Interactions between local and scientific knowledge systems for weather and climate services - Braced
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Interactions between local and scientific
knowledge systems for weather and
climate services
Learning paper #9 March 2018
Woman going to the market in Passoré, Burkina Faso, 2017. Ph: Camilla Audia
Introduction
Climate change is having a significant impact on viour) that farmers in these regions have used to
climate extremes in East and West Africa. It is predict the weather and seasonal climate (Ackerley
increasing the frequency and intensity of droughts et al., 2011) and impacting on agro-pastoralists’
and floods and threatening already vulnerable rural local expertise based on historical observation of
livelihoods. One of the key objectives of the Chris- climate phenomena and their contextual conse-
tian Aid-led Building Resilience and Adaptation to quences over the years. The challenge the BRACED
Climate Extremes and Disasters (BRACED) projects project, and other projects working with climate
in Burkina Faso and Ethiopia has therefore been information, face is to find ways to optimise the use
the development and delivery of accessible, timely, and availability of both met service and local fore-
relevant weather and climate information involving cast knowledge and communication mechanisms,
the national meteorological (met) services in both in order to ensure those households vulnerable to
countries along with the UK Met Office. This infor- climate extremes have the best information to help
mation can then support household decision ma- them in their decision making.
king regarding livelihoods strategies, and therefore
help to build the resilience of vulnerable people to In this learning paper we discuss why it is important
climate shocks and stresses. to take local knowledge into consideration, exami-
ning the ways this has been done in BRACED, both
Working with rural households to improve their in the CIARE project (Ethiopia) and the Zaman Lebi-
access to met service-generated climate informa- di project (Burkina Faso) and more widely. We then
tion has highlighted the prevalent use of traditional look at the processes and methods used to combine
weather forecasting, which still remains one of the both met/scientific information and local knowledge
main accessible and trusted sources of weather and to give farming households the best chance they
climate information in rural communities in Burkina have of reaching the right decision about their
Faso and Ethiopia. The value of this local knowledge livelihood options each season. We also explore the
(see Box 1 on terminology) about the weather power relations that can manifest themselves these
and climate is recognised by the BRACED project. processes which can have important effects on
However, climate change is also undermining the resilience outcomes.
traditional or local indicators (such as insect beha-
King’s College London
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Box 1 Terminology Box 2: Key terms related to climate informa-
tion (Learning Paper #1)
In selecting the terminology to be used in this paper,
we borrow from – Roncoli et al., 2002:
Climate information services (CIS): the development
“Terms such as ``scientific’ and ``indigenous’’ remain and delivery, with key stakeholders, of accessible, time-
problematic, but for brevity’s sake we will clarify our ly, relevant weather and climate information, which can
terminology without delving into the surrounding support decision-making across timeframes, sectors
debate (Antweiler, 1998). We adhere to the common and livelihoods.
definition of science as knowledge generated by
experts using recognized and rigorous approaches to Climate information: information produced on the
observation and experimentation. We avoid acronyms, weather and climate. This can be based on science
such as ITK (indigenous technical knowledge) or TEK and/or local experience and knowledge. This includes
(traditional environmental knowledge), that tend to short-term information about the weather (the condi-
reify diverse and fluid cognitive dimensions into an tion of the atmosphere at a specific time and place – in
inflexible package of disembodied know-how. We avoid terms of temperature, wind, cloud cover, rainfall, and
``indigenous knowledge,’’ which connotes colonizing humidity), seasonal information and long-term infor-
discourse and policies in much of francophone Africa. mation about the climate (the statistics of atmospheric
conditions and weather events over months, decadal
For the purpose of this learning paper we prefer the periods and periods of decades or longer).
term ‘local knowledge’ evoking “the performance
element of knowledge and the contextual aspect of its
practice” (Roncoli et al., 2002, p. 410)
Building resilience by communicating ent in the up-take of scientific information. These
include the geographical scale and timing of the in-
climate information formation (e.g. weather information may be regional
rather than local and bulletins may be too late to aid
decision making), language barriers (relating to both
technical terminology and a lack of local languag-
Providing decision makers with better access to es used), high levels of illiteracy, a lack of access
weather and climate information has been central to phones, radios or televisions and users who are
to the resilience building aims of BRACED projects either geographically remote, scattered or mobile
in Burkina Faso and Ethiopia. Seasonal forecasting (for example, pastoralist communities) (Lemos et
and warnings of imminent extreme local weather al., 2012; Lumbroso et al., 2014; Patt et al., 2005).
