Men's Tears: Football Players' Evaluations of Crying Behavior
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Psychology of Men & Masculinity © 2010 American Psychological Association
2011, Vol. 12, No. 4, 297–310 1524-9220/10/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0020576
Men’s Tears: Football Players’ Evaluations of Crying Behavior
Y. Joel Wong, Jesse A. Steinfeldt, Julie R. LaFollette, and Shu-Ching Tsao
Indiana University Bloomington
Guided by social constructionist and social norms perspectives on masculinity, this
study examined male college football players’ evaluations of crying behavior. Using an
experimental design, 150 college football players were randomly assigned to four
conditions in which they read different vignettes about Jack, a football player who cries
after a football game. Participants who read vignettes of Jack tearing up (vs. sobbing)
tended to report higher levels of perceived appropriateness, typicality, and conformity
with regard to Jack’s crying behavior. Participants who read vignettes of Jack sobbing
after losing (vs. winning) a football game perceived his behavior to be more typical of
football players. In addition, the findings are consistent with a model in which
perceived appropriateness and typicality of Jack’s crying behavior mediated the asso-
ciation between intensity of tears (tearing up vs. sobbing) and perceived conformity to
Jack’s crying behavior. Adherence to the masculine norm of emotional control, per-
ceived appropriateness of Jack’s crying behavior, and perceived conformity to Jack’s
crying behavior were significantly associated with participants’ self-esteem. Further, a
combination of low perceived appropriateness and high conformity to Jack’s crying
behavior was related to lower levels of self-esteem.
Keywords: emotion, crying, football, student-athletes, masculinity
After losing a 2009 college football game that 2005). Indeed, studies in the U.S. (e.g., Lombardo,
knocked his team out of national championship Cretser, & Roesch, 2001) as well as in other
consideration, Tim Tebow, University of Flori- countries (e.g., Becht & Vingerhoets, 2002)
da’s Heisman Trophy candidate quarterback, have consistently found that women tend to cry
was seen crying on the sidelines (Associated more frequently and intensely than men. None-
Press, 2009a). Soon thereafter, the phrase “Tim theless, research on evaluations of crying be-
Tebow crying” was reported to be the hottest havior has produced mixed findings, with some
Google Internet search (Henderson, 2009). Me- studies showing that men who cried were eval-
dia reactions to this incident were mixed, but uated more positively than women who cried
most responses were negative. For instance, me- (e.g., Labott, Martin, Eason, & Berkey, 1991;
dia outlets disparaged his emotional expression, Warner & Shields, 2007), other studies showing
even renaming him Tim Tearbow (Fowler, the reverse (Fischer, 2006; Lombardo, Cretser,
2009). Lombardo, & Mathis, 1983), and yet other stud-
As illustrated by the Tim Tebow incident, ies finding no significant gender differences
men’s crying behavior tends to generate consid- (e.g., Hendriks, Croon, & Vingerhoets, 2008).
erable reactions from others, possibly because In attempting to make sense of these conflicting
crying is assumed to violate masculine norms re- findings, Warner and Shields (2007) empha-
garding the importance of emotional control (Bek- sized the need for researchers to analyze con-
ker & Vingerhoets, 2001; Wong & Rochlen, textual influences on crying behavior, such as
the precipitating situation and the social mean-
ing associated with crying in a particular con-
This article was published Online First November 15, 2010. text.
Y. Joel Wong, Jesse A. Steinfeldt, Julie R. LaFollette, Against this backdrop, we sought to contrib-
and Shu-Ching Tsao, Counseling & Educational Psychol- ute to the literature on masculinity and men’s
ogy Department, Indiana University Bloomington. emotional behavior by examining male college
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
dressed to Y. Joel Wong, School of Education, Indiana
football players’ evaluations of crying behavior.
University, Bloomington, IN 47405. E-mail: joelwong@ We focused in particular on contextual influ-
indiana.edu ences on these evaluations as well as how these
297298 WONG, STEINFELDT, LAFOLLETTE, AND TSAO
evaluations were related to college football len, 2008). Instead of treating masculinity as
players’ self-esteem. The rationale for our study trait-like attributes that exist within individuals,
was supported by two theoretical paradigms: masculinity is viewed as actively performed by
social constructionist perspectives and the so- individuals in specific social contexts (Addis &
cial norms model. In the following sections, we Cohane, 2005; Smiler, 2004). From a social
describe how each of these paradigms informed constructionist viewpoint, men might vary in
the current study. their reactions to crying behavior depending on
the precipitating situation. For example, in a
Social Constructionism qualitative study, Walton, Coyle, and Lyons
(2004) found that English men constructed men
Social constructionist perspectives empha- as emotional beings within specific social con-
size social factors that infuse masculinity expe- texts; a death, a soccer game, and a nightclub
riences with meaning as well as the contextual scenario were viewed as typical situations per-
and flexible nature of masculinity (Addis & mitting the expressions of grief, joy, and anger,
Cohane, 2005; Addis & Mahalik, 2003; Kahn, respectively.
2009; Wong & Rochlen, 2008). Wong and Another potential contextual influence on
Rochlen (2008) proposed that the contextual men’s evaluations of crying behavior is the in-
nature of masculinity can be analyzed at macro tensity of tears shed. Warner and Shields (2007)
and micro levels. At the macro level, social found that men who were described in written
constructionists assert that there are multiple vignettes as shedding a less intense form of
forms of masculinity that vary across historical tears were evaluated more positively than those
periods and social groups (e.g., White lower with a more intense form of tears. In explaining
class masculinity and college football masculin- this finding, the authors argued that the less
ity). Consequently, it is important for research- intense form of tears is consistent with the no-
ers to study specific forms of masculinity rather tion of “manly emotion.” Shields (2002) pro-
than assume that all forms of masculinity are posed that manly emotion involves the con-
equivalent (Smiler, 2004). In this regard, a re- trolled expression of feelings that are deep and
cent content analysis found that only 1% of authentic and is generally considered acceptable
articles published in the Psychology of Men and in U.S. society. Manly emotion might be
Masculinity from 2000 to 2008 included a focus viewed by men as a permissible expression of
on sports (Wong, Steinfeldt, Speight, & Hick- emotion because it conveys a degree of self-
man, 2010). Hence, our current focus on college control that remains consistent with the domi-
football masculinity may address a gap in the nant White, heterosexual expression of mascu-
literature on diverse masculinities. linity (Shields, 2002; Warner & Shields, 2007).
