Harnessing values to save the rhinoceros: insights from Namibia
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Harnessing values to save the rhinoceros: insights
from Namibia
J E F F R . MUNTIFERING, W A Y N E L . L I N K L A T E R , S U S A N G . C L A R K , S I M S O N ! U R I - ≠ K H O B
JOHN K. KASAONA, KENNETH /UISEB, PIERRE DU PREEZ, KAPOI KASAONA
PETRUS BEYTELL, JERMAIN KETJI, BOAS HAMBO, MATTHEW A. BROWN
C H R I S T H O U L E S S , S H A Y N E J A C O B S and A N D R E W T . K N I G H T
Abstract The rate at which the poaching of rhinoceroses has contexts. A case study from Namibia demonstrates how
escalated since poses a threat to the long-term persist- coupling a locally devised rhinoceros monitoring regime
ence of extant rhinoceros populations. The policy response with joint-venture tourism partnerships as a legitimate
has primarily called for increased investment in military- land use can reconcile individual values represented within
style enforcement strategies largely based upon simple eco- a diverse stakeholder group and manifests as both formal
nomic models of rational crime. However, effective solutions and informal community enforcement. We suggest a social
will probably require a context-specific, stakeholder-driven learning approach as a means by which international, na-
mix of top-down and bottom-up mechanisms grounded in tional and regional governance can recognize and promote
theory that represents human behaviour more realistically. solutions that may help empower local communities to
Using a problem-oriented approach we illustrate in theory implement rhinoceros management strategies that align
and practice how community-based strategies that explicitly individual values with the long-term health of rhinoceros
incorporate local values and institutions are a foundation populations.
for combating rhinoceros poaching effectively in specific
Keywords Community-based conservation, conservation
tourism, incentives, poaching, policy, rhinoceros, values
JEFF R. MUNTIFERING*† (Corresponding author) Minnesota Zoo, 13000 Zoo Blvd,
Apple Valley, Minnesota, 55124 USA. E-mail jeff.muntifering@state.mn.us
WAYNE L. LINKLATER‡ Centre for Biodiversity and Restoration Ecology, School of
Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Introduction
SUSAN G. CLARK School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Institution for
Social and Policy Studies, Yale University, New Haven, USA, and Northern
Rockies Conservation Cooperative, Jackson, USA
SIMSON !URI-≠KHOB Save the Rhino Trust, Swakopmund, Namibia
T he rate at which the poaching of rhinoceroses has
escalated (Knight, ) since poses a threat to the
long-term persistence of extant rhinoceros populations
JOHN K. KASAONA Integrated Rural Development and Nature Conservation, (Duffy et al., ). Resurgent global trade and unprecedented
Windhoek, Namibia
black market prices for rhinoceros horn are implicated as the
KENNETH /UISEB, PIERRE DU PREEZ and PETRUS BEYTELL Ministry of Environment
and Tourism, Windhoek, Namibia major drivers of the killing (Ferreira & Okita-Ouma, ;
KAPOI KASAONA Anabeb Conservancy, Kamanjab, Namibia
Biggs et al., ). Although rhinoceros conservation scientists
and practitioners promote a variety of strategies to safeguard
JERMAIN KETJI Wilderness Safaris, Windhoek, Namibia
the rhinoceros (Duffy et al., ), military-style law enforce-
BOAS HAMBO Conservancy Safaris Namibia, Swakopmund, Namibia
ment and demand reduction (Ferreira & Okita-Ouma, ;
MATTHEW A. BROWN The Nature Conservancy, Africa Regional Office, Arusha, Biggs, ; Challender & MacMillan, ; IUCN et al.,
Tanzania
) have dominated the response to protect Africa’s remain-
CHRIS THOULESS Conservancy Development Support Services, World Wildlife
Fund, Windhoek, Namibia
ing , white rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum and ,
black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis. Despite courageous efforts
SHAYNE JACOBS Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology,
Stellenbosch University, Matieland, South Africa to combat poaching, and some positive trends in end-user be-
ANDREW T. KNIGHT§ Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, haviour (Coghlan, ), rhinoceros poaching rates continue
Silwood Park Campus, Ascot, UK to rise, with a reported % increase across Africa during
*Also at: Save the Rhino Trust, Swakopmund, Namibia – (Standley & Emslie, ). We investigated what
†Also at: Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Stellenbosch and how community-based strategies make military-style pro-
