Nutrition Therapy Recommendations for the Management of Adults With Diabetes
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P O S I T I O N S T A T E M E N T
Nutrition Therapy Recommendations
for the Management of Adults
With Diabetes
ALISON B. EVERT, MS, RD, CDE1 JOSHUA J. NEUMILLER,PHARMD, CDE, CGP, in order to improve overall health and spe-
JACKIE L. BOUCHER, MS, RD, LD, CDE2 FASCP7 cifically to:
MARJORIE CYPRESS, PHD, C-ANP, CDE3 ROBIN NWANKWO, MPH, RD, CDE8
STEPHANIE A. DUNBAR, MPH, RD4 CASSANDRA L. VERDI, MPH, RD4 Attain individualized glycemic, blood
MARION J. FRANZ, MS, RD, CDE5 PATTI URBANSKI, MED, RD, LD, CDE9
ELIZABETH J. MAYER-DAVIS, PHD, RD6 WILLIAM S. YANCY JR., MD, MHSC10 pressure, and lipid goals. General
recommended goals from the ADA
for these markers are as follows:*
o A1C ,7%.
o Blood pressure ,140/80 mmHg.
A
healthful eating pattern, regular management of diabetes complications o LDL cholesterol ,100 mg/dL;
physical activity, and often pharma- and gestational diabetes mellitus is not triglycerides ,150 mg/dL; HDL
cotherapy are key components of addressed in this review. cholesterol .40 mg/dL for men;
diabetes management. For many individ- A grading system, developed by the ADA HDL cholesterol .50 mg/dL for
uals with diabetes, the most challenging and modeled after existing methods, was women.
part of the treatment plan is determin- utilized to clarify and codify the evidence that Achieve and maintain body weight
ing what to eat. It is the position of the forms the basis for the recommendations (1) goals.
American Diabetes Association (ADA) (Table 1). The level of evidence that supports Delay or prevent complications of
that there is not a “one-size-fits-all” eating each recommendation is listed after the rec- diabetes.
pattern for individuals with diabetes. The ommendation using the letters A, B, C, or E.
ADA also recognizes the integral role of nu- A table linking recommendations to evi- ▪ To address individual nutrition needs
trition therapy in overall diabetes manage- dence can be reviewed at http://professional based on personal and cultural prefer-
ment and has historically recommended .diabetes.org/nutrition. Members of the Nu- ences, health literacy and numeracy,
that each person with diabetes be actively trition Recommendations Writing Group access to healthful food choices, will-
engaged in self-management, education, Committee disclosed all potential financial ingness and ability to make behavioral
and treatment planning with his or her conflicts of interest with industry. These changes, as well as barriers to change.
health care provider, which includes the disclosures were discussed at the onset of ▪ To maintain the pleasure of eating by
collaborative development of an individ- the position statement development pro- providing positive messages about food
ualized eating plan (1,2). Therefore, it is cess. Members of this committee, their em- choices while limiting food choices only
important that all members of the health ployers, and their disclosed conflicts of when indicated by scientific evidence.
care team be knowledgeable about dia- interest are listed in the ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. ▪ To provide the individual with diabe-
betes nutrition therapy and support its The ADA uses general revenues to fund tes with practical tools for day-to-day
implementation. development of its position statements meal planning rather than focusing on
This position statement on nutrition and does not rely on industry support for individual macronutrients, micronutri-
therapy for individuals living with diabe- these purposes. ents, or single foods.
tes replaces previous position statements,
the last of which was published in 2008 Goals of nutrition therapy *A1C, blood pressure, and cholesterol
(3). Unless otherwise noted, research re- that apply to adults goals may need to be adjusted for the in-
viewed was limited to those studies con- with diabetes dividual based on age, duration of diabetes,
ducted in adults diagnosed with type 1 or ▪ To promote and support healthful eating health history, and other present health
type 2 diabetes. Nutrition therapy for the patterns, emphasizing a variety of nutrient- conditions. Further recommendations
prevention of type 2 diabetes and for the dense foods in appropriate portion sizes, for individualization of goals can be found
in the ADA Standards of Medical Care in
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
Diabetes (1).
From the 1University of Washington Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; the 2Minneapolis Heart Institute
Foundation, Minneapolis, Minnesota; the 3Department of Endocrinology, ABQ Health Partners, Albu- Metabolic control can be considered
querque, New Mexico; the 4American Diabetes Association, Alexandria, Virginia; 5Nutrition Concepts by the cornerstone of diabetes management.
