Historical Dictionary of The Salvation Army
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06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page i
Historical Dictionary of
The Salvation Army
Edited by
Major John G. Merritt
Historical Dictionaries of Religions,
Philosophies, and Movements, No. 68
The Scarecrow Press, Inc.
Lanham, Maryland • Toronto • Oxford
200606-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page ii
SCARECROW PRESS, INC.
Published in the United States of America
by Scarecrow Press, Inc.
A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc.
4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706
www.scarecrowpress.com
PO Box 317
Oxford
OX2 9RU, UK
Copyright © 2006 by Major John G. Merritt
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission
of the publisher.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Historical dictionary of the Salvation Army / edited by John G. Merritt.
p. cm. — (Historical dictionaries of religions, philosophies, and movements;
no. 68)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-8108-5344-7 (hardcover : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-8108-5344-2 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Salvation Army—Dictionaries. I. Merritt, John G. II. Series.
BX9721.3.H57 2006
287.9'603—dc22 2006001049
⬁ ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of
American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper
for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.
Manufactured in the United States of America.06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page iii
In Memoriam
Commissioner Norman S. Marshall Jr. (1920–1995),
mentor in Salvationism
Commissioner Alfred J. Gilliard (1899–1973),
gentle encourager, unassuming guide
Lt.-Colonel William Burrows (1913–1992),
demanding editor, patient teacher
Lt.-Colonel Cyril Barnes (1912–1996),
“father” of Salvation Army archives
and “grandfather” of this volume06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page v
Contents
Series Editor’s Foreword, by Jon Woronoff vii
Foreword by General Shaw Clifton ix
Editor’s Preface xi
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xvii
Chronology xix
Introduction xxxi
THE DICTIONARY 1
Appendixes
A. The Generals of The Salvation Army 671
B. The Chiefs of the Staff of The Salvation Army 672
C. Wives of the Generals of The Salvation Army 673
D. Children of William and Catherine Booth 674
E. Doctrines of The Salvation Army 675
F. International Spiritual Life Commission Affirmations 677
G. Ranks and Designations 681
H. Commissioners, 1880–2005 682
I. Recipients of the Order of the Founder, 1920–2005 711
Bibliographical Essay 719
Bibliography 723
Contributor List 793
v06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page vii
Series Editor’s Foreword
It’s amazing how many people are familiar with the soldiers of The Sal-
vation Army. With at least a million adult members and adherents in
more than a hundred countries around the world, these “warriors” are
increasingly present. Their striking uniforms and band accompaniment
are easy to identify. Moreover, they appear where they’re needed most,
whether coming to the aid of victims of natural disasters and warfare or
providing assistance to alcoholics and drug addicts. Yet while they’re
unquestionably familiar, not many who see and hear them know how
The Salvation Army was founded and evolved, why it functions as an
“army,” and what its basic beliefs and goals are.
The purpose of this Historical Dictionary of The Salvation Army is to
educate the public about not only one of the most visible but also one
of the most admired and highly praised religious movements. The in-
troduction places The Salvation Army in a broader context, while the
chronology follows its relatively short but certainly active career. The
dictionary covers a wide range of subjects, with entries on the founders,
early and current leaders, structure, “orders and regulations,” basic be-
liefs, and goals of the organization. Since it went international in
1880—only 15 years after its founding—the Army has spread, estab-
lishing activities in various countries and regions around the world.
Unlike most other volumes in the series, this dictionary was written
by a large number of contributors, specialists in their specific fields or
regions. The general editor, Major John G. Merritt (who also wrote sev-
eral entries), retired in 2001 after spending more than three decades
with The Salvation Army and a total of 12 years as director of the
Southern Historical Center in Atlanta, Georgia. He also wrote for both
Army periodicals and several non-Army publications, served on the ed-
itorial staff of the USA National Publications Department (which in-
cluded being editor of one of the Spanish-language editions of The War
vii06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page viii
viii • SERIES EDITOR’S FOREWORD
Cry), and held pastoral and educational appointments in both the U.S.
and Chile. The names and locations of the more than 150 contributors
can be found at the end of the book. They and Major Merritt have com-
piled a unique reference work not only for those curious about The Sal-
vation Army but also for members of the organization eager to broaden
their knowledge.
—Jon Woronoff
Series Editor06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page ix
Foreword by General Shaw Clifton
When God raised up The Salvation Army He knew precisely what He
was doing. Few human eyes, however, would have foreseen all that
would ensue from William Booth’s moment of youthful self-offering
and abandonment to the will of God. The Army is still a work in
progress. The story is unfinished.
This splendid volume helps to tell the story to date as it has unfolded
now across three centuries. The Historical Dictionary of The Salvation
Army is crammed with information and has been compiled with con-
siderable scholarship and skill. I record my personal thanks to Major
John Merritt and his international team of writers for a remarkable
achievement.
It is my prayer that this book will be used to God’s glory, and that
readers will be impressed not so much by anything or anyone connected
with the Army, but will instead have cause to reflect upon the matchless
love of God shown in Jesus Christ, a love that still inspires Salvation-
ists on five continents to share the Good News of salvation in Christ and
to reach out compassionately in His Name to those in need.
—General Shaw Clifton
International Leader of The Salvation Army, 2006
ix06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xi
Editor’s Preface
During the final year that my wife and I served in Chicago, Illinois, our
son was a freshman at a large Roman Catholic high school for boys. In
his religion class one of the students asked the teacher, “What is The
Salvation Army?” Then came the hesitating reply: “I think its some-
thing like the YMCA . . . only religious?”