University, Matieland, South Africa
‡Also at: Department of Zoology, Centre for African Conservation Ecology, tection more effective but also provide innovative, longer-term
Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa solutions that are more resilient to the changing type and mag-
§Also at: Department of Botany, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port nitude of threat. We use the Namibian experience to make a
Elizabeth, South Africa, and ARC Centre of Excellence in Environmental
Decisions, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia case for rhinoceroses and other wildlife as a legitimate land use
Received January . Revision requested March . that embodies both collective and individual values, creating
Accepted June . First published online September . the social foundation that enforcement-based strategies
Oryx, 2017, 51(1), 98–105 © 2015 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605315000769
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605315000769Saving the rhinoceros 99
require to be successful. This is preferable to the prioritization require a shift in the way practitioners orient themselves
of military-style strategies, and more successful. Although we to natural resource management problems, and a broaden-
affirm that effective and reliable rhinoceros protection should ing of perspective. Motivational instruments are fundamen-
be supported by governmental enforcement, we illustrate both tal in fostering positive changes in local attitudes and
in theory and practice that investing in community-based behaviours that align with conservation objectives and fa-
strategies that are founded explicitly on local values and rights, cilitate collective action (Berkes, ). Whereas the
and facilitated through locally devised institutions, can military-style approach to governance typically does not en-
improve our collective efforts to combat rhinoceros poaching. rich or motivate local people, illicit trade and organized
crime often do, to the extent that marginal increases in se-
curity investment and effectiveness are unlikely to be a sig-
What is the problem? nificant deterrent; for example, a sworn affidavit from a
poaching case in north-west Namibia indicates that poach-
Rhinoceros poaching is a complex problem (Rittel & Webber, ing syndicates offer up to three times the mean annual
; Brown et al., ) that is interconnected with other pro- household income (National Planning Commission, )
blems across multiple scales, making solutions elusive. for a single set of rhinoceros horns. Models of speculative
Military-style protection strategies focus narrowly on poach- behaviour suggest that when in situ population numbers ap-
ing (Ferreira & Okita-Ouma, ) and often cause anger, re- proach the minimum viable population size (as is the case
sentment and a sense of disenfranchisement among local with the black rhinoceros) it is more profitable for buyers
people (Dowie, ). This approach does not contextualize to collude by employing a ‘bank on extinction’ strategy
the problem, and reinforces fortress conservation, a product than to reduce consumption. Banking on extinction en-
of Africa’s late-colonial and independence history that re- courages an increase in poaching to extirpate the species
served wild areas primarily for European leisure activities in the wild while achieving a private stockpile monopoly
(Adams & Hulme, ; Brockington, ). Military-style scenario to maximize returns (Mason et al., ). Thus,
protection, which is sometimes promoted by transnational without appropriate incentives to motivate compliance
conservation organizations (Dowie, ), tends to reinforce with government-imposed regulation and conservation ob-
the benefits of biodiversity for powerful local and internation- jectives it is not surprising that in most cases local commu-
al elites. Fortress conservation has had significant political, nities are unable or unwilling to stem the tide of organized
social and cultural effects on indigenous people, including re- criminal poaching, and are sometimes complicit in poach-
stricted access to, or exclusion from, both policy processes ing activity. Lasting solutions depend on the availability of
and areas important for their livelihood and cultural prac- adequate resources, and changing the behaviour of local
tices, and sometimes even physical relocation (Dowie, people in a manner that promotes rhinoceros conservation.