events can help people to make more informed Moreover, the skill and reliability of scientific mod-
decisions about their livelihoods, for example, what els is highly variable over a region and might not be
seeds they sow, where to sow them and how to good enough for decision-making for a given point.
protect themselves from extreme weather condi-
tions. Adapting livelihoods in this way can lead to Access to information resources can also differ
increased resilience to shocks and stresses (Tall et across socio-economic delineations (McOmber,
al., 2012) Activities have therefore focussed on the 2013). For example, women, who make up a sub-
development and communication of relevant cli- stantial amount of the agricultural labour force,
mate information, including data generation through frequently miss critical information communicated
the installation of automatic weather stations and using information and communication technolo-
equipping local committees with rain gauges. In gy since studies have shown they are less likely
terms of communication, the national met services to own a mobile phone or have access to a radio
have provided alerts and weekly forecasts to project (Chesney McOmber et al., 2013) or may be busy
partner radio stations who broadcast it in project when climate information is broadcast. In this way,
areas. Radio sets have been distributed, communi- communication of scientific information can also
ty level ‘listening groups’ established and national serve to reinforce social norms and power hierar-
met services provided local Early Warning Commit- chies. Another key challenge lies in communicat-
tees with climate advisories. These processes have ing the probabilistic nature of forecast information
involved a wide range of actors, in particular, the (Kniveton et al., 2015), where scientific forecasts are
national met services (NMS) in both countries, the either communicated or interpreted in deterministic
UK Met Office, NGOs focussing on climate informa- rather than probabilistic form. This leads to issues of
tion communication (BBC Media Action in Ethiopia trust and credibility (Patt and Gwata, 2002).
and Internews in Burkina Faso), local radio, local
government, early warning committee members In contrast, local knowledge and climate indicators
and agricultural extension services. emerge from a tradition of knowledge and practic-
es embedded in local institutions and structures,
values and belief systems (Kniveton et al., 2015). As
a result, these often have greater acceptance and
Why consider local knowledge in resil- weight in decision making for farming communities
ience-building programmes? than scientific forecasts (Dekens, 2007). UNESCO
describes local and indigenous knowledge as the
understandings, skills and philosophies developed
by societies with long histories of interaction with
Whilst the focus in BRACED has been on develop- their natural surroundings. This knowledge informs
ing and communicating climate information gener- decision-making about fundamental aspects of
ated by the national met services, a challenge exists day-to-day life, including health care, food prepa-
in making this information accessible, relevant and ration, education, natural resource management; it
useable for communities. Many barriers are appar- is integral to a cultural complex that encompasses
Learning paper #9
3
language, classification systems, resource use prac- increasingly unreliable due to climate change, it is
tices, social interactions, ritual and spirituality. Such often based on power structures and access to it
knowledge is passed down from generation to gen- may be restricted or that it can be based on reli-
eration, in many societies by word of mouth (UNE- gious beliefs and discredited by certain groups.
SCO; Warren, 1991). It is due to the embeddedness
of local knowledge in nature, that some consider it
to be more suited to coping with uncertainty and
unpredictability, since these are characteristics of Toward an integrated approach
natural systems (Mazzocchi, 2006).
Further to this, the timescale on which local knowl- If scientists focus on having a more integrated
edge operates provides the advantage of a longer discussion with communities whereby community
term collective memory and timeframe for learning capabilities and resources in the area of climate
(Dennis Martinez, 2010). In relation to climate and forecasting are taken into account, strategies to
weather information, local knowledge and systems reduce vulnerability to climate risk may be more
of thought can link knowledge to social responsi- widely accepted by locals and there is a better
bility (Banuri et al., 1993; Roncoli et al., 2002), for chance of uptake. By understanding local indicators
example, observing certain patterns in insect be- better, particularly in terms of how they are con-
haviour or plant growth can trigger certain activities ceptualised, communicated, shared, generated and
such as preparing fields for flooding. It is important what particular weather phenomena they pertain to,
to mention here, however, that local knowledge is scientists can increase their understanding of user
not without challenges. For example, it has become needs and gain insight into how to most effective-
ly communicate the most sought-after types of
scientific weather and climate information to aid
decision-making. Developing scientific information
which resonates with local knowledge will ensure
the relevance of national met services to the popu-
Box 3: Local vs Scientific Knowledge lations they serve (Roncoli, 2006). This is particularly
important given the impact of climate change on lo-
We have outlined some of the shortcoming of scientific cal indicators (see Box 5) (Gallo and Henley, 2017)),
climate information alongside the reasons why local which is rendering them less reliable. Consequently,
knowledge can add value to resilience building proj- there is a growing need, more than ever to share
ects. However, there is perhaps a more fundamental different perspectives to best adapt and respond
reason as to why local knowledge should be consid- to the complex problems that are arising (Goddard,
ered alongside scientific knowledge, which resides in 2015).