Then we were transferred to Atlanta, Georgia—in the American
South. During a few days of unused vacation time, our family attended
Sunday worship at a nearby United Methodist church in our new neigh-
borhood. Within an hour of arriving home, two visitors from this grow-
ing congregation were sitting in our living room. After exchanging
pleasantries, the couple got to the point: “We would like for you to join
St. Timothy’s Church.” Expressing appreciation for the invitation, I had
to inform them that would not be possible since we were active officers
(ordained clergy) of The Salvation Army. The response was “Oh, that’s
all right, but couldn’t you still become members of our congregation?”
Thus, they were quite surprised when I explained that The Salvation
Army is a distinct denomination.
All this by members in two religious denominations with which The
Salvation Army, in various ways, shares some similarities—a strongly
centralized hierarchical ecclesiastical structure with the former and
common Wesleyan roots with the latter. But these are just two examples
of the misunderstanding and misperception that Salvationists frequently
face in many of the 111 nations around the world in which the Army
flag is flying.
It has been my distinct privilege—first as an active officer, then in
retirement—to be joined by 154 Salvationists from many of these 111 na-
tions in producing a volume that we hope will reduce misperception about
and increase knowledge of the mission and ministry of this movement—
whether by curious readers or serious historians of religion.
xi06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xii
xii • EDITOR’S PREFACE
Although The Salvation Army’s contribution to the Scarecrow Press
series of historical dictionaries would not have been possible without
this large contingent of Army officers and soldiers, my involvement in
this project would also not have been possible apart from the influence
of the four men to whom the volume is dedicated. Three of them—
Commissioner Norman S. Marshall Jr., Commissioner Alfred J.
Gilliard, and Lt.-Colonel William Burrows—I knew quite well; the
fourth, Lt.-Colonel Cyril Barnes, I met on just one occasion and heard
speak only on two others. Commissioner Marshall trained me for offi-
cership and helped me, as a new Salvationist, to understand the spirit of
the Army as no other possibly could have done. Commissioner Gilliard,
an Englishman and the dean of Army editors during his long journalis-
tic career, was the most unassuming person I have ever known—an as-
sessment in which I am far from alone. He took keen interest in my first
appointment, a tiny storefront congregation in Chicago’s inner city, and,
along with many other young officers, gave me my first extended op-
portunities to write for publication. For six wonderful years I served un-
der Lt.-Colonel Burrows, another Englishman, on the USA National
Publications Department; not only was he my superior officer, he was
also a friend and pastor. I deeply miss them all.
No detail of Army history was trivial to Lt.-Colonel Barnes; not much
of it escaped his attention, either. During his various literary appoint-
ments at International Headquarters in London, England, he personally
made the care of historical documents and artifacts his (often lonely ex-
tracurricular) mission. A monument to this fidelity to the Army’s tangi-
ble past is the present International Heritage Centre, now located at the
William Booth College in London. On deposit in the center is his man-
uscript, “The Army A to Z: An Alphabetical History and Statement.”
This unpublished work not only anticipated the Historical Dictionary of
The Salvation Army, it provided information that would have been ex-
tremely difficult to locate, if at all, elsewhere. Of the 368 entries in the
Dictionary, nearly 50 are drawn from this invaluable source.
As the entry by the late General Arnold Brown demonstrates, one of
the sustaining and valued traditions of The Salvation Army is its inter-
nationalism. Thus, I tried to make the scope of the Historical Dictionary
of The Salvation Army as international as possible, both in content and
authorship. Unfortunately, good intentions and sincere efforts do not al-
ways result in full success. I also very much regret that the book was not06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xiii
EDITOR’S PREFACE • xiii
more comprehensive—especially in the area of biography. My sense of
guilt is somewhat lessened by the reality that an already overly long
volume could not accommodate anything more.
Another disappointment: I cannot list all the persons whose help
made possible the completion of my editorial assignment, but I can
mention some: Commissioner John Busby, the territorial commander of
the USA Southern Territory in the earliest stages of the dictionary proj-
ect, suggested that I go to London for initial research at International
Headquarters and the International Heritage Centre—a suggestion he
made a reality. At the beginning of my two weeks in the United King-
dom, Commissioner Alex Hughes (with whom my wife and I served in
Chile in the early 1970s) arranged a very productive consultative meet-
ing with the international zonal secretaries.
Commissioner Busby’s successor, Commissioner Raymond Cooper,
appointed several territorial readers to evaluate and comment on large
sections of the evolving manuscript: Lt.-Colonel W. Edward Laity, Ma-
jor Allen Satterlee, and Major Barry Corbitt. Fortunately, friendship did
not stand in the way of their frankness! These extensive suggestions
were supplemented by several officers and soldiers, American, Cana-
dian, and British, whom I asked to proofread various sections of the vol-
ume: Commissioner Kenneth L. Hodder, Lt.-Colonel Marlene Chase,
Lt.-Colonel Maxwell Ryan, Major Kenneth G. Hodder, and Mr. Gordon
Taylor. Hopefully, all of these persons will be able to detect points in the
text where I incorporated at least some of their suggestions!
I have lost count of the times that the following people located ob-
scure bibliographical references for me: Major Jacqueline Campbell,
Mr. Michael Nagy (who also secured all the photographs and handled
the related technical details), and Ms. Andrea Troxclair, my former col-
leagues at the Southern Historical Center, Atlanta; Major James Bryden,
Mr. Gordon Taylor, Commissioner Karen Thompson, and Mr. John
Hughes, International Heritage Centre, London; and Envoy (Dr.)