). The erosion of culture, language and ultimately The poaching problem is often framed as a war against
human dignity has resulted in retaliatory illegal hunting criminals, with response strategies seeking to catch poachers
and other unsustainable use of resources, often referred to (Neumann, ). We suggest reframing the problem
by conservationists as poaching (Sullivan & Homewood, through two pragmatic questions: () What mix of instru-
; Dowie, ). Thus, the response to conflict with ments, incentives and institutions could maximize the va-
local people, who are typically framed by conservationists lues local people attach to conserving the rhinoceros? ()
as being part of the problem, has often been to tighten control Who decides how rhinoceroses are managed? This framing
through more weapons, fences and fines (Dowie, ). This shifts the focus from militaristic to community-based ap-
approach has resulted in mistrust and a sense of alienation proaches, acknowledging the complex systems in which
among local people, and established barriers that compro- multiple stakeholders operate. Solutions emanating from
mised local support for conservation; for example, resettle- this approach will promote strategies that keep poaching
ment plans for communities residing in Mozambique’s from becoming a normative behaviour. We make a case
Limpopo National Park caused anger and distrust (Dressler for initiating behavioural change in local communities by
& Büscher, ; Milgroom & Spierenburg, ) and may developing an economic and socio-political relationship be-
have contributed to the upsurge in poaching in neighbouring tween the rhinoceros and local communities that harnesses
South Africa’s Kruger National Park. In some cases, measures human values to deliver greater return on investment for
to increase militarization of government-led enforcement rhinoceros conservation initiatives.
and anti-poaching activity have undermined the efforts of
conservationists working to build trust and cooperation
with communities (IUCN et al., ). Behavioural change: more than just deterrence
The social injustices of fortress conservation have inhib-
ited multi-stakeholder responses to the poaching problem. In addition to detection and prevention, military-style
Addressing these injustices in the search for solutions will enforcement attempts to change behaviour by means of
Oryx, 2017, 51(1), 98–105 © 2015 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605315000769
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605315000769100 J. R. Muntifering et al.
coercion, in the belief that threats and punishment will deter theory (Stern et al., ), and insights from conservation
rule-breaking behaviour. Knowingly or not, these strategies psychology on community-based social marketing
are based on a simple model of rational crime; that is, crime (McKenzie-Mohr, ) and pro-environmental behaviour,
results when an individual chooses to contravene rules including bounded rationality, willpower and self-interest
where the benefits are perceived to be greater than the (Steg & Vlek, ; Shogren, ). These may be applied to
costs of their rule-breaking behaviour (Becker, ). understand why poaching occurs and to design more effective
When applied to rhinoceros poaching, this model assumes and cost-efficient strategies for rhinoceros conservation.
that poachers consider the anticipated financial benefits dir- Social capital is also critical to the power and continuity
ectly against the risk of being caught and the severity of po- of social values and norms. Trust, cooperation and mutual
tential punishment (Milner-Gulland & Leader-Williams, support provide the foundation for the civil discourse
). More recent expansions of the model explicitly in- required to secure solutions in the common interest
corporate a poacher’s ability to calculate and trade-off the (Putnam, ) and make values and norms explicit, agreed
benefits of poaching against the likelihood of being shot and observed. Social values, norms and capital commonly
and killed (Messer, ). However, observations and ex- explain pro-environmental behaviour and collective action
perimentation suggest that human behaviour, including (Ostrom, ). Coercive deterrence of illicit behaviour
acts of dishonesty, is typically not an outcome of a simple, does not harness the values and norms of local communities
rational cost–benefit analysis (Kahneman, ; Ariely, ; or have positive outcomes for social capital; for example, in-
Shogren, ). carcerated community members can reduce social capital by
Criminal and dishonest behaviour in general is a product breaking relationships or creating financial dependencies
of influences more complex and fundamental to an indivi- that may motivate retribution and retaliatory action.
dual’s decision making than those comprising a purely ra- Strategies that recognize individual and communal values,
tional economic cost-to-benefit trade-off. Values are the harness normative behaviour, and invest in social capital
basic medium of exchange in all human interactions and are likely to hold greater promise for changing and sustain-
underline the things and events that people desire and de- ing pro-rhinoceros behaviour.