how both knowledge systems are viewed are used.
Scientific knowledge is only one representation of the
world (Mazzocchi, 2006), however, it is often present-
ed as central, infallible, universal, globally applicable,
objective and superior (Agrawal, 1995; Briggs, 2005), Local knowledge in BRACED
whilst traditional or local knowledge is often viewed as
secondary, inferior, backward, subjective, too con-
textually specific and less efficient (Agrawal, 1995; The BRACED programmes in Ethiopia and Burki-
Briggs, 2005).That Western science is as much socially na Faso have both explored the role local knowl-
constructed as local knowledge has frequently been
overlooked (Briggs, 2005). edge can play in enabling decision makers to have
access to the information they need to make the
In recognition of this and of the value of local knowl- best choices about livelihood options. At a work-
edge more broadly, there has been a recent growing shop in held in Ethiopia on climate information
interest in local knowledge amongst academics, devel- services, CIARE partner, BBC Media action pointed
opment practitioners and international organisations out how a strengthened recognition of the role of
alike (Berkes, 2018). New ways of perceiving the world
are being called upon and accepted as the conventional local knowledge is vital in building trust and cultur-
paradigm becomes less capable of explaining obser- al appropriateness of NMS forecasts. Participants
vations and increased levels of complexity. Local or in- also discussed how it can be difficult to convince
digenous ways of knowing are thus being reconsidered pastoralists and other decision makers to move to
as helpful in observing and monitoring these complex using scientific forecasts because these are not
systems (Berkes, 2018).
always accurate at a local level and communication
There have also been calls for both knowledge systems of forecasts can be limited by language barriers or
to be viewed as less separated by a binary divide and in access to TV/Radio. A scenario exercise carried out
competition with one another (Agrawal, 1995; Briggs, during the workshop highlighted the value of having
2005). A more ‘entangled’ or complementary view, both sources of knowledge to draw on in decision
which recognises that many people (e.g. farmers) are making. This is elaborated in Box 4.
happy to combine traditional and modern technolo-
gies, or even not view them as coming from separate
and competing sources (Scoones, 1996; Briggs, 2005). In Burkina Faso the UK Met Office carried out a
In this way, combining different knowledge systems, survey to determine the types of local knowledge
gives a more complete picture of reality (Mazzocchi, being used by communities in the project interven-
2006). In relation to this, local knowledge should not tion areas. This survey looked into the use of tradi-
be viewed as static and unchanging; instead there is
evidence that people adopt new ideas into their knowl- tional indicators to forecast the upcoming season.
edge systems providing they make economic sense The immediate aim of this was to understand which
and are culturally acceptable (Briggs, 2005). Further to indicators were used and how they varied across
this, knowledge can be seen as a process, with local the project regions, as well as the perceived reli-
knowledge manifesting as a sensitivity to critical signs ability of these indicators, and whether or not this
in the environment and an intuitive understanding of reliability was considered to have changed over
what these signs mean in relation to practical tasks and
responsibilities (Ingold and Kurttila, 2000). Local knowl- various timescales. The ultimate aim was to use this
edge can therefore be seen as is fluid and constantly information as necessary background context for
changing, reflecting renegotiations between people any further activities in the project to integrate these
and their environments (Sillitoe, 1996). traditional indicators with the scientific information
produced by the Burkina met services, ANAM (Gallo
and Henley, 2017). In undertaking such work the
UK Met Office demonstrates how it recognises theKing’s College London
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Box 4: Forecasts for decision making
An interactive scenario exercise carried out during the workshop in Ethiopia was used to illustrate the challenges faced by
users of climate information. Workshop participants worked in mixed groups to act as decision makers at different levels
(e.g. woreda/kebele (village) level, sedentary / agricultural communities). They were given national met service seasonal fore-
cast products alongside a list of local indicators and were tasked to make a decision about what action to take. The same
exercise was adapted to the context and used in the AMMA 2050-BRACED workshop in Burkina Faso in January 2017.
