studies lenged conventional wisdom, such as the need for
examining injury prevention techniques may improve consistent timing in the pre-shot routine (Jackson,
adherence rates among golfers (Freedberg, 2001). 2001). Applied sport psychologists encourage the use of
Postural differences that correct imbalances alleviate a team approach with instructors, physical therapists
the tendency for structural differences and injury and other specialists, and suggest that periodization of
prevention (Draovitch, 2001). Lastly, instructional mental training is as important as periodization of
goals of the learner may be compensated by structural physical training (Troesch, 2001). These are concepts
abnormalities and improving physical mobility and that need research validation.758 Farrally et al.
Psychological stress has been studied in the light of help from agronomy to improve the quality of all
choking (Linder et al., 1998) and the yips (Smith, courses, especially the quality of turfgrass.
2001). An extensive review of the yips is provided by
Kingston et al. (2002), who conclude that a more
Social and environmental issues
holistic approach is required when working with
golfers afflicted with this condition. This area of At the beginning of the twenty-first century, there are
research is ripe for further investigation, particularly 30,000 golf courses and some 55 million people who
in view of some of the elite golfers who appear to play golf throughout the world. The USA has 15,000
handle stress very well. courses and 26 million golfers. Europe has 6000
What we know from these initial golf research courses and 6 million golfers. Over the period 1990–
studies is as follows. Kingston and Hardy (1994) 2000, 4000 new golf courses were opened in North
encourage the use of both process and outcome goals America, 2000 in Europe and 1000 in Asia.
during different stages of golf performance. Duda Unlike many other sports, golf requires large, clearly
(1994) emphasized a task-involved rather than an ego- defined areas of land (100–150 acres for each 18 hole
involved golf perspective to enhance golf performance. course). Modern golf courses are usually major
Kirschenbaum (1994) researched the application of a engineering projects, often associated with large build-
five-phase, self-regulation programme and was able to ings (clubhouses/leisure centres) and in some parts of
demonstrate improved performance among college the world they have major real estate developments.
golfers. Both cognitive and somatic anxiety relate to In the USA, the value of golf club memberships sold
performance following different patterns of influence in the 1990s was US$3.2 billion, while the sale of
(Hardy and Mullen, 2001). Pre-performance routines associated real estate generated US$75 billion (US
appear to facilitate golf performance among golfers of National Golf Foundation, 1999). From its roots as a
varying skill (Crews, 1994; Kingston and Hardy, game played across the coastal links land or inland
2001). Awareness of mood states and personality parklands of Scotland in the nineteenth century, where
characteristics can be used to regulate decision local golf clubs provided courses for their members at a
making, emotional control and, ultimately, golf per- cost of a few pounds per year, the modern game of golf
formance (Graham, 2001; Mathers and Cox, 2001). is now part of a multi-billion pound service industry
Attentional patterns, as expressed by electroencepha- (Price, 2002). In addition to the provision and
lographic and cardiac activity, that facilitate golf operation of golf courses, the golf industry is also
putting performance have been defined and can be closely associated with clothing and equipment manu-
trained using biofeedback (Crews and Landers, 1993). facturing and the food and beverage, tourism and real
In essence, left hemisphere activity must quieten and estate industries. Golf has a major impact on local
the heart must slow before movement to achieve economies as a significant employer and as a means of
optimal performance. Imagery research has demon- attracting other industries.
strated both positive and negative effects of imagery on The rapid expansion of golf in some areas, for
performance. Taylor and Shaw (2002) demonstrate example Europe, North America, Japan, Australia and
that negative outcome imagery negatively affects both South-East Asia, has required the accumulation of data
confidence and performance in golf. These initial and their analysis by several social and physical
studies confirm many of the findings from other sport (environmental) sciences. Economists, statisticians,
studies and they open the door to future research sociologists, geographers, historians and marketing
examining theories, models and mechanisms impor- and management experts have all made significant
tant for enhancing performance among golfers and contributions to our understanding of the role of golf in
athletes from all sports. society. The lead in collecting and analysing data about
all aspects of the North American golf industry has been
taken by the US National Golf Foundation based in
The golf course Jupiter, Florida (www.ngf.com). A similar role in
Europe has been taken by a commercial company, the
Hand in hand with the growth in golf has come the Golf Research Group (www.golf-research.com).