The culture of sports–and in particular, foot-
ball– emphasizes aggression, competition, phys- Social Norms Model
ical strength, and stoicism, qualities that are
similar to the types of masculine norms that are In addition to social constructionist perspec-
most admired in U.S. society (Pringle & tives, our study was guided by the social norms
Markula, 2005). Accordingly, sports have been model. Social norms are rules and standards that
described as a crucial source of masculine so- are understood by members of a social group as
cialization for men (Messner, 2002; Steinfeldt, a result of interaction with others (Cialdini &
Steinfeldt, England, & Speight, 2009). It would, Trost, 1998). Applied to masculinity research,
therefore, be helpful to examine how male foot- masculine norms are a type of social norms that
ball players would evaluate the crying behavior guide and constrain masculine behavior (Ma-
of another football player, given that tears may halik et al., 2003). Norms can be categorized in
represent a critical violation of masculine norms at least two ways. First, norms can be described
in football culture. as descriptive (what is typically done in a social
At the micro level, social constructionists in- group), injunctive (what is approved or disap-
vestigate contextual influences on men’s atti- proved by others), cohesive (what is done by
tudes and behavior by studying the ways they popular people), or personal (standards or ex-
actively construct masculinity in social situa- pectations that arise from one’s internalized val-
tions (Addis & Mahalik, 2003; Wong & Roch- ues) (Addis & Mahalik, 2003; Cialdini & Trost,SPECIAL SECTION: MEN’S TEARS 299 1998); for example, descriptive norms about see Hamilton & Mahalik, 2009). For instance, appropriate emotional behavior for men are the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory communicated when people perceive that most (CMNI; Mahalik et al., 2003), a measure of men do not cry in public. In contrast, injunctive men’s conformity to masculine norms, empha- norms are communicated when people observe sizes transsituational masculine norms in U.S. that men who cry in public are ridiculed by society rather than masculine norms in specific others. situations. Moreover, it can be argued that the Although all the above four types of norms CMNI measures conformity to personal norms are rooted in socialization processes, descrip- rather than external norms because the items in tive, injunctive, and cohesive norms differ from the inventory are statements about individuals’ personal norms. Specifically, the former cluster personal attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors (e.g., of norms are enforced through perceptions of “I like to talk about my feelings”) rather than others’ attitudes, beliefs, and behavior (e.g., the their perceptions of others’ attitudes, beliefs, perception that most football players do not cry and behaviors (e.g., “Most men believe it’s in- when they lose a game), whereas personal appropriate to talk about their feelings”). norms are enforced through compliance with In the current study, we aimed to address the one’s internal standards (Cialdini & Trost, above gaps in the literature by analyzing the 1998; Schwartz, 1977). Accordingly, we refer influence of transsituational personal norms, sit- to descriptive, injunctive, and cohesive norms uational personal norms, and situational de- as “external norms” to distinguish them from scriptive norms on football players’ perceived personal norms. conformity to crying behavior and self-esteem. A second approach to categorizing norms is The simultaneous investigation of different the distinction between cultural/societal and sit- types of norms allowed us to identify their rel- uational norms (Cialdini, Reno, & Kallgren, ative predictive power vis-à-vis one another. 1990). Whereas cultural/societal norms tend to Among the external norms (i.e., descriptive, be transsituational (norms that apply across dif- injunctive, and cohesive norms), we focused on ferent situations and domains of one’s life, e.g., descriptive norms because their potential influ- a general belief that men should control their ence on intended behavior has been clearly emotions), situational norms refer to norms that demonstrated through a number of studies apply in specific situations (e.g., a belief that (Buunk & Bakker, 1995; Rivis & Sheeran, football players should not cry after losing a 2003), including a study on men’s health behav- game). Hereafter, we refer to cultural/societal ior (Hamilton & Mahalik, 2009). Hamilton and norms as “transsituational norms.” Mahalik (2009) found that perceptions of nor- We propose that the distinction between ex- mative health behavior (as measured by the ternal and personal norms and between transsi- perceived typicality of other men’s health risk tuational and situational norms may have im- behavior) accounted for the greatest amount of portant implications for masculinity research. variance in gay men’s health risk behavior, be- Several studies have shown that different types yond the influence of conformity to masculine of norms differed in their relative influence on norms and minority stress. Descriptive norms individuals’ attitudes and behaviors (e.g., might shape football players’ perceived confor- Buunk & Bakker, 1995; Cialdini et al., 1990; mity to crying behavior by communicating so- Hamilton & Mahalik, 2009). These studies at- cial information about what is adaptive behav- test to the importance of simultaneously exam- ior in a particular situation (Cialdini, 2007). For ining the relative influence of different types of instance, if football players perceive that it is norms. Nevertheless, although a variety of so- typical for most football players to cry after cial norms have been theorized to influence losing a football game, they are more likely to men’s behavior (Addis & Mahalik, 2003; Kahn, perceive that they would also cry in a similar 2009; Mahalik et al., 2003), quantitative mas- situation. culinity studies that rely on the social norms In light of the foregoing discussion on social model have focused almost exclusively on the constructionism and the social norm model, we assessment of personal and transsituational propose a theoretical model integrating and ap- masculine norms at the expense of external and plying both paradigms to men’s emotional be- situational masculine norms (for an exception, havior. Consistent with social constructionist
300 WONG, STEINFELDT, LAFOLLETTE, AND TSAO
perspectives (Addis & Mahalik, 2003), we posit lic, yet finds himself crying in public, might be
that contextual factors influence men’s percep- frustrated with himself for not being able to
tions of situational norms about emotions as control his tears. In line with these notions,
well as men’s perceived emotional behavior in a several studies have shown that conflicts over
particular situation. Applying the social norms emotional expressiveness were linked to nega-
model (Cialdini & Trost, 1998), we theorize that tive outcomes such as less positivity in close
men’s perceived situational norms about emo- relationships (Mongrain & Vettese, 2003) and
tions also shape men’s emotional behavior and lower levels of self-esteem (King & Emmons,
perceived emotional behavior. Integrating the 1990). Although not explicitly stated by Wong
social constructionism and social norms para- and Rochlen, the concept of emotion-related
digms, we propose that contextual factors’ im- values bears some resemblance to one’s percep-
pact on men’s emotional behavior in a specific tions of social norms regarding emotions.