Decision-makers across both projects, including climate scientists, mayors of rural and urban areas, meteorologists, social
scientists and practitioners were given seasonal, 10-day and daily forecasts alongside traditional indicators and were asked
to make a decision.
Lessons Learned
After completing the exercise, participants of the Ethiopian workshop reported that the terms used in the scientific forecast
were difficult to interpret without prior training, and the forecasts lacked the required regional detail. Participants found that
their decisions based on local vs. scientific knowledge were not always complementary, leading to discussion around the
need to acknowledge both sources of information. Value was added to both forecasts by those participants who knew how
to interpret the information and convert it into reactive actions.
Interestingly, similar dynamics appeared in Burkina Faso. The difference of time scales led to a reflection of the need to
consider different scales of both weather and climate information as well as the flexibility in time and resources to adapt de-
cisions to whatever information is available and relevant at the time. It was also a great opportunity for an open discussion
between mayors (as local decision-makers) and scientists at different levels; while mayors had the opportunity to fully grasp
the probabilistic nature of the information and the unavoidable uncertainty forecasts convey, scientists were able to focus on
the nature of the information needed, not necessarily aligned with what was currently provided. Both projects (BRACED ZL
and AMMA 2050) developed methodologies to address the issue of dialogue and communication between climate produc-
ers (scientists, meteorologists) and climate users (decision-makers at different levels).
value of local observation systems and complemen- Further to this, challenges exist around the power
tary frameworks for analysing weather and climate structures that manifest in both scientific and local
phenomenon. However, whilst a brief qualitative knowledge systems (see Box 6).
analysis of this dataset has been realised (see Box 5)
but have not been able to move towards using such
frameworks as means to better communicate scien-
tific climate information. This is therefore a project Co-production of knowledge
King’s College London will be undertaking with the
UK Met Office, details of which are included in the
Next Steps section below. Co-production is a method that can consciously
be drawn upon to help in this process. It is used to
bring together different knowledge sources, experi-
ences and working practices from across different
Challenges of integrating local and sci- disciplines, sectors and actors to jointly develop
new and combined knowledge for addressing socie-
entific knowledge tal problems of shared concern and interest (Learn-
ing Paper #7).
Experiences from both countries, as well as the In a co-production process, knowledge brought by
wider academic literature suggest that there is a all actors needs to be equally valued and power
clear need to draw on both meteorological, climate relations need to be acknowledged and managed;
science and local knowledge in order to improve the partners, including people at risk, need to feel
lives of rural households and build their resilience to comfortable that their knowledge will be equally
climate risks (Roncoli et al., 2002), but the challenge valued so that they can productively work together.
remains in how to do this. Creating understand- There is great importance in developing a pluralistic
ing and enabling communication between distinct understanding of differing cognition and worldviews
knowledge systems and perspectives is difficult in the thought collectives, a sensitivity to underlying
since key concepts for one system (e.g. observa- power relations, integrating different interests and
tions of animal and plant behaviour), may not easily practices, and finally, developing skills in the facilita-
speak or link to the internal logic of another system tion of collective leaning processes such as organis-
(e.g. precise scientific measurements of weath- ing workshops and spaces for interactive discussion
er conditions) (Gorddard et al., 2016). The lack of as well as time and spaces for reflection and learn-
historical records for traditional forecasts makes ing (Pohl et al., 2010) .
a scientific verification impossible, which is vital
for building trust among the scientific community.