expansion in the number of golf courses. Research Because of the rapid growth of golf in some parts of
underpinning the need for more golf courses may be the world, many local and regional conferences have
less convincing than golf course developers would wish. addressed social and economic issues associated with
In golf course design, there are ecological concerns this golf boom:
about replicating American style golf courses in other
parts of the world which require imported grasses and . World Scientific Congresses of Golf, St. Andrews,
high chemical maintenance, and golf has called upon 1990, 1994, 1998, 2002Golf science research 759
. The World Golf Forum, Tokyo, 1992 that involves the merging of such diverse disciplines as
. NGF Golf Summits, various dates engineering, soil science, hydrology, horticulture,
wildlife management, agrostology, environmental
The Henley Centre (1997) produced the EMAP Golf science and land planning. The goal in modern golf
Futures Report, which analysed the trends in the British course design is to create an open space on which to
golf market and, in 1999, the US National Golf play golf that is a stable and healthy environment for
Foundation published A Strategic Perspective on the Future people and other natural systems, which can be
of Golf. Although much of the published work on the golf sustained with the fewest possible amounts of inputs
industry has been produced by social scientists working of water, fertilizers, pesticides, fossil fuel and human
in commercial or sponsored organizations, some aca- labour. All this must be done with the smallest budget
demic studies have been undertaken and published in that is practical, in the shortest time-frame, with the
refereed journals (see Proceedings of WSCG). least amount of disturbance to existing or surrounding
In parallel with this body of work has been research environments.
undertaken at the request of governing bodies such as This was not always the case, for during the period
the R&A and USGA. These bodies have been from about 1945 to 1985, golf courses were designed,
concerned with the physical condition of golf courses built and operated without the sensitivity to resources
and, in particular, have responded to the criticisms of and conservation that we see today. In the past 15–20
environmentalists regarding the environmental impact years, a new approach has evolved that uses the
of the management of both existing and new golf commonsense management techniques of 100 years
facilities (see publications of USGA, R&A, European ago, combined with the scientific advances of today.
Golf Association Ecology Unit and Proceedings of Issues of design and build where continued research is
WSCG). needed include:
It is not surprising that an industry that uses large
areas of land, often in environmentally sensitive areas, 1. Improved turfgrasses. It is well known that certain
has been required to make use of the scientific knowl- genes can influence certain characteristics of how an
edge of biologists, botanists, chemists, pedologists, organism looks and functions. Transgenetic engineer-
geologists, geomorphologists, hydrologists and civil ing has taken this step further by selecting a gene-
engineers. In many parts of the world, planning laws controlled trait from one genus or species and success-
require environmental impact assessments for all new fully implanting that gene, which, in turn, imparts the
golf developments. desirable expression of that gene on another unrelated
Modern golf facilities require large quantities of water organism. In turfgrasses, this applied research has
if they are to be maintained to a high standard, resulted in grasses of improved drought tolerance, pest
particularly in arid or semi-arid regions. Hydrologists resistance and growth habit.
and water engineers often play a pivotal role in course 2. Recycled water for irrigation. Turfgrasses and soils
design. Irrigation and drainage are often major con- are effective and efficient filter systems for many types
cerns not only to the golf industry but to the wider of effluent water, both industrial and residential. Much
economy. Although water shortage is a major problem more research is needed on how turfgrass–soil com-
in some regions, the effect of increased rainfall due to plexes react to various types of recycled water so as to
climate change is creating major drainage problems in benefit from it properly and most efficiently. Ideally, all
other regions. On the classic coastal links land where courses would use nothing but recycled water, filter and
the game of golf originated, increased coastal erosion is purify it, and then recharge the aquifer below. But
also creating problems. science is a long way from that ideal, although progress
The construction and management of golf facilities is being made in that direction.
requires the scientific knowledge of a team of scientists. 3. Re-adaptive re-use of brownfields. During the
How these experts can be brought together has been twentieth century, many large areas of contaminated
described by Hurdzan (1996). The modern golf soils were created that must be cleaned up to eliminate
industry is a relatively immature industry impinging their health risks. Decontaminating these areas can be
on a wide range of human activities. It sits at the costly. Many pose only mild risks if exposure to them is
interface of the physical and social sciences and there is not continuous, yet they have little commercial or
great scope for future research. residential value. However, putting golf courses on
these sites would not only provide an acceptable
measure, but it would preserve open space, create safe
Golf course design
wildlife habitat and still have commercial value.