Franz, Minneapolis, Minnesota; the 6Gillings School of Global Public Health and School of Medicine, Achieving A1C goals decreases the risk for
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; the 7Department of Pharmaco-
therapy, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington; the 8University of Michigan Medical School microvascular complications (4,5) and
and the Center for Preventive Medicine, Ann Arbor, Michigan; 9pbu consulting, llc., Cloquet, Minnesota; may also be important for cardiovascular
and the 10Duke University School of Medicine, Durhum, North Carolina. disease (CVD) risk reduction, particularly
Corresponding authors: Alison B. Evert, atevert@u.washington.edu, and Jackie L. Boucher, jboucher@mhif.org. in newly diagnosed patients (6–8). In ad-
DOI: 10.2337/dc13-2042
© 2013 by the American Diabetes Association. Readers may use this article as long as the work is properly dition, achieving blood pressure and lipid
cited, the use is educational and not for profit, and the work is not altered. See http://creativecommons.org/ goals can help reduce risk for CVD events
licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ for details. (9,10). Carbohydrate intake has a direct
care.diabetesjournals.org DIABETES CARE 1
Diabetes Care Publish Ahead of Print, published online October 9, 2013Position Statement
Table 1dNutrition therapy recommendations
Topic Recommendation Evidence rating
Effectiveness of nutrition Nutrition therapy is recommended for all people with type 1 and type 2 diabetes as an A
therapy effective component of the overall treatment plan.
Individuals who have diabetes should receive individualized MNT as needed to achieve A
treatment goals, preferably provided by an RD familiar with the components of diabetes
MNT.
o For individuals with type 1 diabetes, participation in an intensive flexible insulin A
therapy education program using the carbohydrate counting meal planning approach
can result in improved glycemic control.
o For individuals using fixed daily insulin doses, consistent carbohydrate intake with B
respect to time and amount can result in improved glycemic control and reduce risk for
hypoglycemia.
o A simple diabetes meal planning approach such as portion control or healthful food choices C
may be better suited to individuals with type 2 diabetes identified with health and
numeracy literacy concerns. This may also be an effective meal planning strategy for older adults.
People with diabetes should receive DSME according to national standards and diabetes B
self-management support when their diabetes is diagnosed and as needed thereafter.
Because diabetes nutrition therapy can result in cost savings (B) and improved outcomes such as B, A, E
reduction in A1C (A), nutrition therapy should be adequately reimbursed by insurance and
other payers. (E)
Energy balance For overweight or obese adults with type 2 diabetes, reducing energy intake while A
maintaining a healthful eating pattern is recommended to promote weight loss.
Modest weight loss may provide clinical benefits (improved glycemia, blood pressure, and/or A
lipids) in some individuals with diabetes, especially those early in the disease process. To
achieve modest weight loss, intensive lifestyle interventions (counseling about nutrition
therapy, physical activity, and behavior change) with ongoing support are recommended.
Optimal mix of Evidence suggests that there is not an ideal percentage of calories from carbohydrate, B, E
macronutrients protein, and fat for all people with diabetes (B); therefore, macronutrient distribution
should be based on individualized assessment of current eating patterns, preferences,
and metabolic goals. (E)
Eating patterns A variety of eating patterns (combinations of different foods or food groups) are acceptable E
for the management of diabetes. Personal preferences (e.g., tradition, culture, religion,
health beliefs and goals, economics) and metabolic goals should be considered when
recommending one eating pattern over another.
Carbohydrates Evidence is inconclusive for an ideal amount of carbohydrate intake for people with diabetes. C
Therefore, collaborative goals should be developed with the individual with diabetes.
The amount of carbohydrates and available insulin may be the most important factor influencing A
glycemic response after eating and should be considered when developing the eating plan.
Monitoring carbohydrate intake, whether by carbohydrate counting or experience-based B
estimation remains a key strategy in achieving glycemic control.
For good health, carbohydrate intake from vegetables, fruits, whole grains, legumes, and dairy B
products should be advised over intake from other carbohydrate sources, especially those
that contain added fats, sugars, or sodium.
Glycemic index and glycemic Substituting low–glycemic load foods for higher–glycemic load foods may modestly improve C
load glycemic control.
Dietary fiber and whole grains People with diabetes should consume at least the amount of fiber and whole grains C
recommended for the general public.
Substitution of sucrose for While substituting sucrose-containing foods for isocaloric amounts of other carbohydrates A
starch may have similar blood glucose effects, consumption should be minimized to avoid
displacing nutrient-dense food choices.