Moreover, temporal and geographical scales may
differ, with scientific climate information in Burkina Participatory Scenario Planning
Faso relating to regional scales more often than
local scales more useful to decision-making. Like
meteorology, local knowledge focuses on some One way in which the BRACED programme has
atmospheric events (winds, soil moisture, tempera- sought to integrate local knowledge with met
ture, rain phenomena) but, in addition, it often gives services climate and weather information has been
great attention and importance to impacts of these through a process known as Participatory Scenar-
events (tree flowering, insect movements) to make io Planning. This methodology was developed by
informed decisions. CARE International principally in East Africa to helpLearning paper #9
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Box 5 – Key findings from the UK Met research report: BRACED Burkina Faso (Zaman Lebidi) Indige-
nous indicators used for seasonal forecasts in northern Burkina Faso (Gallo and Henley, 2017)
The UK Met Office designed a survey to gain an overview of the various types of traditional indicators used by local people
across various regions of Burkina Faso. Due to the variety of indicators used, the UK Met Office grouped them into the fol-
lowing categories below. This allowed a focus on the key indicators and helped provide consistency of survey results across
all communities. The selected categories were:
• Shape of polar star • Toad behaviour*
• Bird behaviour* • Oracle dreams
• Wind direction • Production of fruit trees
• Intense cold during previous winter • Leaves/flowers blossoming
• Sacrifices • Insect behaviour*
* Note: In the following analysis, the insects, toads and bird categories have been merged in a fourth category called “ani-
mal behaviour”.
A majority of answers (67%) indicates a use of traditional indicators for weather and climate information. The use of tradi-
tional knowledge is widespread in the Nord region (more than 87% of answers), whereas only half of the farmers use it in
the Centre Nord (56%). No obvious link can be observed between the proportion of people reporting having received climate
information in the past year and their use of traditional knowledge.
Figure 1 shows that across all survey results, the main type of traditional indicators used relate to trees – fruit tree produc-
tion and the evolution of trees (blossoming of flowers, emergence of leaves) are cited by 50% and 18% as the main source
of information, respectively. This is especially true for the Nord region, where those two indices represent more than 90%
of answers. However, large discrepancies are visible across the three regions. The use of sacrifices to obtain information is
common in the Centre Nord region, where it is the single most used indicator, but very limited in the other two regions.
Overall, the traditional indicators are perceived as relatively reliable by the users of these indicators, three out of four an-
swers describing them as sometimes reliable or quite reliable. This pattern is roughly the same in all three regions. The users
from the Nord region appear to have even more confidence in these tools (no answers corresponding to a negative percep-
tion).
Shape of polar star Animal behaviour
Oracle dreams Wind direction
Fruit tree production Intense cold
Leaf/flower growth Sacrifices
Reliability of Local Indicators
Another aim of the survey was to investigate the perceived
change in the reliability of these indicators over the last
few years and decades. Overall, the perception is that
the reliability of traditional indicators has either decreased
(55%) or stayed the same (36%). Only 6% of users per-
ceived an improvement in their favoured indicator. The
results in the different regions are similar; the proportion of
users describing an improvement in the reliability is higher
(14%) but still low in the Centre Nord.
When looking at the perceived timescale of any changes
reported, the results are quite variable between regions.
In the Centre Nord, 89% of the users who have noticed a
change think it happened during the last 10 years, whereas
in the Nord 75% think it occurred more than 10 years ago
(including 42% for more than 20 years ago). Looking at
the most used indicator in each region, this seem to have
worsened over a longer period (since at least 10 years ago
or longer), even though the timescales of changes for each
tool is also quite variable.King’s College London
6
Box 6 Knowledge and Power
We have already discussed how scientific information can serve to reinforce social norms and power hierarchies in the exam-
ple of women missing critical climate information communicated via mobile phone or radio, since studies have shown they
are less likely to own either of these (McOmber et al., 2013).
In the case of local knowledge, the power relations are no less problematic. Factors such as age, experience, wealth, produc-
tion priorities, household circumstances, political power and gender have an impact on people’s access to knowledge and
ability to apply such knowledge (Briggs, 2005). It is therefore essential that an awareness of power dynamics in any knowl-
edge system is present in any co-production process, and that knowledge power structures are not ignored or unwittingly
adopted (Marchand and Parpart, 1995).
Box 7: Participatory Scenario Planning process
Through the Participatory Scenario Planning process, participants consider climatic probabilities (which are an expression
of the uncertainty in the climate forecast); assess their likely hazards, risks, opportunities and impacts; and develop scenar-
ios based on this assessment. Discussion of the potential implications of these scenarios on livelihoods leads to agreement
on plans and contingencies that respond adequately to the levels of risk and uncertainty. PSP forms part of the adaptation
planning process, making the link between community plans and local government responses and support, as well as higher
level plans. The process outlined below is drawn from Care International’s guidance (Care International, 2013):
1. Identify the meteorological services and forecasts available for the location where adaptation is being planned and
plan the PSP workshop with them and key local actors.