Golf course design is much more than planting grass 4. Habitat and wildlife on golf courses. Intuitively, golf
and placing hazards. It is a complex planning process courses are, or could be, wildlife sanctuaries in760 Farrally et al.
otherwise urban or intensively used agricultural areas.
Management of turf soils for golf
The problem is that most of the successes that are
observed are more happenstance than proper planning Many soils found on golf courses have been degraded by
and management. Research is needed to establish how natural processes or human activities and can possess
to develop a complete and complex habitat for man- physical, chemical and biological limitations that make it
made environments. Golf courses can become living difficult to establish and maintain turf. Low organic
laboratories or wildlife systems that may directly matter, poor soil structure, root restrictive layers,
translate to how other property owners can improve extremes of pH and a build-up of salts can create
their land and habitat qualities. unfavourable conditions for root growth by impacting
5. Engineering and construction techniques. Advances in water storage and use, aeration and nutrient availability
engineering, material application and handling are (USDA/ARS, 2002). Many new golf courses are
required to make a scientific discovery into a truly constructed on abandoned sites such as landfills,
practical and applicable advance. Systems needing industrial wastelands, gravel pits or mine spoils, challen-
constant improvement include irrigation and pumping ging our ability to provide high-quality turf for the game
plants, mowers, dry material and spray applicators, of golf. Constructed soils, generally a mixture of sand,
injection or aerification equipment, internal combus- soil and organic or inorganic amendments, are used on
tion engines and alternative fuels, GPS/GIS mapping, golf course greens and tees, and we need a better
as well as monitoring and testing of plant and animal understanding of these soils to provide the best combina-
tissue, soil, water and air. tion of materials to produce cost-effective playing
surfaces that support low-input, high-quality turf.
Many of the by-products of our farms, cities and
Turfgrass germplasm enhancement
industries can have considerable value as soil amend-
The quality and stress tolerance of turfgrass are ments for golf course construction, course renovation
products of the environment, management practices and soil modification. Animal wastes, crop residues
and genetic potential of the grass plant. In some from farms, biosolids and other solid wastes from cities,
cases, major limitations for quality turf are stress and appropriate by-products from industry can improve
effects, many of which can be modified or controlled conditions for turf growth by supplying nutrients,
through plant improvement. Also, turfgrasses are increasing soil organic matter, improving soil physical
needed that conserve natural resources and reduce properties and creating a more favourable environment
the cost of golf course maintenance by requiring less for beneficial soil organisms (USDA/ARS, 2002). Many
water, pesticides and fertilizers. Today, these goals of these materials also would be useful in creating
are being achieved through plant selection, long-term synthetic soils with appropriate characteristics for
breeding programmes and the application of biotech- greens, tees and other turf areas. Research is needed
nology. Collections are being made throughout the to assess the benefits and risks of these materials and to
world to bring beneficial genes into breeding develop management practices to use these materials
programmes, and non-traditional turfgrass species effectively for golf course construction and mainte-
and inter-species hybrids with unique stress toler- nance. Among the current research needs (Nus and
ances are being bred to achieve appropriate turf Kenna, 2001) in this category are the following:
characteristics for golf. Additional knowledge is
needed to understand the physiological and genetic . materials testing procedures for putting green root
mechanisms of plant adaptation for turf, for use in zones and bunker sands;
screening and breeding programmes. Among the . alternative construction methods and materials;
characteristics required in particular by many turf- . effects of irrigation water quality on the selection of
grass species are: construction materials;
. development of a rating system for calcareous sands,
. ability to survive high and low temperature extremes; correlated with long-term field performance and
. reduced need for pesticides by increasing resistance potential for degradation;
to disease, insects, nematodes and weed encroach- . evaluation of various organic matter sources and
ment; inorganic amendments;
. traffic tolerance; . development of a rating system for organic amend-
. reduced requirements for mowing, irrigation and ments for sand-based putting greens, correlated with
fertilization; potential long-term effects on profile function;