situation is mediated by their perceptions of the Accordingly, a man who perceives that norms
applicable situational norms. To illustrate, in discourage the expression of tears in a particular
the aftermath of losing a football game (contex- situation, but who nevertheless believes he
tual factor), a football player might perceive would likely cry in that situation, might struggle
that most football players do not cry after losing with lower levels of self-esteem.
a game (perceived situational descriptive
norms); these perceptions, in turn, influence the Hypotheses
player to resist crying.
It is also important to note that adherence to In the current study, participants were ran-
social norms can have costs as well as benefits domly assigned to read one of four vignettes
for men (Mahalik et al., 2003). Applied to the involving a college football player who cries
context of men’s emotional behavior, Wong and after a football game. The four vignettes varied
Rochlen (2005) proposed that the extent to in terms of the precipitating situation (losing vs.
which men’s emotional inexpressiveness result winning a game) and the intensity of tears (tear-
in positive or deleterious consequences depends ing up vs. sobbing). Further, we operationalized
on whether they experience conflicts associated the social norm constructs in our study in terms
with emotion-related values. Wong and Roch- of (a) adherence to the masculine norm of emo-
len (p. 67) defined emotion-related values as tional control, (b) perceived appropriateness
including “an individual’s perception of the im- of the vignette crying behavior, and (c) per-
portance of experiencing and expressing emo- ceived typicality of the vignette crying behavior
tions, as well as how, when, and to whom these (see Table 1).
emotions are to be expressed or not expressed.” Our first set of hypotheses examined con-
One possible reason why conflicts associated textual influences on participants’ evaluations
with emotion-related values results in negative of crying behavior. Because of the perceived
outcomes is that individuals experiencing con- association between crying and weakness in
flict might engage in prolonged rumination re- White, heterosexual masculine culture (cf.,
garding their emotional behavior (Mongrain & Lombardo et al., 2001), we expected that after
Vettese, 2003). For instance, a man who be- controlling for adherence to the masculine
lieves it is socially inappropriate to cry in pub- norm of emotional control, participants in the
Table 1
Social Norm Constructs and Their Corresponding Variables and Measures Used in the Current Study
Construct Variable Measure
Transsituational personal norms Adherence to the masculine Emotional Control Subscale of the Conformity
norm of emotional control to Masculine Norms Inventory-46
Situational personal norms Perceived appropriateness of the Evaluations of Emotional Behavior
vignette crying behavior Questionnaire-Perceived Appropriateness
Situational descriptive norms Perceived typicality of the Evaluations of Emotional Behavior
vignette crying behavior Questionnaire-Perceived TypicalitySPECIAL SECTION: MEN’S TEARS 301
losing (vs. winning) vignette conditions Method
would report higher levels of perceived typi-
cality with regard to the crying behavior but Participants and Procedures
also lower levels of perceived appropriateness
This study was part of a larger project on
and conformity with regard to the crying be-
college football players’ experience with mas-
havior. Further, following Warner and
culinity. This project consists of two relatively
Shields (2007), we anticipated that after con- distinct research studies: the current study as
trolling for adherence to the masculine norm well as an unpublished study examining foot-
of emotional control, participants who read ball players’ experience of gender role conflict
vignettes describing a less intense form of across different domains of their lives. The sec-
crying (tearing up vs. sobbing) would report ond author contacted athletic administrators and
higher levels of perceived appropriateness, coaches from two colleges who agreed to ex-
typicality, and conformity with regard to the tend the voluntary participation opportunity to
crying behavior. their players. One of the colleges plays football
Second, based on the foregoing theoretical at the National Collegiate Athletic Association
model integrating social constructionist per- (NCAA) Division II level (hereafter known as
spectives with the social norms model, we “College A”), and the other plays football at the
proposed a mediation model in which the National Association of Intercollegiate Athlet-
precipitating situation and intensity of tears ics (NAIA) level (hereafter known as “College
(contextual factors) influence participants’ B”). Both levels are relatively comparable in
perceived appropriateness and typicality of competitive terms, based on the ability of insti-
the vignette crying behavior (perceptions of tutions at both levels to provide a similar
situational norms), which, in turn, influence amount of athletic scholarships to student-
participants’ perceived conformity to the vi- athletes.
gnette crying behavior. Third, we examined Survey packets were distributed to players
predictors of football players’ self-esteem. from both colleges at team meetings outside
Previous studies have shown that men’s emo- practice time. Players took ⬃15 min to com-
tional inexpressiveness was related to lower plete the surveys, and then they returned the
levels of well-being (e.g., Burns & Mahalik, completed surveys at these team meetings.