George Hazell, OF, Australia Eastern Heritage Centre, Bexley North,
NSW. Mrs. Susan Mitchem and Mr. Scott Bedio of the USA National
Archives and Research Center, Alexandria, Virginia, unearthed much-
needed documents. Colonel Laurence Hay, recently retired executive
secretary to the general, was frequently my initial contact at Interna-
tional Headquarters in the pursuit of a wide range of data. Commis-
sioner Arthur Thompson, now retired from International Headquarters,06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xiv
xiv • EDITOR’S PREFACE
did extensive supplemental research for the appendix on commissioners
from 1880 to 2005.
The several lengthy visits of Mr. Robert Reed, informational services
director at Evangeline Booth College, Atlanta, and Mr. Jeffrey Hayes, a
Nazarene friend, to my home on their own time to restore my word
processor kept my love-hate relationship with computers from degener-
ating into something worse! During the course of our appointments at
the college, Majors Otis Childs and Roy Johnson—frequently at hours
awkward for them!—also pulled me out of several technological jams
into which I had gotten myself.
I am grateful to the International Literary Department and Major Ed-
ward Forster (of which he was then secretary), for permission to adapt
material from the always helpful Salvation Army Year Book (several re-
cent editions) for use in the chronology, the appendix “Recipients of the
Order of the Founder, 1920–2005,” and the essential content of a small
number of dictionary entries and the updating of several others. And for
the patience and prodding of Mr. Jon Woronoff, general editor of the
historical dictionary series, joined in the later stages by his editorial
team at Scarecrow Press, and my wife, Major VaLeta Merritt, for the
past eight years—“thank you” reflects the inadequacy of language.
The preparation of the Historical Dictionary of The Salvation Army
overlapped the administrations of four of the movement’s international
leaders—three of whom also contributed entries. During the prelimi-
nary stage, General Paul A. Rader spent nearly an hour discussing with
me the topic list I had initially drawn up. By the next day I received
from him a very long follow-up letter. Although a few things have been
added, not much has been deleted from his thoughtful suggestions. In
office during the earlier editorial stages, General John Gowans kindly
and affirmatively reviewed the evolving text. General John Larsson
provided encouraging support through writing a recommendation that
appears on the back cover of the book. The contributors to this diction-
ary are honored that the newly elected international leader, General
Shaw Clifton, has written the foreword to our combined effort.
Commissioner Philip D. Needham, territorial commander, and Ma-
jor Robert Bagley, trade secretary, both of the USA Southern Territory,
were particularly helpful during the final prepublication stage of the
dictionary.06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xv
EDITOR’S PREFACE • xv
Because every human event is soon history, I have had to update pe-
riodically several entries—especially the 58 territorial, command, and
regional histories—received over these eight years. I beg indulgence,
since I have been only partially successful in keeping current with some
most recent developments in these geographical areas, particularly dur-
ing the early years of the new millennium. I ask forgiveness for any er-
rors and promise corrections for future editions.
Please note three important matters: First, most of the dictionary en-
tries are followed by the names of their author(s). In a few instances, an
entry has been adapted from or supplemented by The Salvation Army
Year Book through the kind permission of International Headquarters.
Second, prior to 1995 married officers were referred to as Captain and
Mrs. John [surname]; the wife was called Mrs. Captain John or Mary.
Since then, they have been identified as Captains John and Mary [sur-
name]; the wife is now called Captain Mary, or, if personally preferred,
Captain (Mrs.) Mary. To be historically accurate within the context of a
specific entry, both forms of designation are used for the same officers
in many articles. Third, the rank of an officer is the one he or she had at
the time of reference.
Thus it is with a deep sense of indebtedness, gratitude, and expecta-
tion that I bid this labor of love bon voyage on the 40th anniversary of
my soldiership in the unique movement known as The Salvation Army.
—Major John G. Merritt
Photo credits: Photo of Commissioner Shaw Clifton, on page 13 of the
photospread, courtesy The Salvation Army, UK Territory; photo by
Adam Green. Photo of the High Council, on page 14 of the photospread,
courtesy The Salvation Army International Headquarters; photo by
Geoff Crawford. All other photos courtesy The Salvation Army Inter-
national Heritage Centre.06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xvii
Acronyms and Abbreviations
AB Advisory Board
ACG Advisory Council to the General
ARC Adult Rehabilitation Center
A-ICO All-India Central Office
ASA American Salvation Army
B/M Bandmaster
CC Corps Cadet
CCUSA Commissioners’ Conference (U.S.)
CFOT College for Officer Training
CHQ Command Headquarters
CM The Christian Mission
COS The Chief of the Staff
CS Chief Secretary
CS-M Corps Sergeant-Major
DC Divisional Commander
DHQ Divisional Headquarters
GCC General’s Consultative Council
HL Home League
HOD Handbook of Doctrine
ICO International College for Officers
IDC International Doctrine Council
IHQ International Headquarters
IS International Secretary
ITC International Training College
JS Junior Soldier
LO Local Officer
LOM League of Mercy
MSS Men’s Social Services
MSSC Men’s Social Service Center
xvii06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xviii
xviii • ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
NC National Commander
NCS National Chief Secretary
O&R Orders and Regulations
OC Officer Commanding
OF Order of the Founder
OTC Officer Training College
SA The Salvation Army
SAN/MF Salvation Army Nurses’/Medical Fellowship
SAROA Salvation Army Retired Officers’ Association
SAROL Salvation Army Retired Officers’ League
SASF Salvation Army Students’ Fellowship
SAWSO Salvation Army World Service Office
SAYB The Salvation Army Year Book
SFOT School for Officers’ Training
S/L Songster Leader
TSA The Soldiers’ Armoury
TC Territorial Commander
THQ Territorial Headquarters
USO United Service Organizations
VOA Volunteers of America
WC The War Cry
WCBC William and Catherine Booth College
WCC World Council of Churches
WCSS Women’s and Children’s Social Services
WD Word and Deed
WEA World Evangelical Association
WOL Words of Life
WSS Women’s Social Services
YPL Young People’s Legion
YPS-M Young People’s Sergeant-Major06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xix
Chronology
1829 Catherine Mumford (later Mrs. Booth, “The Army Mother”)
born at Ashbourne, Derbyshire (January 17); William Booth born at
Nottingham (April 10).