Fructose Fructose consumed as “free fructose” (i.e., naturally occurring in foods such as fruit) may B, C
result in better glycemic control compared with isocaloric intake of sucrose or starch (B),
and free fructose is not likely to have detrimental effects on triglycerides as long as intake is
not excessive (.12% energy). (C)
People with diabetes should limit or avoid intake of SSBs (from any caloric sweetener including B
high fructose corn syrup and sucrose) to reduce risk for weight gain and worsening of
cardiometabolic risk profile.
Continued on p. 3
2 DIABETES CARE care.diabetesjournals.orgEvert and Associates
Table 1dContinued
Topic Recommendation Evidence rating
NNSs and hypocaloric Use of NNSs has the potential to reduce overall calorie and carbohydrate intake if substituted B
sweeteners for caloric sweeteners without compensation by intake of additional calories from other
food sources.
Protein For people with diabetes and no evidence of diabetic kidney disease, evidence is C
inconclusive to recommend an ideal amount of protein intake for optimizing glycemic
control or improving one or more CVD risk measures; therefore, goals should be
individualized.
For people with diabetes and diabetic kidney disease (either micro- or macroalbuminuria), A
reducing the amount of dietary protein below usual intake is not recommended because it
does not alter glycemic measures, cardiovascular risk measures, or the course of GFR decline.
In individuals with type 2 diabetes, ingested protein appears to increase insulin response B
without increasing plasma glucose concentrations. Therefore, carbohydrate sources high in
protein should not be used to treat or prevent hypoglycemia.
Total fat Evidence is inconclusive for an ideal amount of total fat intake for people with diabetes; C, B
therefore, goals should be individualized (C); fat quality appears to be far more important
than quantity. (B)
MUFAs/PUFAs In people with type 2 diabetes, a Mediterranean-style, MUFA-rich eating pattern may benefit B
glycemic control and CVD risk factors and can therefore be recommended as an effective
alternative to a lower-fat, higher-carbohydrate eating pattern.
Omega-3 fatty acids Evidence does not support recommending omega-3 (EPA and DHA) supplements for people A
with diabetes for the prevention or treatment of cardiovascular events.
As recommended for the general public, an increase in foods containing long-chain omega-3 B
fatty acids (EPA and DHA) (from fatty fish) and omega-3 linolenic acid (ALA) is
recommended for individuals with diabetes because of their beneficial effects on lipoproteins,
prevention of heart disease, and associations with positive health outcomes in observational
studies.
The recommendation for the general public to eat fish (particularly fatty fish) at least two times B
(two servings) per week is also appropriate for people with diabetes.
Saturated fat, dietary The amount of dietary saturated fat, cholesterol, and trans fat recommended for people with C
cholesterol, and trans fat diabetes is the same as that recommended for the general population.
Plant stanols and sterols Individuals with diabetes and dyslipidemia may be able to modestly reduce total and LDL C
cholesterol by consuming 1.6–3 g/day of plant stanols or sterols typically found in
enriched foods.
Micronutrients and herbal There is no clear evidence of benefit from vitamin or mineral supplementation in people with C
supplements diabetes who do not have underlying deficiencies.
o Routine supplementation with antioxidants, such as vitamins E and C and carotene, is A
not advised because of lack of evidence of efficacy and concern related to long-term
safety.
o There is insufficient evidence to support the routine use of micronutrients such as C
chromium, magnesium, and vitamin D to improve glycemic control in people with
diabetes.
o There is insufficient evidence to support the use of cinnamon or other herbs/ C
supplements for the treatment of diabetes.
It is recommended that individualized meal planning include optimization of food choices to E
meet recommended dietary allowance/dietary reference intake for all micronutrients.
Alcohol If adults with diabetes choose to drink alcohol, they should be advised to do so in E
moderation (one drink per day or less for adult women and two drinks per day or
less for adult men).
Alcohol consumption may place people with diabetes at increased risk for delayed C
hypoglycemia, especially if taking insulin or insulin secretagogues. Education and awareness
regarding the recognition and management of delayed hypoglycemia is warranted.
Sodium The recommendation for the general population to reduce sodium to less than 2,300 mg/day B
is also appropriate for people with diabetes.