There were 153 male football players who took
2008; Wong, Pituch, & Rochlen, 2006) and
part in this study. Incomplete data from 3 par-
self-esteem (Schwartz, Waldo, & Daniel,
ticipants was omitted, resulting in a final sample
2005). Based on these findings, we predicted of 150 participants (n for College A ⫽ 96; n for
that football players who had a greater open- College B ⫽ 54). Participants’ age ranged
ness to emotional expression would report from 18 to 32 (M ⫽ 19.67; SD ⫽ 1.75) and
higher self-esteem; that is, lower levels of included 44.7% freshman, 22.0% sopho-
adherence to the masculine norm of emotional more, 20.0% junior, and 13.3% senior student-
control as well as higher levels of perceived athletes. Of these 147 players reported their
appropriateness, typicality, and conformity racial/ethnic background (85.0% White, 10.2%
would be associated with higher levels of African American/Black, 3.4% Multira-
self-esteem. Guided by Wong and Rochlen’s cial, 1.4% Latino).
(2005) notion of conflicts associated with Participants were randomly assigned to four
emotion-related values, we also expected that vignette conditions. The authors created the vi-
participants who perceived that situational gnettes through consultation with college foot-
norms discouraged the expression of tears, ball coaches. In the first (lose/tearing up) con-
but who nevertheless believed they would dition, participants read the following vignette:
likely cry would have low self-esteem. Spe- Jack is a senior college football player. His team has
cifically, combinations of low perceived ap- not won a conference championship in 5 years, and
propriateness and high perceived conformity they are playing their rival team in a game that will
as well as low perceived typicality and high decide who is the champion. Unfortunately, Jack’s
team loses to their rivals and the entire team is devas-
perceived conformity would be associated tated. After the game, Jack is in the locker room with
with low self-esteem. two of his best friends on the team. As he reflects on302 WONG, STEINFELDT, LAFOLLETTE, AND TSAO
the significance of the game, Jack feels sad and begins behavior. Although each of the four vignettes
to tear up. With tears gathering in his eyes, Jack tells was worded differently, the wording of the
his teammates, “This game means a lot to me.”
EEBQ was identical for all participants. An
The second (lose/sobbing) vignette is identi- exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with promax
cal in wording to the first except that instead of rotation was used to examine the factor struc-
tearing up, Jack is sobbing. He is also described ture of the EEBQ by focusing on the scree plot
as having “tears flowing continuously down his and factor interpretability. We used the criterion
cheeks.” The third (win/tearing up) and fourth of factor loadings ⱖ[.35] for the inclusion of
(win/sobbing) vignettes are identical to the first items and the exclusion of items that cross-load
and second vignettes respectively except that on two or more factors. One item loaded poorly
instead of losing, Jack’s team wins the game on all three factors and was deleted. The data
against their rival team and the entire team is was reanalyzed using EFA and a three-factor
overjoyed. solution was uncovered. All 14 items had factor
loadings of at least .35 on only one factor (see
Measures Table 2 for the items for each factor). Explain-
ing 55.97% of the variance, the first factor com-
Evaluations of Emotional Behavior Ques- prised of five items (two reverse worded) and
tionnaire (EEBQ). This 15-item question- was labeled “perceived conformity.” This factor
naire was created by the authors to assess par- focused on perceived conformity to Jack’s cry-
ticipants’ evaluations of the crying behavior ing behavior. Comprising of five items (two
depicted in the four vignettes. Five items were reverse worded), the second factor accounted
constructed to assess each of the following: for 10.20% of the variance and was labeled
participants’ perceived appropriateness, typical- “perceived typicality.” The second factor
ity, and conformity with regard to Jack’s crying focused on the perceived typicality of Jack’s
Table 2
Factor Loadings for Exploratory Factor Analysis of the 14-Item Evaluations of Emotional
Behavior Questionnaire
Perceived Perceived Perceived
Item conformity typicality appropriateness
Jack has a good reason to show emotion in this situation. .48
Jack’s display of emotion in this situation is common among football
players. .44
I can easily think of other football players who would have displayed
emotion the way Jack did in this situation. .41
Jack’s expression of emotion was appropriate in this situation. .35
Jack’s show of emotion in this situation suggests that he is different
from me. (R) .72
Jack’s show of emotion in this situation suggests that he is different
from most football players. (R) .71
If I were in Jack’s situation, I am likely to express emotion the way
he did. .91
In this situation, Jack’s expression of emotion is typical of most
football players. .87
Most football players would not have displayed emotion the way
Jack did in this situation. (R) .95
I would not have shown my emotion the way Jack did in this
situation. (R) .84
I can imagine myself expressing emotion the way Jack did in a
similar situation. .93
I can identify with Jack because of his display of emotion in this
situation. .48
Jack’s display of emotion was wrong in this situation. (R) .85
Jack’s show of emotion in this situation was unhealthy. (R) 1.09
Note. (R) ⫽ item was reverse-scored.SPECIAL SECTION: MEN’S TEARS 303
crying behavior among football players. The indicate high levels of self-esteem. Evidence for
third factor, labeled “perceived appropriate- concurrent validity has been demonstrated
ness,” accounted for 6.86% of the variance and through a negative correlation with psycholog-
comprised of four items (two reverse worded). ical distress (Liu & Iwanmoto, 2006). In the
The third factor focused on the perceived ap- present study, the coefficient alpha was .85.
propriateness of Jack’s crying behavior. All Intensity of tears and precipitating situa-
three factors were strongly related to one an- tion. Intensity of tears and the precipitating
other (see Table 3). The coefficient alphas of the situation were measured dichotomously. Partic-
EEBQ’s three subscales were as follows: per- ipants in the tearing up and sobbing conditions
ceived appropriateness: .81, perceived typical- were assigned scores of 0 and 1, respectively,
ity: .96, and perceived conformity: .91. for intensity of tears. With regard to the precip-
Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory- itating situation, participants in the losing and
Emotional Control Subscale (CMNI-EC). winning conditions were assigned score of 0
The six-item CMNI-EC is one of nine subscales and 1, respectively.