mand (Lasswell, ). People seek to shape and share values
through exchanges structured on the norms embedded
within societal institutions (Lasswell & Holmberg, ), Increasing local intolerance to poaching
which have a significant influence on behaviour (Keane
et al., ; Kahler & Gore, ). Relationships, norms Top-down rule making and enforcement that ignores local
and values reduce the likelihood of individuals acting in norms and institutions can produce negative outcomes,
their short-term self-interest (Ostrom, ). Mattson particularly where government and law enforcement offi-
et al. () provide an overview within a natural resource cials lack the necessary resources for effective implementa-
management and policy context of two dominant value con- tion (Lejano et al., ). Conversely, monitoring and
cept schemes (Lasswell, ; Schwartz & Bilsky, ), with enforcement systems that are devised and build capacity
reference to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Maslow, ). at the local level have been found to be more successful
Each scheme has its own merits but we adopt Lasswell’s over longer time periods (Berkes et al., ; Ostrom,
policy-oriented value concept because it creates an explicit ). Military-style responses are understandable and
linkage between values and institutions, which we feel is necessary but could deliver more effective conservation if
critical in the context of rhinoceros conservation. they were motivated by and incorporated local values. A
Lasswell’s value classification states human motivations balance between top-down military-style strategies and
are underpinned by personal, group and institutional values bottom-up community-based mechanisms is needed to
and can be categorized, regardless of age, gender, nationality ensure behaviour in the common interest prevails over in-
or culture, as power, wealth, respect, well-being, affection, dividuals’ short-term financial gains. Fundamental to this
rectitude, skills or intelligence (Lasswell, ; Clark, rebalancing is the need for our understanding of human
), and people use these base values to accumulate behaviour to be applied within a practical decision making
other sought-after values through institutions that use and framework. Engaging established frameworks from the
have an impact on resources (Lasswell, ). Changing policy sciences can provide a comprehensive understand-
how the rhinoceros is valued, while developing or strength- ing of rhinoceros poaching across multiple temporal and
ening local institutions that embody these values, can be- spatial scales (Clark, ).
come the basis for a shift in social norms, even after Understanding the individual and community values that
rhinoceros poaching has become a normative behaviour. motivate pro-conservation behaviour is central to solving
Other approaches that may be used to understand the natural resource management problems. Common-interest
complex factors that drive human behaviour include the the- solutions require that resources (e.g. rhinoceros horn) are
ory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, ), value–belief–norm used and managed through local institutions, which is a
Oryx, 2017, 51(1), 98–105 © 2015 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605315000769
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605315000769Saving the rhinoceros 101
critical factor in reducing over-exploitation, excluding rov- government, local communities, NGOs and, more recently,
ing bandits (Ostrom, ; Berkes et al., ) and mobiliz- private-sector tourism operators, based on a recognition
ing local support for rhinoceros conservation. Thus, an and understanding of local values, perspectives and desired
optimal combination of instruments, incentives and institu- outcomes for rhinoceros conservation (Hearn et al., ).
tions that promote pro-rhinoceros behaviour should ensure Namibia’s community-oriented approach has helped to in-
that community values and the institutions within which stil in local communities a sense of ownership and accept-
they are shaped and shared are maintained or enhanced. ance of the rhinoceros, despite all black rhinoceroses being
owned by the state (!Uri-≠Khob, ).
In the innovative Rhino Custodianship Programme
Namibia’s practice-based approach established by Namibia’s Ministry of Environment and
Tourism spearheaded a large-scale initiative to achieve bio-
Namibia’s community-based natural resource management logical management and rural development goals by restor-
programme was founded and formalized in the mid s ing the black rhinoceros to its historical rangelands while
following a series of socio-ecological surveys with residents meeting an emerging demand from local communities to
of communal land, and policy reform that would return engage in rhinoceros tourism (!Uri-≠Khob et al., ).