For individuals with both diabetes and hypertension, further reduction in sodium intake should B
be individualized.
care.diabetesjournals.org DIABETES CARE 3Position Statement
effect on postprandial glucose levels in definition does not specify that nutrition Table 2dAcademy of Nutrition and
people with diabetes and is the primary therapy must be provided by an RD (19). Dietetics Evidence-Based Nutrition Practice
macronutrient of concern in glycemic However, both MNT and nutrition therapy Guidelines
management (11). In addition, an indi- should involve a nutrition assessment,
vidual’s food choices have a direct effect nutrition diagnosis, nutrition interven- Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics
on energy balance and, therefore, on body tions (e.g., education and counseling), Evidence-Based Nutrition Practice
weight, and food choices can also impact and nutrition monitoring and evaluation Guidelines recommend the following
blood pressure and lipid levels. Through with ongoing follow-up to support long- structure for the implementation of MNT
the collaborative development of individ- term lifestyle changes, evaluate out- for adults with diabetes (11)
ualized nutrition interventions and ongo- comes, and modify interventions as
ing support of behavior changes, health needed (20). c A series of 3–4 encounters with an RD
care professionals can facilitate the Nutrition therapy studies included in lasting from 45–90 min.
achievement of their patients’/clients’ this position statement use a wide assort- c The series of encounters should begin at
health goals (11–13). ment of nutrition professionals as well as diagnosis of diabetes or at first referral to an
registered and advanced practice nurses RD for MNT for diabetes and should be
Diabetes nutrition or physicians. Health care professionals completed within 3–6 months.
therapydIdeally, the individual with administering nutrition interventions in c The RD should determine whether
diabetes should be referred to a registered studies conducted outside the U.S. did additional MNT encounters are needed.
dietitian (RD) (or a similarly credentialed not provide MNT as it is legally defined. c At least 1 follow-up encounter is
nutrition professional if outside of the As a result, the decision was made to use recommended annually to reinforce
U.S.) for nutrition therapy atdor soon the term “nutrition therapy” rather than lifestyle changes and to evaluate and
afterddiagnosis (11,14) and for ongoing “MNT” in this article, in an effort to be monitor outcomes that indicate the need for
follow-up. Another option for many peo- more inclusive of the range of health pro- changes in MNT or medication(s); an RD
ple is referral to a comprehensive diabetes fessionals providing nutrition interventions should determine whether additional MNT
self-management education (DSME) pro- and to recognize the broad definition of encounters are needed.
gram that includes instruction on nutrition nutrition therapy. However, the unique ac-
therapy. Unfortunately, a large percentage ademic preparation, training, skills, and
of people with diabetes do not receive any expertise of the RD make him/her the pre- o For individuals with type 1 diabetes,
structured diabetes education and/or nutri- ferred member of the health care team to participation in an intensive flexible
tion therapy (15,16). National data indicate provide diabetes MNT (Table 2). insulin therapy education program
that about half of the people with diabetes using the carbohydrate counting
report receiving some type of diabetes ed- Diabetes self-management meal planning approach can result
ucation (17) and even fewer see an RD. In education/supportdIn addition in improved glycemic control. (A)
one study of 18,404 patients with diabetes, to diabetes MNT provided by an RD, o For individuals using fixed daily
only 9.1% had at least one nutrition visit DSME and diabetes self-management insulin doses, consistent carbohy-
within a 9-year period (18). Many people support (DSMS) are critical elements of drate intake with respect to time
with diabetes, as well as their health care care for all people with diabetes and are and amount can result in improved
provider(s), are not aware that these ser- necessary to improve outcomes in a dis- glycemic control and reduce the
vices are available to them. Therefore this ease that is largely self-managed (21–26). risk for hypoglycemia. (B)
position statement offers evidence-based The National Standards for Diabetes Self- o A simple diabetes meal planning
nutrition recommendations for all health Management Education and Support approach such as portion control
care professionals to use. recognize the importance of nutrition or healthful food choices may be
In 1999, the Institute of Medicine as one of the core curriculum topics better suited to individuals with
(IOM) released a report concluding that taught in comprehensive programs. The type 2 diabetes identified with
evidence demonstrates that medical nu- American Association of Diabetes Educa- health and numeracy literacy con-
trition therapy (MNT) can improve clini- tors also recognizes the importance of cerns. This may also be an effective
cal outcomes while possibly decreasing healthful eating as a core self-care behav- meal planning strategy for older