of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inven-
tory-46 (CMNI-46; Parent & Moradi, 2009), the Results
short form of the Conformity to Masculine
Norms Inventory (CMNI; Mahalik et al., 2003). Preliminary Analyses
The CMNI-EC assesses men’s tendency to con-
trol their emotion. A sample (reverse worded) As a manipulation check, participants were
item is, “I like to talk about my feelings.” Re- asked in the survey to imagine how intense
spondents report the extent to which they agree Jack’s tears were (options were in order of
with each item on a 4-point Likert scale ranging increasing intensity: no actual tears, moist eyes,
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree), visible tearing, and sobbing). A Spearman Rho
with higher scores indicating greater levels of correlation revealed a significant relationship
emotional control. Concurrent validity for the between the vignette conditions (tearing up vs.
original version of the CMNI-EC was shown sobbing) and participants’ perceptions of the
through a significant negative relationship with intensity of Jack’s tears, rs ⫽ .21, p ⫽ .011.
a measure of professional psychological help- Consistent with the wording of the vignettes,
seeking attitudes (Mahalik et al., 2003). In the participants who read the tearing up vignettes
present study, the coefficient alpha was .85. tended to view Jack’s tears as less intense than
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). did participants who read the sobbing vignettes.
The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; The means, SDs, and intercorrelations of the
Rosenberg, 1965) is a 10-item global measure main measures are found in Table 3. CMNI-EC
of self-esteem. A sample item is, “I feel that I was not significantly related to perceived appro-
have a number of good qualities.” Respondents priateness, typicality, and conformity. CMNI-EC
indicate their level of agreement with items on was negatively associated with RSES, whereas
a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly perceived appropriateness was positively re-
disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). High scores lated to RSES. Perceived typicality and per-
Table 3
Means, SDs, and Intercorrelations Among Measures
Appropriate Typicality Conformity CMNI-EC RSES M (SD)
ⴱⴱ ⴱⴱ ⴱⴱ
Appropriate — .63 .58 ⫺.11 .26 5.98 (.93)
Typicality — .72ⴱⴱ ⫺.08 .08 5.26 (1.13)
Conformity — ⫺.11 ⫺.02 4.91 (1.44)
CMNI-EC — ⫺.31ⴱⴱ 2.60 (.50)
RSES — 3.35 (.43)
Note. Appropriate ⫽ perceived appropriateness of the vignette crying behavior; Typicality ⫽ perceived typicality of the
vignette crying behavior; Conformity ⫽ perceived conformity to the vignette crying behavior; CMNI-EC ⫽ Emotional
Control Subscale of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-46; RSES ⫽ Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale.
ⴱⴱ
p ⬍ .01.304 WONG, STEINFELDT, LAFOLLETTE, AND TSAO
ceived conformity were not significantly related ( p ⫽ .026) and win/sobbing conditions ( p ⫽
to RSES. .041). Participants in the win/tearing up condi-
Because data was collected from two col- tion reported higher levels of perceived appro-
leges, we conducted a series of ANOVAs to priateness than those in the lose/sobbing ( p ⫽
assess whether participants from both colleges .004) and win/sobbing conditions ( p ⫽ .006).
differed significantly on the main measures. There were also several significant differences
Compared with College B participants, College in perceived typicality. Participants in the win/
A participants reported significantly higher lev- sobbing condition perceived Jack’s behavior as
els of perceived appropriateness, F(1, less typical of football players compared with
148) ⫽ 12.70, p ⬍ .001, 2p ⫽ .08 (College A those in the lose/tearing up ( p ⫽ .001), lose/
M ⫽ 6.17; College B M ⫽ 5.63); perceived sobbing ( p ⫽ .017), and win/tearing up condi-
typicality, F(1, 148) ⫽ 4.49, p ⫽ .036, 2p ⫽ .03 tions ( p ⫽ .004). Participants in the win/
(College A M ⫽ 5.40; College B M ⫽ 5.00), sobbing condition reported lower levels of per-
and higher RSES scores, F(1, 148) ⫽ 8.84, p ⫽ ceived conformity to Jack’s behavior compared
.003, 2p ⫽ .06 (College A M ⫽ 3.43; College B with those in the lose/tearing up ( p ⫽ .011) and
M ⫽ 3.21). College A also reported marginally win/tearing up conditions ( p ⫽ .010). All other
significantly higher levels of perceived confor- comparisons were not significant. In sum, these
mity, F(1, 148) ⫽ 3.19, p ⫽ .076, 2p ⫽ .02 findings provide partial support for our first set
(College A M ⫽ 5.07; College B M ⫽ 4.63). of hypotheses. In general, participants who read
Participants from College A and College B did vignettes about Jack tearing up tended to report
not differ significantly on CMNI-EC scores, higher levels of perceived appropriateness, typ-
p ⫽ .323. Given these findings, college (College icality, and conformity than those who read
A vs. B) was included as a covariate in the vignettes about Jack sobbing. In contrast, the
subsequently main analyses. effect of the precipitating situation (losing vs.
winning a game) was only evident in perceived
Main Analyses typicality; that is, sobbing as a result of losing a
game was perceived to be more typical as com-
One-tailed tests were used for our main anal- pared to winning a game.