. tolerance of non-potable or saline/sodic waters; . evaluation of biostimulants, humic acid products,
. tolerance of poor-quality soils; microbial brews and various ‘growth supplements’
. shade tolerance, especially in warm season grasses. for golf turf use;Golf science research 761
. soil-based green construction; mitigation of water pollution, dust control, recreation,
. greens/surrounds interface construction and manage- and so on (Beard and Green, 1994), primary play
ment; areas on golf courses are among the most intensively
. how to amend various-textured native soils for use as managed turf areas in the world. With substantial
tees (and possibly low-cost greens). inputs of water, nutrients and pesticides common on
many golf courses, there is broad public concern
about the use of these inputs and their effects on
Golf course water sources and use
people and the environment. A significant amount of
The proper use of irrigation water is a key component of research has been done to quantify the potential
healthy turf and has a direct effect on pesticide and leaching and run-off of nutrients and pesticides from
nutrient losses in the environment. New and improved golf courses (Kenna and Snow, 2000). This research
technologies are needed to monitor turf stresses and to has shown, in general, that when selected and applied
schedule irrigation to achieve good turf quality and properly, most pesticides and fertilizer nutrients have
negligible environmental impact. These technologies a negligible impact on the environment. When not
include remote sensing, soil and water sensors, and selected and applied properly, substantial pollution
more refined simulation models to describe evapotran- can occur, primarily in the form of surface run-off.
spiration replacement needs on a site-specific basis. Most of the research done to determine leaching and
Irrigation efficiency is an essential component of run-off potential of pesticides and nutrients from golf
water use management. Improved technologies are courses has been done on controlled plot areas on
required to ensure uniform application of water, taking university experiment stations. There is a real need to
into account the terrain and its site-specific needs. conduct additional research on a watershed scale to
Drought avoidance and drought tolerance information assess the true impact of golf courses on nearby streams
is needed for newly introduced turf species, and for and lakes. Data from both plot studies and watershed
cultivars of many of the currently used turf species. studies are needed to calibrate and validate computer
Water use rates can vary by 30% or more among models used by scientists and government agencies to
cultivars of some species. predict pesticide and nutrient run-off and leaching
Recycled or effluent water from municipal sources potential from turfgrass sites.
and brackish waters from various sources are being used Beyond human concerns, pollutants can have a
in greater amounts each year. It is estimated that about significant impact on non-target organisms in streams,
1500 golf courses in the USA alone consume effluent lakes and wetland areas. Birds, mammals, butterflies,
water from municipal supplies. Some of these sources pollinators and other insects, too, can be unintended
contain contaminants such as pathogens, heavy metals victims of pesticide applications. Often the effects are
and organic compounds, some of which could be a not lethal, but much more needs to be known about
threat to humans and the environment, affecting these sub-lethal effects and the pesticide concentrations
ground water and surface waters, or accumulating in that can cause them.
the soil to the detriment of the turf. Consequently, the
movement and accumulation of these contaminants in
Pest control and management
the atmosphere, plant tissues, soil profile and ground
water must be investigated further (USDA/ARS, 2002). Diseases, weeds, insects and nematodes have long been
With the availability of potable water becoming problems for golf course managers, requiring the heavy
increasingly limited, the use of saline waters is use of pesticides and large expenditures for control.
becoming more commonplace and can impact the Reliance on pesticides is not a sustainable method of
growth and quality of the turf as well as the physical control, given the public attitude towards pesticides in
properties of the soil. Research is needed to develop general and the removal of many pesticides from the
more salt-tolerant varieties of grasses and to establish market. A growing trend is the banning of particular
new irrigation regimes designed to protect the soil pesticides by states, counties and local municipalities.
and ground water supplies. Turf growth models are Additionally, although newly marketed pesticides are
needed to predict salt stress before damage is generally more pest-specific, less toxic to humans and
observed. non-target organisms, and shorter-lived in the environ-
ment, pathogen resistance to these pesticides is
occurring at an alarming rate.