1855 Marriage of William Booth and Catherine Mumford at Stock-
well New Chapel, London (June 16).
1854 William Booth accepted on probation for ministry in the
Methodist New Connection.
1856 William Bramwell Booth (the Founder’s eldest son and second
general of The Salvation Army) born at Halifax (March 8).
1858 William Booth ordained a minister in the Methodist New Con-
nection (May 27).
1865 The Reverend William Booth began work in East London (July
2); The Christian Revival Association, subsequently The Christian Mis-
sion, founded; Eveline (Evangeline) Cory Booth (fourth general) born
in London (December 25).
1867 First Headquarters opened in Eastern Star, Whitechapel Road,
London.
1868 The East London Evangelist—later The Christian Mission Mag-
azine (1870) and The Salvationist (1879)—published (October).
1874 Christian Mission work commenced in Wales (November 15).
1878 First use of the term “The Salvation Army”—in small appeal
folder (May); “The Christian Mission” became “The Salvation Army,”
The information in this chronology was adapted from The Salvation Army Year Book
(2006).
xix06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xx
xx • CHRONOLOGY
and the Reverend William Booth became known as the general; Deed
Poll executed, thus establishing the doctrines and principles of The Sal-
vation Army (August); first corps flag presented by Mrs. Booth at
Coventry (September 28–30); Orders and Regulations for The Salvation
Army issued (October); brass instruments first used in Army meetings.
1879 First corps in Scotland (March 24) and Channel Islands (August
14) opened; cadets first trained; introduction of uniform; first corps
band formed in Consett; The War Cry first issued (December 27).
1880 First Training Home opened, at Hackney, London; first contin-
gent of Salvation Army officers landed in the United States of Amer-
ica (March 10); Army work commenced in Ireland (May 7); children’s
meetings commenced at Blyth (July 30); Army work extended to Aus-
tralia (September 5).
1881 Army work begun in France (March 13); The Little Soldier
(subsequently The Young Soldier) issued (August 27); International
Headquarters removed to Queen Victoria Street, London (September 8).
1882 The Founder first visited France (March); London Orphan Asy-
lum at Clapton Congress Hall and International Training Home opened
(May 13); Army work started in Canada (May 21), India (September
19), Switzerland (December 22), and Sweden (December 28).
1883 Army work begun in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) (January 26),
South Africa (March 4), New Zealand (April 1), Isle of Man (June 17),
and Pakistan (then a portion of India); first prison-gate home opened in
Melbourne, Australia (December 8).
1884 Women’s Social Work inaugurated; The Soldier’s Guide pub-
lished (April); Army work began on St. Helena (May 5); The Salvation
Army Band Journal issued (August); All the World issued (November).
1886 Work begun in Newfoundland (February 1); first International
Congress in London (May 28–June 4); The Musical Salvationist issued
(July); first Self-Denial Week (September 4–11); first slum corps
opened at Walworth, London, by “Mother” Webb (September 20);
Army work begun in Germany (November 14); Orders and Regula-
tions for Field Officers published; the Founder first visited the United
States and Canada.06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xxi
CHRONOLOGY • xxi
1887 Army flag unfurled in Italy (February 20), Denmark (May 8),
The Netherlands (May 8), and Jamaica (December 16); the Founder’s
first visit to Denmark, Sweden, and Norway.
1888 Young people’s work organized throughout Great Britain; first
food depot opened, Limehouse, London (January); the Army extended
to Norway (January 22); the Army Mother’s last public address, City
Temple, London (June 21).
1889 Work begun in Belgium (May 5) and Finland (November 8);
The Deliverer published (July).
1890 Army work commenced in Argentina (January 1); Orders and
Regulations for Soldiers of The Salvation Army issued (August); the
Army Mother promoted to Glory (October 4); In Darkest England and
the Way Out, by the Founder, assisted by W. T. Stead, published (No-
vember); work begun in Uruguay (November 16); Banking Depart-
ment opened (registered as The Salvation Army Bank, 1891; Reliance
Bank, Ltd., December 28, 1900).
1891 The Founder publicly signed “Darkest England Scheme” (now
The Salvation Army Social Work Trust Deed, January 30); subscribers
to the “Darkest England Scheme” reaches 108,000 (February); Land
and Industrial Colony, Hadleigh, Essex, established (May 2); the
Founder received by president of the Swiss Confederation (May); In-
ternational Staff Band inaugurated (October); Army work begun in
Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) (November 21) and Zululand (November
22); the Founder first visited South Africa, Australia, New Zealand,
and India; the charter of The Methodist and General Assurance Soci-
ety acquired.
1892 Eastbourne (UK) verdict against Salvationists quashed in High
Court of Justice (January 27); Band of Love inaugurated; League of
Mercy commenced in Canada (December).
1893 “Grace-Before-Meat Scheme” instituted; The Officer issued
(January).