rights over wildlife and tourism to these residents through This provided an opportunity to strengthen existing local
the establishment of a common property regime called a con- values and institutions that supported rhinoceros conserva-
servancy (Jones & Murphree, ). Based on Ostrom’s de- tion, demonstrated by the government’s willingness to share
sign principles for effective, sustainable common property key values identified by communities, including power
natural resource management institutions (Jones, ), (through the establishment of co-management institutions
Namibia’s community-based natural resource management that have granted custodial rights to landholders or commu-
framework seeks to create conditions that promote pro- nal conservancies that wish to utilize the rhinoceros for
conservation behaviour by rural communities. This is tourism on their land), wealth (through rights for local peo-
achieved primarily through provision of property rights ple to benefit from non-consumptive use of rhinoceroses,
and incentives through locally accrued and distributed bene- without any requirement to share profits with central gov-
fits from wildlife and tourism (MET, ). Benefits are typ- ernment) and respect (through assigning joint responsibil-
ically realized in power-sharing or financial terms whereby ity for local conservation activities). Other values sought by
rural residents registered with a gazetted conservancy receive local people, notably skills, knowledge and well-being, have
clearly defined, conditional user rights over wildlife and tour- been fulfilled through partnerships with local and inter-
ism development (Jones et al., ). These devolved rights national NGOs, and with tourism operators that have con-
have been used to help secure significant local income and tributed towards rhinoceros conservation, especially
jobs. In communal conservancies received NAD through co-financing rhinoceros monitoring. Since the re-
,, (c. USD . million) and facilitated , jobs form of Namibia’s community-based conservation policy
through joint ventures with conservancies (NACSO, in the mid s (Owen-Smith, ), and the adoption
). To date, conservancies have been registered in and expansion of joint-venture tourism enterprises, the rhi-
Namibia, incorporating .% of the population (. , noceros population has more than doubled (Beytell &
people) and .% of the land area (c. million ha; Muntifering, ) and sustained consistent positive growth
NACSO, ). Although not without criticism (Sullivan, rates (Brodie et al., ) despite persisting almost entirely
; Hoole, ), these conservancies have probably on formally unprotected lands. Although % of the rhi-
contributed to a decrease in poaching (Owen-Smith, ) noceros population persists on communal conservancy
and a general widespread increase in wildlife on communal land, only of the confirmed incidents of poaching in
land, including threatened mammals such as the black-faced occurred in these areas (Muntifering et al., ).
impala Aepyceros melampus petersi, Hartmann’s mountain Designing a tourism product that serves as an effective
zebra Equus zebra hartmannae, cheetah Acinonyx jubatus, community-based conservation mechanism requires recon-
lion Panthera leo and black rhinoceros (IUCN, ; ciling the individual values of a diverse group of stake-
NACSO, ). holders, in particular those of local communities. The
Collaborative efforts to establish local value-based insti- rhinoceros tourism model developed in north-west
tutions that secure the common interest in conserving the Namibia has evolved through learning what approaches
black rhinoceros were initiated formally in north-west are effective in practice, and through an inclusive and com-
Namibia in the early s (Owen-Smith, ) and in- prehensive decision making process. Aligned with conserva-
cluded a locally devised and managed auxiliary game tion tourism principles (Buckley, ), best practices have
guard system (Loutit & Owen-Smith, ). A series of been developed to minimize disturbance of rhinoceroses,
stakeholder engagement workshops helped strengthen the maintain tourist satisfaction, and sustain sufficient profit
foundation for long-term strategic partnerships between to produce net conservation benefits. Allowing local
Oryx, 2017, 51(1), 98–105 © 2015 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605315000769
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605315000769102 J. R. Muntifering et al.
trackers to showcase their tracking skills and local knowl- prototypes will help facilitate the identification of best
edge has instilled a sense of pride in traditional skills and practices (Hohl & Clark, ), quantify causal effects
rhinoceros protection. In one conservancy, benefits from (Ferraro & Hanauer, ), and apply lessons learned to
rhinoceros tourism have significantly improved local atti- evolving contexts.
tudes towards rhinoceroses (/Uiseb, ), and intolerance
of poaching has contributed towards formal and informal
community enforcement. In December a rhinoceros Let the locals lead
poacher was identified, apprehended, arrested and had a
firearm and horns confiscated within hours of the discov- Understanding local perspectives and values is fundamental
ery and immediate reporting of the carcass by a local farmer to solving complex natural resource management pro-
near the north-east boundary of the Palmwag Tourism blems effectively (Clark, ). Yet the top-down command
Concession Area. Tourism initiatives currently finance on- and control approach, with associated emphasis on
going monitoring of % of Namibia’s north-west free- military-style regulatory and enforcement strategies, con-
ranging rhinoceroses. Of the confirmed cases of rhi- tinues to drive the discourse in the search for solutions to
noceros poaching that have occurred in north-west poaching (Biggs, ; Challender & MacMillan, ).