yses because our hypotheses were directional in In our second set of hypotheses, we predicted
nature. Our first set of hypotheses examined that perceived appropriateness and typicality
predictors of participants’ evaluations of Jack’s would mediate the relationships between the
crying behavior in the vignettes. A MANCOVA precipitating situation (losing vs. winning) and
was used to examine differences in perceived intensity of tears (tearing up vs. sobbing) on the
appropriateness, typicality, and conformity among one hand and perceived conformity on the other
the four conditions (college and CMNI-EC were hand. Intensity of tears was related to perceived
entered as covariates; see Table 4). There was an conformity, r ⫽ ⫺.21, p ⫽ .012. However,
overall main effect for the conditions, Wilks’ ⫽ there was no mediation effect between the pre-
.87, F(9, 346) ⫽ 2.34, p ⫽ .014, 2p ⫽ .05. cipitating situation and perceived conformity
Participants in the lose/tearing up condition per- because both were not significantly related to
ceived Jack’s crying behavior as more appro- each other (r ⫽ ⫺.06, p ⫽ .497; Mathieu &
priate compared with those in the lose/sobbing Taylor, 2006). Hence, we focused only on in-
Table 4
Estimated Marginal Means and SDs for Perceived Appropriateness, Typicality, and Conformity Across the
Four Vignette Conditions
Perceived Perceived Perceived
Conditions appropriateness M (SD) typicality M (SD) conformity M (SD)
Lose/tearing up (n ⫽ 39) 6.12 (.14) 5.54 (.17) 5.19 (.23)
Lose/sobbing (n ⫽ 38) 5.73 (.14) 5.28 (.18) 4.77 (.23)
Win/tearing up (n ⫽ 37) 6.29 (.14) 5.43 (.18) 5.22 (.23)
Win/sobbing (n ⫽ 36) 5.77 (.15) 4.74 (.18) 4.43 (.24)SPECIAL SECTION: MEN’S TEARS 305
vestigating mediators between intensity of tears oretically plausible mediation model in which
and perceived conformity. perceived conformity and perceived typicality
Although the Baron and Kenny (1986) and mediates the link between intensity of tears and
Sobel (1982) tests are commonly used for test- perceived appropriateness. In other words, par-
ing mediation, they have been criticized for ticipants’ perception that Jack’s crying behavior
being based on the assumption that the indirect was typical and that they would conform to
effect conforms to a normal distribution as well Jack’s crying behavior might lead them to con-
as for low statistical power (MacKinnon, Lock- clude that Jack’s behavior was appropriate. The
wood, Hoffman, West, & Sheets, 2002). To test mediation effect from intensity of tears to per-
our hypothesized indirect effects, we used boot- ceived conformity to perceived appropriateness
strapping, a nonparametric procedure that does was significant (mean estimate of effect ⫽
not assume the sampling distribution of the in- ⫺.10, SE ⫽ .06, bias-corrected 95% CI ⫽ ⫺.25,
direct effect is normal (Preacher & Hayes, ⫺.02), as was the mediation effect from inten-
2008). sity of tears to perceived typicality to perceived
Using an SPSS macro that can test for mul- appropriateness (mean estimate of effect ⫽
tiple mediation effects within the same model ⫺.15, SE ⫽ .07, bias-corrected 95% CI ⫽ ⫺.32,
(Preacher & Hayes, 2008), 10,000 bootstrap ⫺.04). Hence, we could not rule out the alter-
samples were produced by randomly sampling native mediation hypothesis. Rather, we con-
with replacements from the original data, result- cluded that our findings are consistent with our
ing in 10,000 estimates of the indirect path hypothesized model in which perceived appro-
coefficients (covariates were college and priateness and perceived typicality mediate the
CMNI-EC). The findings of this mediation anal- association between intensity of tears and per-
ysis are depicted in Figure 1. Within the medi- ceived conformity.
ation model, the two covariates, college ( p ⫽ In our third set of hypotheses, we examined
.784) and CMNI-EC ( p ⫽ .466), were both not predictors of participants’ RSES scores using a
significantly associated with perceived confor- hierarchical multiple regression (see Table 5).
mity. The mean estimate of the mediation effect The outcome variable was RSES. At Step 1, col-
from intensity of tears to perceived appropriate- lege, CMNI-EC, perceived appropriateness, per-
ness to perceived conformity was ⫺.15, SE ⫽ ceived typicality, and perceived conformity were
.08, bias-corrected 95% confidence intervals added to the regression model. The overall model
(CI) ⫽ ⫺.35, ⫺.04. The mean estimate of the was significant, R2 ⫽ .22, F(5, 144) ⫽ 7.94, p ⬍
mediation effect from intensity of tears to per- .001. In support of our hypotheses, CMNI-EC was
ceived typicality to perceived conformity was negatively related to RSES, and perceived appro-
⫺.35, SE ⫽ .15, bias-corrected 95% CI ⫽ ⫺.66, priateness was positively related to RSES. How-
⫺.08. Both mediation effects were significant, ever, contrary to hypothesis, perceived conformity
given that their 95% CI did not include zero. was negatively related to RSES. Perceived typi-
Following Frazier, Tix, and Barron’s (2004) cality was not significantly related to RSES.
recommendation, we tested an alternative, the- At Step 2, the addition of perceived confor-
mity ⫻ appropriateness and perceived confor-
mity ⫻ typicality interaction terms contributed
Perceived
-.45 Appropriateness significantly to the overall model, ⌬R2 ⫽ .03,
.33
⌬F(2, 142) ⫽ 2.39, p ⫽ .048. The perceived
Intensity of Tears
{df(tearing up vs.