1894 Second International Congress (July); work commenced in
Hawaiian Islands (September 13) and Java (now part of Indonesia)
(November 24); Naval and Military League (later Red Shield Services)06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xxii
xxii • CHRONOLOGY
established (November); Swiss Supreme Court granted religious rights
to The Salvation Army (December).
1895 Work begun in British Guiana (now Guyana) (April 24), Ice-
land (May 12), Japan (September 4), and Gibraltar (closed 1968).
1896 Young People’s Legion (January) and Corps Cadet Brigades
(February) inaugurated; Army work begun in Bermuda (January 12)
and Malta (July 25, closed 1972); first Salvation Army exhibition, Agri-
cultural Hall, London (August 1–10).
1897 First united Young People’s Meetings (later termed “Coun-
cils”) (March 14); first International Social Councils in London (Sep-
tember 28–29); first Salvation Army hospital founded at Nagercoil,
India (December).
1898 Orders and Regulations for Social Officers published; work be-
gun in Barbados (April 30) and Alaska; first united Corps Cadet camp
at Hadleigh (Whitsun); first commissioned songster brigade, Penge, UK
(September).
1899 First Bandsmen’s Councils, Clapton (December 10).
1900 Japanese social agitation.
1901 Work begun in Trinidad (August 7).
1902 Work begun in St. Lucia (September) and Grenada.
1903 Migration Department inaugurated (became Reliance World
Travel Ltd.,1981); work began in Antigua and St. Vincent.
1904 Third International Congress (June 24–July 8); Founder re-
ceived by King Edward VII at Buckingham Palace (June 24); the
Founder’s first motor campaign (August); work begun in Panama (De-
cember) and St. Kitts.
1905 The Founder campaigned in the Holy Land, Australia, and New
Zealand (March–June); first emigrant ship chartered by The Salvation
Army sailed for Canada (April 26); opening of International Staff
Lodge (later College, now International College for Officers) (May 11);
Freedom of London conferred on the Founder (October 26); Freedom
of Nottingham conferred on the Founder (November 6).06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xxiii
CHRONOLOGY • xxiii
1906 The YP (later The Warrior, then Vanguard) and The Salvation
Army Year Book issued; Freedom of Kirkcaldy conferred on the
Founder (April 16).
1907 Anti-Suicide Bureau established (January); Home League inau-
gurated (January 28); the Founder received by kings of Denmark and
Norway, queen of Sweden, and the emperor of Japan; The Bandsman
and Songster (later The Musician) issued (April 6); Oxford University
conferred honorary D.C.L. degree on the Founder (June 26); work com-
menced in Costa Rica (July 5).
1908 Army work commenced in Korea (October).
1909 Leprosy work commenced in Java (now part of Indonesia) (Jan-
uary 15); Army work extended to Chile (October).
1910 Work begun in Peru, Paraguay, and Sumatra (now part of In-
donesia).
1912 The Founder’s last public appearance, Royal Albert Hall, Lon-
don (May 9); General William Booth promoted to Glory (August 20);
Bramwell Booth appointed second general (August 21).
1913 Inauguration of Life-Saving Scouts (July 21); work begun in
Celebes (now part of Indonesia) (September 15) and Russia (closed
1923, reopened 1991).
1914 Fourth International Congress (June).
1915 Army flag planted in British Honduras (now Belize) (June)
and Burma (now Myanmar); inauguration of Life-Saving Guards (No-
vember 17).
1916 Work begun in China (closed 1951) and in Portuguese East
Africa (now Mozambique) (officially recognized 1923).
1917 Work begun in Virgin Islands (April); Chums inaugurated
(June 23); Order of the Founder instituted (August 20).
1918 Work commenced in Cuba (July).
1919 Work begun in Czechoslovakia (September 19, closed 1950).
1920 Work commenced in Nigeria (November 15) and Bolivia
(December).06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xxiv
xxiv • CHRONOLOGY
1921 Work begun in Kenya (April); Sunbeams inaugurated (Novem-
ber 3).
1922 Work commenced in northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) (Febru-
ary), Brazil (August), and Ghana (August).
1923 Work established in Latvia (closed 1939, reestablished 1990).
1924 Work officially begun in Hungary (April 24, closed 1949) and
The Faeroes (October).
1926 Work begun in Suriname (September 19).
1927 Work commenced in Austria (May 27), Estonia (December 31,
closed 1940, recommenced 1995), and Curaçao (closed 1980); first In-
ternational Young People’s Staff Councils (May–June).
1928 General Bramwell Booth’s last public appearance: the stone lay-
ing of the International (William Booth Memorial) Training College,
Denmark Hill, London (May 10).
1929 First High Council (January 8–February 13); Commissioner Ed-
ward J. Higgins of Great Britain, the Chief of the Staff, elected as third
general; General Bramwell Booth promoted to Glory (June 16); work
begun in Columbia (closed 1965, reestablished 1985).
1930 Inception of the League of Goodwill; Order of the Silver Star in-
augurated in USA (extended to other lands in 1936); work begun in
Hong Kong.
1931 Work begun in Uganda and the Bahamas (May).
1932 Work begun in Namibia.
1933 Work begun in Yugoslavia (closed 1948); Devil’s Island,
French Guiana (opened from August 1 until closing of penal settle-
ment in 1952), and Tanzania (October 29).
1934 Work begun in Algeria (June 10, closed 1970); second High
Council elected Commander Evangeline Booth of the United States as
fourth general (September 3); work begun in Belgian Congo (later
Zaire, now Democratic Republic of Congo) (October 14); General Evan-
geline Booth took command of The Salvation Army (November 11).