Namibia during –, none were in an area where rhi- We recognize that law enforcement is critical to effective
noceros tourism is practised, or in a conservancy wildlife prevention of wildlife crime but our experience in
tourism area with permanent activity and direct benefit- Namibia suggests that bolstering investments that seek to
sharing agreements between the private sector operator engage and empower local communities in rhinoceros pro-
and the host conservancy. tection efforts will probably yield greater returns than con-
As the demand for rhinoceros tourism opportunities in- tinuing to focus narrowly on fighting fire with fire. However,
creases it will become essential to design and implement shifting our priorities will probably require a reassessment
benefit-sharing mechanisms that ensure security, quality of how we orient ourselves to the poaching problem
monitoring, and community support for rhinoceroses. and the theories we apply towards devising strategies. To
One promising policy intervention that has emerged do this we need to unlearn much of what traditional eco-
through an extended social context mapping of local nomic theory and the simple model of rational crime have
values (Clark, ) has been the development of a taught us regarding how people think and behave, by
conservancy-led rhinoceros ranger initiative. Since acknowledging the evidence, embracing new insights on
rangers have been appointed by and accountable to com- human decision making from behavioural economics and
munal conservancies. These Conservancy Rhino Rangers applying them to conservation problems (Cowling, ).
have been provided with training, state-of-the art monitor- By refocusing from a simplistic cost–benefit world view to
ing equipment and field gear, and performance-based incorporating cognitive, emotional and social factors, in
bonus payments to improve the quantity and quality of particular values and institutions, to drive behavioural
conservancy-led rhinoceros patrols (Muntifering et al., change, longer-term solutions can be developed.
). The number of trained, equipped rhinoceros moni- We have argued for the role of values, norms, social cap-
toring personnel in Namibia’s north-west has tripled since ital and institutions in changing the pay-off structures of
and the number of conservancies actively engaged in wildlife crime, and illustrated its application in north-west
monitoring has increased twelve-fold; in there were Namibia. Although much of the theory is universally trans-
, ranger patrol days and rhinoceros sightings by ran- ferable in terms of both location and target species, it should
gers in the participating conservancies. be noted that this case study is context-specific and may be
The sustainability of the initiative will depend on an in- influenced by contextual factors such as the region’s high
stitutional arrangement ensuring that the benefits from rhi- tourism draw, low human population density, arid and rug-
noceros tourism return to the conservancy. Under a ged terrain less suitable for domestic livestock, and cohesive
user-pays principle the local communities that bear the social and institutional networks. Replication in other loca-
monitoring and opportunity costs of rhinoceros conserva- tions may be confounded by different political, social and
tion would receive royalty payments. The initiative would ecological environments. We therefore emphasize that har-
thus not only enhance the quality and quantity of nessing local community values to save the rhinoceros
community-led monitoring efforts but would also reinforce should not be viewed as a universal panacea for poaching
rhinoceros tourism as a legitimate and profitable land use. but rather as a fundamental factor that provides the neces-
Successful implementation will require an integrated, com- sary social foundation for other policy instruments, incen-
prehensive, inclusive and transparent decision-making pro- tives and institutions (Young & Gunningham, ).
cess that includes planning, open debate, and setting rules Policies that do not engage, empower and benefit local
and guidelines that secure the common interest (Clark, communities living alongside rhinoceroses will have limited
). Rigorous appraisals of contextual, practice-based success. We assert the fundamental importance of letting
Oryx, 2017, 51(1), 98–105 © 2015 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605315000769
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605315000769Saving the rhinoceros 103
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