Perceived conformity ⫻ appropriateness interaction term,
but not the perceived conformity ⫻ typicality
Conformity
sobbing)
interaction term, was significant. We used an
Perceived
-.47
Typicality
.73 SPSS macro (Hayes & Matthes, 2009) to probe
the significant perceived conformity ⫻ appro-
priateness interaction. At 1 SD below the mean
Figure 1. Mediation model depicting the relationships of perceived appropriateness, a higher level of
among intensity of tears, perceived appropriateness, per- perceived conformity was related to a lower
ceived typicality, and perceived conformity. The Emotional
Control Subscale of the CMNI-46 and college (College A level of RSES, B ⫽ ⫺.22, SE ⫽ .07, p ⫽ .001.
vs. College B) were entered as covariates in the model. All In contrast, at 1 SD above the mean of perceived
paths were significant at p ⬍ .01. appropriateness, perceived conformity was not306 WONG, STEINFELDT, LAFOLLETTE, AND TSAO
Table 5
Multiple Regression Model Predicting Self-Esteem
Step Measure B SE B 
Step 1 College ⫺.14 .07 ⫺.16ⴱ
CMNI-EC ⫺.12 .03 ⫺.29ⴱⴱ
Perceived appropriateness .14 .04 .33ⴱⴱ
Perceived typicality .01 .05 .01
Perceived conformity ⫺.12 .05 ⫺.28ⴱⴱ⫹
Step 2 College ⫺.12 .07 ⫺.14ⴱ
CMNI-EC ⫺.13 .03 ⫺.30ⴱⴱ
Perceived appropriateness .17 .05 .39ⴱⴱ
Perceived typicality .02 .05 .05
Perceived conformity ⫺.15 .05 ⫺.34ⴱⴱ⫹
Perceived conformity ⫻ perceived typicality .09 .05 .18ⴱ
Perceived conformity ⫻ perceived appropriateness ⫺.01 .04 ⫺.01
Note. College ⫽ College A versus College B; CMNI-EC ⫽ Emotional Control Subscale of the Conformity to Masculine
Norms Inventory-46.
ⴱ
p ⬍ .05. ⴱⴱ p ⬍ .01; ⫹contrary to hypothesis.
related to RSES, B ⫽ ⫺.06, SE ⫽ .05, p ⫽ .240. control was not significantly related to per-
These findings suggest that a combination of ceived appropriateness, typicality, and confor-
low perceived appropriateness and high per- mity with regard to Jack’s crying behavior.
ceived conformity was associated with low self- Second, our mediation hypotheses also re-
esteem. ceived partial support. Our mediation hypothe-
sis involving the precipitation situation was not
Discussion supported. However, our findings were consis-
tent with a mediation model in which exposure
Guided by social constructionist and social to the vignette conditions involving a less in-
norms perspectives on masculinity (Addis & tense form of tears (tearing up vs. sobbing) was
Mahalik, 2003; Wong & Rochlen, 2008), our associated with higher levels of perceived ap-
main goal for this study was to investigate male propriateness and typicality of Jack’s crying
college football players’ evaluations of crying behavior, which were in turn, associated with
behavior. Participants responded to vignettes higher levels of perceived conformity to Jack’s
involving Jack, a football player who cries after crying behavior. These findings attest to the
a football game. Consistent with our first set of
potential mediating role of situational norms
hypotheses, participants in the tearing up (vs.
(i.e., perceived appropriateness and typicality)
sobbing) conditions tended to view Jack’s cry-
in linking contextual influences with men’s per-
ing behavior as relatively more appropriate and
typical of football players and were more likely ceived emotional behavior.
to conform to Jack’s crying behavior. These Our third set of hypotheses involved predic-
findings dovetail with the results of Warner and tors of participants’ self-esteem. Consistent
Shields (2007) and support Shields’ (2002) no- with our hypotheses and with previous research
tion of manly emotion as a relatively acceptable (e.g., Burns & Mahalik, 2008), our multiple
emotional style in U.S. society. regression model revealed that participants with
In contrast, support for the influence of the lower levels of adherence to the masculine norm
precipitation situation (losing vs. winning a of emotional control and who perceived Jack’s
game) was somewhat mixed. Sobbing as a re- crying behavior as appropriate reported higher
sult of losing a game was perceived to be more levels of self-esteem. Surprisingly, participants
typical as compared to winning a game. How- who perceived they would conform to Jack’s
ever, the precipitating situation did not appear emotional behavior if they were in his situation
to have an influence on perceived appropriate- reported lower levels of self-esteem. The con-
ness and conformity. In addition, participants’ trasting influences of perceived appropriateness
adherence to the masculine norm of emotional and perceived conformity on participants’ self-SPECIAL SECTION: MEN’S TEARS 307 esteem is intriguing. It appears that an accep- personal masculine norms, rather than on situ- tance of crying behavior had a positive associ- ational norms and external norms (i.e., norms ation with self-esteem only if it involved an that are explicitly based on perceptions of oth- approval of others’ crying behavior rather than ers’ attitudes or behavior). We encourage re- one’s personal crying behavior. Perhaps foot- searchers to broaden the scope of future mascu- ball players perceived that they risked ridicule linity research to examine the relative influences from others for appearing weak if they cried of a variety of norms (i.e., personal vs. external, after a football game. Nonetheless, the signifi- transsituational vs. situational) on men’s atti- cant negative association between perceived tudes and behaviors. conformity and self-esteem in our multiple re- Third, our findings on the effects of the pre- gression analyses should be interrupted cau- cipitating situation and intensity of tears on tiously, given that this association was not sig- football players’ evaluations of crying behavior nificant at the bivariate level. Our interaction provide support for a social constructionist hypothesis for perceived appropriateness and viewpoint that emphasizes contextual influ- conformity, but not for perceived typicality and ences on masculinity (Addis & Mahalik, 2003). conformity, was supported. Congruent with In contrast, adherence to the masculine norm of Wong and Rochlen’s (2005) notion of conflict emotional control was not significantly associ- associated with emotion-related values, a com- ated with perceived appropriateness, typicality, bination of low perceived appropriateness and and conformity with regard to Jack’s crying high perceived conformity to Jack’s crying be- behavior. Perhaps these findings suggest that havior was associated with lower levels of self- transsituational masculine norms (e.g., adher- esteem. ence to masculine norms as measured by the Several strengths in this study are notewor- CMNI and CMNI-46) may be poor predictors of thy. First, in a 10-year review of masculinity men’s attitudes and behavior in specific situa- research, Whorley and Addis (2006) noted that tions, but better predictors of transituational masculinity research was dominated by correla- measures of men’s attitudes, behavior, and well- tional research designs and