1935 Work begun in Singapore (May 28).06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xxv
CHRONOLOGY • xxv
1936 Work begun in Egypt (closed 1949).
1937 Work begun in French Equatorial Africa (now Republic of
Congo) (March), The Philippines (June), and Mexico (October).
1938 Torchbearer Group Movement inaugurated (January); All the
World reissued (January); work spread from Singapore to Malaysia.
1939 Third High Council elected Commissioner George Lyndon Car-
penter of Australia as fifth general (August 24); General George Lyn-
don Carpenter took command of The Salvation Army (November 1).
1946 Fourth High Council elected Commissioner Albert Orsborn of
Great Britain as sixth general (May 9); General Albert Orsborn took
command of The Salvation Army (June 21).
1948 First Army worldwide radio broadcast (April 28).
1950 Flag raised in Haiti (February); first television broadcast by a
general of The Salvation Army; official constitution of The Salvation
Army Students’ Fellowship recognized; first International Youth Con-
gress, London (August 10–23); reopening of Officer Staff College (later
International College for Officers) (October 10).
1954 Fifth High Council elected Commissioner Wilfred Kitching of
Great Britain as seventh general (May 11); General Wilfred Kitching
took command of The Salvation Army (July 1).
1956 Pioneer officers commenced work at Port Moresby, Papua New
Guinea (August 31); first International Corps Cadet Congress (July
19–31).
1962 Work officially opened in Puerto Rico (February).
1963 Sixth High Council elected Commissioner Frederick Coutts of
Great Britain as eighth general (October 1); Queen Elizabeth the Queen
Mother declared International Headquarters open (November 13); Gen-
eral Frederick Coutts took command of The Salvation Army (Novem-
ber 23).
1965 Queen Elizabeth II attended the International Centenary com-
mencement (June 24); Founder’s Day service, Westminster Abbey (July
2); work reestablished in Taiwan (pioneered 1928) (October).06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xxvi
xxvi • CHRONOLOGY
1969 Seventh High Council elected Commissioner Erik Wickberg of
Sweden as ninth general (July 23); new edition of The Salvation Army
Handbook of Doctrine published (August); General Erik Wickberg took
command of The Salvation Army (September 21).
1970 Work begun in Bangladesh as the result of cyclone relief mea-
sures (November 25).
1971 Work commenced in Spain (July 23); first corps opened in Por-
tugal (July 25).
1972 Work begun in Venezuela (June 30).
1973 Officers appointed to Fiji (January).
1974 Eighth High Council elected Commissioner Clarence Wiseman
of Canada as 10th general (May 13); General Clarence Wiseman took
command of The Salvation Army (July 6).
1975 Work commenced in Costa Rica.
1976 Work commenced in Guatemala (June); Mexico and Central
America Territory (now Latin America North Territory and Mexico
Territory) formed (October 1).
1977 Ninth High Council elected Commissioner Arnold Brown of
Canada as 11th general (May 5); General Arnold Brown took command
of The Salvation Army (July 5).
1978 Fifth International Congress (June 30–July 9), with inaugural
ceremony attended by H.R.H. the Prince of Wales.
1980 The Salvation Army Act of 1980 received royal assent (August
1); work officially reopened in French Guiana.
1981 Tenth High Council elected Commissioner Jarl Wahlström of
Finland as 12th general (October 23); General Jarl Wahlström took
command of The Salvation Army (December 14).
1985 Work officially reopened in Colombia (April 21) and opened in
Marshall Islands (June 1); second International Youth Congress (July
17–23), Western Illinois University, Macomb, Illinois, USA; operations
officially established in Angola (October 4) and Ecuador (October 30).06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xxvii
CHRONOLOGY • xxvii
1986 Work in Tonga commenced (January 9); 11th High Council
elected Commissioner Eva Burrows of Australia as 13th general (May
2); General Eva Burrows took command of The Salvation Army (July 9).
1988 Work officially opened in Liberia (May 1).
1989 Work officially opened in El Salvador (April 1).
1990 Operations officially recommenced in East Germany (March)
and Czechoslovakia (May), Hungary (June), and reestablished in
Latvia (November); sixth International Congress (June 29–July 8);
British Territory becomes United Kingdom Territory (November 1).
1991 Restructuring of International Headquarters as an entity sep-
arate from United Kingdom Territory (February 1); work officially re-
opened in Russia (July 6).
1992 Opening of new USA National Headquarters building, Alexandria,
Virginia, situating it near the nation’s capital for the first time (May 3).
1993 The 12th High Council elected Commissioner Bramwell H. Till-
sley of Canada as 14th general (April 28); General Bramwell Tillsley
took command of The Salvation Army (July 9).
1994 General Bramwell H. Tillsley retired owing to ill health (May
18); 13th High Council elected Commissioner Paul A. Rader of the
United States as 15th general, immediately taking command (July 23);
command status granted (July 1) to Papua New Guinea and Rus-
sia/CIS; Salvation Army work opened in Guam and Micronesia.
1995 All married women officers granted rank in their own right
(May 1); work recognized in Dominican Republic (July 1);
Bangladesh granted regional status (August 1); work reopened in Es-
tonia (August 14).
1996 Work commenced in Sabah (East Malaysia) at Kota Kinabalu
(March); following relief and development program, Salvation Army
work in Rwanda started officially (April 1).