Effects of golf courses on people and the
Methods for managing pest populations and develop-
environment
ing biological or non-chemical controls are clearly
Although there are many benefits of turfgrasses in our needed. Unfortunately, with but a few notable excep-
environment, such as erosion control, cooling effects, tions, biological controls have been frustratingly ineffec-762 Farrally et al.
tive in the field or are too costly to compete with synthetic contributor to increasing distance because of limits
pesticides at the present time. Multifaceted methods to imposed by the rules and, ultimately, by the laws of
manage pest populations, including appropriate fertiliza- physics. The principal factor giving rise to longer
tion, cultivation, irrigation and other cultural practices driving by professionals will continue to be increasing
can help keep population levels in an acceptable range. A clubhead speed, largely a result of bigger, stronger,
thorough knowledge of the biology and behaviour of fitter and technically better players. In the last 25
insect and fungal organisms is badly needed, and we are years, the clubhead speeds of elite players have
just at the beginning stages of understanding these factors typically increased by 8–10%, which converts to 10–
for many turfgrass pests and diseases. 15 yards (* 9–13.5 m) and this progression may well
As noted earlier, the development of new turfgrass continue. This will come about primarily from
cultivars that exhibit resistance to insects, nematodes application of sound biomechanics, as we are close
and pathogens is one of the best strategies, but it can to the limits imposed by the laws of physics in club
take many years to develop this resistance using and ball technology.
traditional plant breeding. Eventually, biotechnology Interest in the human factors influencing golf
and genetic transformation may be able to quicken this performance has accelerated markedly in recent times,
process. Even so, in the case of disease resistance, and it is from future research here that we are most
resistant cultivars often become susceptible after a few likely to raise performance standards. There is much
years due to genetic shifts in the pathogen, requiring an still to learn in the search for the perfect swing, or the
ongoing effort to develop new resistant cultivars. perfect swing to fit the individual characteristics of each
golfer. It is disappointing how little we have learnt about
the biomechanics of the swing in the last three decades.
Integrated turfgrass management
Truly understanding the golf swing will benefit the
Golf course turf requires management practices that recreational golfer equally as much as the professional,
provide high-quality playing surfaces while conserving and may lead to reduced drop-out rates from golf
natural resources and protecting the environment. because equipment and coaching will be more closely
Among the research needs in this category (Nus and tailored to the individual’s needs.
Kenna, 2001) are the following: The highest levels of the game have benefited and will
continue to benefit from improved knowledge of the
. develop cultural practices that allow efficient turf- physiological variables affecting performance and the
grass management under combinations of difficult mental skills needed to perform under pressure. We are
conditions, such as poor-quality soil, shade, marginal producing golfers who have the physical capacity to hit
water quality and heavy traffic; the ball further and the mental strength to build and
. determine the range of adaptability and stress maintain a good score. At all levels of the game, we are
tolerance of turfgrass species and cultivars; developing improved teaching methods.
. evaluate direct and interacting effects of several The golf boom in the latter part of the twentieth
cultural practices – such as mowing, irrigation, century was the trigger to greatly extend our knowledge
fertilization, cultivation, compost utilization – on of how to build and maintain courses to the highest
programmes to control pests and reduce organic standards despite hostile environments. Golf has both
matter accumulation (thatch); stimulated agronomy research and benefited from it.
. evaluate direct and indirect cultural and environ- The immediate research needs include much improved
mental effects on population dynamics of turfgrass demographic information to inform our decisions on
species, ecotypes and/or cultivars; the growth of the game, and environmental research to
. investigate pest management practices such as clarify the effect of new courses on natural habitats.
biological, cultural and mechanical controls, the
application of turf management practices using IPM
and reduced inputs, and pest modelling and fore- Acknowledgement
casting.
The authors acknowledge the support of the World Scientific
Congress of Golf Trust in the writing of this review.
Conclusion
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