that experimental being (e.g., Burns & Mahalik, 2008). research was rarely utilized. Our study ad- Social constructionist perspectives present dresses this methodological gap by using an several possible avenues for future research on experimental design to test our first set of hy- men’s emotional behavior. For instance, to ex- potheses. By randomly assigning participants to amine how men would respond emotionally to a four different vignette conditions, we were able particular situation, researchers should not sim- to draw causal inferences about how partici- ply rely on transsituational measures of mascu- pants in these conditions differed in perceived linity (e.g., the CMNI) as predictors, but should appropriateness, typicality, and conformity. also investigate the influence of contextual fac- Second, our assessment of situational norms tors (e.g., type of situation and who else is and descriptive norms is a potentially unique present in the situation). Further, to examine contribution to the literature on masculine men’s active construction of masculinity from a norms. Our findings suggest that it is critical to social constructionist viewpoint (Wong & examine different types of norms because they Rochlen, 2008), researchers can investigate the may be associated with different constructs. For extent to which men are willing to label various example, the precipitating situation (losing vs. types of emotional behavior (tearing up vs. sob- winning a game) influenced perceptions of sit- bing) as “masculine.” uational descriptive norms (perceived typicality of Jack’s crying behavior), but not situational Limitations personal norms (perceived appropriateness of Jack’s crying behavior). In contrast, situational Despite these strengths, our findings should personal norms (perceived appropriateness), but be interpreted with caution in light of several not situational descriptive norms (perceived limitations. Our reliance on hypothetical scenar- typicality), were associated with participants’ ios precludes the generalizability of our findings self-esteem. Thus far, research on masculine to football players’ actual crying behavior. In norms has focused largely on transsituational addition, our vignettes described Jack as crying
308 WONG, STEINFELDT, LAFOLLETTE, AND TSAO
in the presence of two friends; we did not ex- will study football players from diverse racial/
amine if perceptions of Jack’s behavior would ethnic backgrounds and teams.
differ depending on whether Jack cried alone or
in the presence of others. Another limitation of
our study was that we only examined one type Practical Implications
of external norms, that is, perceived descriptive
The results of this study have the potential to
norms (operationalized as “perceived typical-
inform the work of mental health professionals
ity”). Future research should address the influ-
who come into contact with male student-
ence of perceived injunctive and cohesive
athletes. An understanding of the contextual
norms on men’s emotional behavior. nature of masculinity can lend greater insight
Further, the high correlations among the three into the range of acceptable emotional expres-
EEBQ subscales raise questions about whether sion among men in this context. Past research-
these subscales simply measure the same vari- ers (e.g., Messner, 2002; Rubin, 1983) have
able. Nevertheless, our findings provide prelim- purported that sport allows men to build rela-
inary support for the notion that the EEBQ tionships without having to risk emotional in-
subscales measure distinct variables because volvement in the process. However, our find-
these subscales were significantly associated ings indicate that the perceived appropriateness,
with different variables. For example, exposure typicality, and conformity with regard to crying
to the losing (vs. winning) vignettes resulted in behavior varied depending on several contex-
higher perceived typicality, but not higher per- tual factors. Thus, by identifying parameters of
ceived appropriateness and conformity. Also, emotional acceptability in the context of sport
perceived appropriateness and perceived con- (e.g., tearing up is a more acceptable form of
formity were related to self-esteem in opposite emotional behavior than sobbing), clinicians
directions in our multiple regression analyses, can help male student-athletes extrapolate their
whereas perceived typicality was not related to comfort with emotional expression to other so-
self-esteem. cial situations off the field.
A final limitation relates to the composition Additionally, our findings may have practical
of our sample. The proportion of non-White implications for coaches and athletic adminis-
participants was too small for us to conduct any trators who work most directly with male stu-
meaningful analysis on racial/ethnic differences dent-athletes. Sport has the potential to be an
in the evaluations of crying behavior. In addi- influential institution of masculinity socializa-
tion, although the teams from College A and tion for young men (Messner, 2002), and
College B are relatively comparable in compet- coaches in particular wield great influence over
itive terms, College A participants reported the psychosocial development of their players
higher levels of perceived appropriateness, typ- (Steinfeldt et al., in press). Hence, coaches can
icality, and conformity than College B partici- help male student-athletes develop healthy ex-
pants. We are not aware of any characteristics in pressions of masculinity. For example, Rex
the two football teams and colleges that might Ryan, the head coach of the New York Jets, was
account for these differences. Nonetheless, recently at the center of media attention for
these differences point to the diversity in emo- crying while he was addressing his football
tion norms that may exist among football teams. team. Coach Ryan directly confronted criti-
Moreover, we only recruited participants from cisms of his emotional expression by saying,
two colleges. Our findings might have been “I’m man enough to be me;” importantly, Ry-
different if we had included players at the an’s players conveyed support for his emotional
NCAA Division I FBS (Football Bowl Series) display (para 7, Associated Press, 2009b).
level, the highest level of college football com- Guided by a social norms perspective (Cialdini
petition. Because of the increased amount of & Trost, 1998), we suggest that coaches can
media attention, financial resources, and public help alter male student-athletes’ perceptions of
scrutiny associated with Division I FBS, foot- emotion norms by modeling the appropriate ex-
ball players at this level of competition might pression of emotion and by creating a training
experience greater pressure to conform to mas- climate that accommodates a range of emo-
culine norms. Our hope is that future studies tional expression.SPECIAL SECTION: MEN’S TEARS 309
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