1997 First Russia/CIS Command Congress with 1,000 present; Sal-
vation Army leaders in Southern Africa signed commitment to recon-
ciliation for past stand on apartheid; the spouse of the general will be
addressed as commissioner (October 1).06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xxviii
xxviii • CHRONOLOGY
1998 Mexico and Tanzania granted command status (October 1);
headquarters for the Latin America North Territory moved from
Mexico to Costa Rica; Salvation Army work initiated in Lithuania un-
der the care of the Germany Territory.
1999 The 14th High Council elected Commissioner John Gowans of
Great Britain the 16th general of The Salvation Army (May 15); Gen-
eral John Gowans took command of The Salvation Army (July 23).
2000 The Salvation Army registered as a denomination in Sweden
(March 10); Salvation Army work officially opened in the Special Ad-
ministrative Region of Macau (March 25); with more than 23,000
registrants from around the world, General John Gowans led the In-
ternational Millennial Congress in Atlanta, Georgia, USA (June 28–
July 4); based on the recommendations of the International Commis-
sion on Officership, General Gowans approved a survey of all active
and retired officers in the Salvation Army world regarding the nature
and expression of officership; the results of the survey were released
by the Chief of the Staff just prior to the International Millennial Con-
gress; the Hong Kong Command included Macau in its command
designation (August 1); Salvation Army work officially begun in Hon-
duras (November 23); Papua New Guinea Command elevated to ter-
ritorial status (December 9).
2001 As a consequence of extended consideration of the international
officership survey conducted in 2000, General John Gowans announced
some revision of the officer rank system and placed the scope and func-
tion of officership in a more flexible framework; the Russia/CIS Com-
mand granted Centralized Religious Organizations (CRO) status by
Russian Justice Ministry (February 22); the command redesignated
Eastern Europe Command (June 1); first International Theology and
Ethics Symposium held at William and Catherine Booth College, Win-
nipeg, Manitoba, Canada (June); Mexico Command elevated to terri-
torial status (October 1); International Poverty Summit held on the In-
ternet and Lotus Notes Intranet (November 2001–February 2002).
2002 The Netherlands Territory redesignated The Netherlands and
Czech Republic Territory (February 1); the 15th High Council elected
Commissioner John A. Larsson of Sweden the 17th general of The Sal-
vation Army (September 6); Zambia and Malawi Territory redesignated06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xxix
CHRONOLOGY • xxix
Zambia Territory and Malawi given separate regional status responsi-
ble to International Headquarters (October 1); General John Larsson
took command of The Salvation Army (November 13).
2003 International Headquarters Emergency Services Department
provided humanitarian assistance in postwar Iraq (June).
2004 The rebuilt International Headquarters on Queen Victoria Street,
London, was dedicated and opened (November); The Salvation Army
provided emergency relief services following the tsunami disaster that
swept parts of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, southern India, and east Africa
(December).
2005 Indian Ocean Tsunami Summit held at International Headquar-
ters; the Eastern Europe Command and the Singapore, Malaysia,
and Myanmar Command elevated to territorial status (March 1); Gen-
eral John Larsson and Commissioner Freda Larsson attended the en-
thronement of Pope Benedict XVI in Rome; Army work commenced in
Poland (September 23–25); the Germany Territory redesignated as the
Germany and Lithuania Territory (September); East Africa Territory
redesignated as the Kenya Territory, with the Uganda Region being
elevated to command status (November 1).
2006 The 16th High Council elected Commissioner Shaw Clifton of
the United Kingdom to be the 18th general of The Salvation Army (Jan-
uary 28); General Shaw Clifton assumed command of the international
Salvation Army (April 2).06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xxxi
Introduction
ORIGINS AND SETTINGS
The Salvation Army, an evangelical part of the Christian church, has
been described as “a vital spiritual force with an acute social con-
science.” The movement began in East London, England, where the ma-
jority of its population lived in extreme poverty, at the bottom of the
heap both socially and morally. In July 1865, William Booth, follow-
ing his preachment to the destitute in a dilapidated tent, returned home
and announced to his wife, Catherine, “I have found my destiny!”
In response to the harrowing plight of the poor, William Booth and
early Army leaders developed their mission as a synthesis of evangel-
ism and social action, waging its war with the two-edged sword of the
Gospel and practical compassion. Evangelistic and social enterprises
continue to be maintained under the authority of the general, by full-
time commissioned and ordained officers, as well as soldiers, em-
ployees, and volunteers.
In 1878 the name of the movement was changed from The Christian
Mission to The Salvation Army. With this transition came the adoption
of a quasi-military structure of ranks, uniforms, and procedures. Ini-
tially the Army met with opposition and persecution, reporting in one
year alone 669 Salvationists assaulted, 56 buildings vandalized, and 86
officers and soldiers thrown into prison.
WESLEYAN AND TRANSATLANTIC CURRENTS
Booth found that his converts, recruited from the poorer class, were not
welcome in the established churches. Further, when his commitment to
revivalism was quenched by the Methodist New Connection, he left its
xxxi06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xxxii
xxxii • INTRODUCTION
ministry in 1861 and four years later founded what eventually became
The Salvation Army.