the cost to Medicare of managing diabetes ior (27). For more information, refer to adults. (C)
(19). The IOM recommended that in- the ADA’s National Standards for Diabe- c People with diabetes should receive
dividualized MNT, provided by an RD tes Self-Management Education and DSME according to national standards
upon physician referral, be a covered Support (21). and DSMS when their diabetes is diag-
Medicare benefit as part of the multidisci- nosed and as needed thereafter. (B)
plinary approach to diabetes care (19). Effectiveness of nutrition therapy c Because diabetes nutrition therapy can
MNT is an evidence-based application of c Nutrition therapy is recommended for result in cost savings (B) and improved
the Nutrition Care Process provided by the all people with type 1 and type 2 di- outcomes such as reduction in A1C
RD and is the legal definition of nutrition abetes as an effective component of the (A), nutrition therapy should be ade-
counseling by an RD in the U.S. (20). The overall treatment plan. (A) quately reimbursed by insurance and
IOM also defines nutrition therapy, which c Individuals who have diabetes should other payers. (E)
has a broader definition than MNT (19). receive individualized MNT as needed
Nutrition therapy is the treatment of a dis- to achieve treatment goals, preferably The common coexistence of hyperlip-
ease or condition through the modification provided by an RD familiar with the idemia and hypertension in people with
of nutrient or whole-food intake. The components of diabetes MNT. (A) diabetes requires monitoring of metabolic
4 DIABETES CARE care.diabetesjournals.orgEvert and Associates
parameters (e.g., glucose, lipids, blood to reduce A1C (13). Retrospective studies In interventional studies lasting 12
pressure, body weight, renal function) to reveal durable A1C reductions with these months or longer and targeting individu-
ensure successful health outcomes (28). types of programs (51,56) and significant als with type 2 diabetes to reduce excess
Nutrition therapy that includes the devel- improvements in quality of life (57) over body weight (35,67–75), modest weight
opment of an eating pattern designed to time. Finally, nutritional approaches losses were achieved ranging from 1.9 to
lower glucose, blood pressure, and alter for reducing CVD risk, including opti- 8.4 kg. In the Look AHEAD trial, at study
lipid profiles is important in the manage- mizing serum lipids and blood pressure, end (;10 years), the mean weight loss
ment of diabetes as well as lowering the can effectively reduce CVD events and from baseline was 6% in the intervention
risk of CVD, coronary heart disease, and mortality (1). group and 3.5% in the control group
stroke. Successful approaches should also (76,77). Studies designed to reduce ex-
include regular physical activity and be- Energy balance cess body weight have used a variety of
havioral interventions to help sustain im- c For overweight or obese adults with energy-restricted eating patterns with vari-
proved lifestyles (11). type 2 diabetes, reducing energy intake ous macronutrient intakes and occasionally
Findings from randomized con- while maintaining a healthful eating included a physical activity component
trolled trials (RCTs) and from systematic pattern is recommended to promote and ongoing follow-up support. Studies
and Cochrane reviews demonstrate the weight loss. (A) achieving the greatest weight losses, 6.2
effectiveness of nutrition therapy for im- c Modest weight loss may provide clini- kg and 8.4 kg, respectively, included the
proving glycemic control and various cal benefits (improved glycemia, blood Mediterranean-style eating pattern (72)
markers of cardiovascular and hyperten- pressure, and/or lipids) in some indi- and a study testing a comprehensive weight
sion risk (13,14,29–46). In the general viduals with diabetes, especially those loss program that involved diet (including
population, MNT provided by an RD to early in the disease process. To achieve meal replacements) and physical activity
individuals with an abnormal lipid profile modest weight loss, intensive lifestyle (76). In the studies reviewed, improve-
has been shown to reduce daily fat (5– interventions (counseling about nutri- ments in A1C were noted to persist at 12
8%), saturated fat (2–4%), and energy tion therapy, physical activity, and be- months in eight intervention groups within
intake (232–710 kcal/day), and lower tri- havior change) with ongoing support are five studies (67,69,72,73,76); however, in
glycerides (11–31%), LDL cholesterol recommended. (A) one of the studies including data at 18
(7–22%), and total cholesterol (7–21%) months, the A1C improvement was not
levels (47). More than three out of every four maintained (69). The Mediterranean-
Effective nutrition therapy interven- adults with diabetes are at least over- style eating pattern reported the largest
tions may be a component of a compre- weight (17), and nearly half of individuals improvement of A1C at 1 year (21.2%)
hensive group diabetes education program with diabetes are obese (58). Because of (72), and the Look AHEAD study inten-
or an individualized session (14,29– the relationship between body weight sive lifestyle intervention reported the
38,40–42,44,45). Reported A1C reduc- (i.e., adiposity) and insulin resistance, next largest improvement (20.64%) (76).