2. Invite participants from a relevant range of stakeholders, including meteorological services and local/traditional fore-
casting experts.
3. Exchange seasonal climate forecasts from local and scientific sources.
4. Discuss and integrate the forecasts from the two sources.
5. Participants interpret the seasonal forecast into three probabilistic hazard scenarios, assessing risks posed by the
hazards to develop impact scenarios. Opportunities in the coming season are also identified for each scenario.
6. Participants discuss the local implications of the impact scenarios considering the status of food security, natural
resources, livelihoods and sectors.
7. Participants discuss and develop actions for each impact scenario, taking advantage of identified opportunities: What
will communities, local government and local NGOs do? How will their actions be mutually supportive and respond to
both the current situation and the expected forecast in relation to livelihood and sector priorities?
8. Develop advisories from the actions discussed: Locally relevant and actionable information, with agreed responsibili-
ties among local actors.
9. Communicate advisories to users, for e.g. through radio, local monitoring or other institutional systems, religious lead-
ers, chiefs, government departments, local groups, NGOs, media etc.Learning paper #9
7
Girl grinding millet in Passoré, Burkina Faso, 2017. Ph: Camilla Audia
build adaptive capacity at the local level. It is a pro- er, PSP provides a forum, a regular meeting point
cess for collective sharing and amongst scientists and decision-makers, which is
interpretation of both scientific and local climate an incredibly valuable resource to focus on longer
forecasts which takes place once the seasonal term adaptation strategies leading to more resilient
forecast is available from the meteorological ser- communities.
vices. The idea is that the participants discuss and
appreciate the value of the two perspectives and
collectively find ways to interpret the information
into a form that is locally relevant and useful (Care
International, 2013). The process is summarised by Next steps
the Canadian Coalition on Climate Change & Devel-
opment in Box 7.
PSP has been adopted as a methodology in Burkina To further examine the processes involved in com-
Faso by the Welthungerhilfe-Self Help Africa (WHH- bining local and scientific knowledge, King’s Col-
SHA) BRACED programme1. For each geographic lege London (KCL) is undertaking research with the
area where WHH-SHA is working a Participatory UK Met Office, funded by the Natural Environment
Scenario Planning session took place, engaging Research Council (NERC). This partnership between
met services scientists, NGOs and local knowledge KCL and the Met Office is a way of applying social
experts. A leaflet was then produced per locality science research to help climate scientists make full
describing the interpretation of the forecast for the use of available resources, contextualise them at
season. This included the national met service’s pre- local scales and integrate participatory approaches.
dictions (e.g. relative total predicted rainfall; prob-
able dates marking the start of the rainy season) The research has two key objectives. Firstly, it aims
as well as the local indicators (e.g. bird migration; to build on data on local indicators collected by the
presence of certain insects; star constellations). UK Met Office in Burkina Faso during the BRACED
Different scenarios were then elaborated in each project. KCL will examine further what these indica-
leaflet, providing advisory actions for dealing with tors mean, how they are used, who uses them and
different weather conditions (e.g. instructions to dig how they relate to social responsibilities. Second-
drainage channels; recommendations to use mos- ly, KCL researchers will look at approaches being
quito nets). applied in Burkina Faso (and in the region) such as
the Participatory Scenario Planning and examine the
As any methodology, PSP has merits and con- ways and extent to which co-production processes
straints. Observations from experts taking part in enable both scientific and local knowledge systems
these processes perceive the approach to often to combine. It will look at how co-produced outputs
focus on discussing local indicators as opposed to are used and take into account power dynamics
wider localised knowledge that does not necessarily present in these processes. Research will also
translate into tangible indicators but is nonetheless include an appraisal of other consensus building
essential to local decision-makers. An example methods and techniques with an aim to develop
would be local water and soil conservation tech- guideline and recommendations for the UK Met and
niques, potentially affected by climate extremes national Met Offices.
but rarely the focus of scenario planning. Howev-King’s College London Learning paper #9
8
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