William and Catherine Booth lived and ministered in the larger his-
torical context of the revivalistic current that had its primary source in
the 18th-century renewal efforts of John Wesley and George Whitefield
in England and Jonathan Edwards in New England. Throughout the
next century these currents flowed back and forth across the Atlantic be-
tween Great Britain and North America. A part of this reciprocal flow
was the “Great Awakening” that was ignited by American revivalism
and transmitted to Britain though the ministries of Methodist evangel-
ists James Caughey and Phoebe Palmer and the Presbyterian Charles
G. Finney. These holiness-oriented preachers were the preeminent in-
fluences on the Booths at the start of their work and throughout their
lives in their preaching, theology, and evangelistic methods, including
public speaking by laymen and laywomen. The Booths, with their roots
in Methodism, adopted the dogma of John Wesley’s Arminian theology
of “free salvation for all men and full salvation from all sin,” along with
biblical trustworthiness and Trinitarianism. The Society of Friends also
influenced the movement. With several Quakers joining in efforts to
help the poor, their broad-brimmed hats and bonnets became precursors
to the Army’s uniform, as well as their traditional nonsacramentalism
having some bearing on the sacramental stance Booth adopted in 1883.
EXPANSION IN BRITAIN AND BEYOND
In 1868 the East London Mission stepped for the first time beyond the
bounds of its self-appointed parish, establishing work in London sub-
urbs and in Edinburgh, Scotland. Extensions elsewhere throughout the
British Isles speedily followed.
Booth, as had his mentor, John Wesley, came to see the world as his
parish. In the 1880s the Army leaped across the seas with expansion to
America, Canada, Australasia, Africa, and India, the latter being the
Army’s first missionary field in the East. The first extension to a non-
English-speaking land took place in 1881 with the Army’s advance into
France, which included, also for the first time, a woman appointed as
commander of a territory. From France the work extended the follow-
ing year to Switzerland, where for some six years’ bitter persecution
was encountered. The Army Blood and Fire flag was unfurled in Cey-06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xxxiii
INTRODUCTION • xxxiii
lon (now Sri Lanka) and New Zealand in 1883, the latter having 10
corps (local churches) opened in the first year.
New corps openings were reported almost each year, with the flag be-
ing hoisted in Argentina in 1890 and in the Dutch East Indies in 1894.
In 1895 the Army carried its flag to Japan and, in 1908, to Korea. Work
was commenced in China in 1916 in fulfillment of the Founder’s dying
charge to his son and successor, Bramwell Booth. Operations began in
Czechoslovakia in 1919, soon to follow in succeeding years in Latvia,
Estonia, Hungary, Austria, and Burma (now Myanmar).
Each advance of The Salvation Army was an epic, with some corps
having a harvest of a hundredfold. However, not all would survive. In
some places the seed would sleep beneath the snow, awaiting a new
springtime. Such a springtime did occur, with the demise of communism.
The 1990s witnessed the stirring saga of the Army’s return to countries
where its work had been proscribed by communist dictatorships, includ-
ing Russia/CIS, East Germany, and several Eastern European countries.
Officers appointed to overseas work were advised to bring The Sal-
vation Army into a close correspondence with the traditions, habits, and
culture of the local people. “The Army did not spread abroad by the de-
termination of its leaders,” wrote historian St. John Ervine. “It spread
by the force of its own energy and strength.” In the new corps openings
were many examples of the phenomenon of the Army seeding itself.
Although divided into five vast geographical zones for administrative
purposes, The Salvation Army in the third millennium is a family of 111
nations speaking 175 languages. Thus, the international movement tran-
scends geopolitical, racial, cultural, and language barriers through a
cross-cultural coalition of diverse ethnic groups united under the
Army’s tricolor. Generous ongoing support helps maintain ministries
and services in the less developed countries.
DIVERSE MINISTRIES
The Founder started his work in order to save souls, but he quickly dis-
covered that the appalling circumstances of a vast number of people
made their salvation unlikely unless regard was paid also to their phys-
ical needs. In the early days special work was inaugurated to reach
those addicted to alcohol, prisoners and ex-prisoners, and fallen and
destitute women, and included the establishment of maternity homes06-276 (00) FM.qxd 7/17/06 7:36 AM Page xxxiv
xxxiv • INTRODUCTION
for unmarried mothers. William Booth’s book In Darkest England and
the Way Out (1890) became recognized as a classic in its analysis and
approach to the plight of the poor. Homes for children were started in
1895, and a migration department, which would over many years
process hundreds of thousands of immigrants, was inaugurated in 1903.
The Army’s holistic ministry has spawned a kaleidoscope of global
services, including hospitals, eventide homes, hostels for the homeless
and for those recovering from addictions, nurseries, children’s homes,
and schools that now serve over 300,000 pupils. Dynamic overseas
projects in less developed countries continue to alleviate poor health
and widespread unemployment, provide clinics, health education, nutri-
tional information, and sanitation, train medical personnel, oversee
agricultural projects and animal husbandry, provide vocational training,
operate homes and institutes for the blind and handicapped, and man-
age missing persons bureaus and a missionary literature fund.
The Salvation Army’s caring ministry is found at the front lines of
tragedy around the world—in the refugee camps, among those struck by
natural and man-made disasters, and amid the burgeoning population
afflicted with AIDS. The Army’s policies and indigenous memberships
have allowed it to cooperate with international relief agencies and gov-
ernments alike to bring comfort to the needy.
Work among young people commenced from the outset, with an 1884
book by the Founder titled The Training of Children. Sunday school
curricula were published, along with the six-year Bible study and train-
ing program of the corps cadet brigades that were inaugurated around
the world. An efflorescence of high quality literature and music con-
tinues to flow from Army writers and composers.
A MILLION-PLUS MARCHING
While The Salvation Army has contemporized its methods, its message
of the Gospel has been unchanging. While programs have branched off
in many directions, its priority of bringing individuals to salvation and
holiness has resisted the winds of change. Having entered the 21st cen-
tury, the Lord’s Army marches into the future with a core membership
of more than 1,400,000 senior and junior soldiers.
—Henry GariepyYou can also read