tions are similar or greater than what would weight loss has long been a recommended One of these studies included only individ-
be expected with treatment with currently strategy for overweight or obese adults uals with newly diagnosed diabetes (72),
available pharmacologic treatments for di- with diabetes (1). Prevention of weight and the other included predominantly in-
abetes. The documented decreases in A1C gain is equally important. Long-term re- dividuals with diabetes early in the disease
observed in these studies are type 1 diabe- duction of adiposity is difficult for most process (,30% were on insulin) (76). Sig-
tes: 20.3 to 21% (13,39,43,48) and type 2 people to achieve, and even harder for nificant improvements in A1C at 1 year
diabetes: 20.5 to 22% (5,14,29–38,40– individuals with diabetes to achieve were also reported in other studies using
42,44,45,49). given the impact of some medications energy-restricted eating plans; these studies
Due to the progressive nature of type used to improve glycemic control (e.g., used meal replacements (67), or low-fat
2 diabetes, nutrition and physical activity insulin, insulin secretagogues, and thia- (72)/high-protein (73), or high-carbohydrate
interventions alone (i.e., without pharma- zolidinediones) (59,60). A number of fac- eating patterns (73). Not all weight loss in-
cotherapy) are generally not adequately tors may be responsible for increasing terventions reviewed led to improvements
effective in maintaining persistent glyce- adiposity in people with diabetes, in A1C at 1 year (35,68,70,71,74,75), al-
mic control over time for many individu- including a reduction in glycosuria and though these studies tended to achieve less
als. However, after pharmacotherapy is thus retention of calories otherwise lost weight loss.
initiated, nutrition therapy continues to be as an effect of therapeutic intervention, Among the studies reviewed, the most
an important component of the overall changes in food intake, or changes in en- consistently reported significant changes of
treatment plan (2). For individuals with type ergy expenditure (61–64). If adiposity reducing excess body weight on cardiovas-
1 diabetes using multiple daily injections or is a concern, medications that are weight cular risk factors were an increase in HDL
continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion, a neutral or weight reducing (e.g., metfor- cholesterol (67,72,73,75–77), a decrease in
primary focus for nutrition therapy should min, incretin-based therapies, sodium triglycerides (72,73,76–78), and a decrease
be on how to adjust insulin doses based on glucose co-transporter 2 [SGLT-2] in- in blood pressure (67,70,72,75–77). De-
planned carbohydrate intake (13,39,43,50– hibitors) could be considered. Several spite some improvements in cardiovascular
53). For individuals using fixed daily insulin intensive DSME and nutrition interven- risk factors, the Look AHEAD trial failed to
doses, carbohydrate intake on a day-to-day tion studies show that glycemic control demonstrate reduction in CVD events
basis should be consistent with respect to can be achieved while maintaining weight among individuals randomized to an inten-
time and amount (54,55). Intensive insulin or even reducing weight when ap- sive lifestyle intervention for sustained
management education programs that in- propriate lifestyle counseling is provided weight loss (77). Of note, however, those
clude nutrition therapy have been shown (14,31,35,41,42,44,45,50,65,66). randomized to the intervention experienced
care.diabetesjournals.org DIABETES CARE 5Position Statement
statistically significant weight loss, requiring Health professionals should collab- Eating patterns, also called dietary pat-
less medication for glycemic control and orate with individuals with diabetes to terns, is a term used to describe combinations
management of CVD risk factors, and expe- integrate lifestyle strategies that prevent of different foods or food groups that
rienced several additional health benefits weight gain or promote modest, realistic characterize relationships between nutri-
(e.g., reduced sleep apnea, depression, weight loss. The emphases of education tion and health promotion and disease
and urinary incontinence and improved and counseling should be on the devel- prevention (94). Individuals eat combina-
health-related quality of life) (79–82). opment of behaviors that support long- tions of foods, not single nutrients, and
Intensive lifestyle programs (ongoing, term weight loss or weight maintenance thus it is important to study diet and dis-
with frequent follow-up) are required to with less focus on the outcome of weight ease relationships (95). Factors impacting
achieve significant reductions in excess loss. Bariatric surgery is recognized as an eating patterns include, but are not limited
body weight and improvements in A1C, option for individuals with diabetes who to, food access/availability of healthful
blood pressure, and lipids (76,83). meet the criteria for surgery and is not foods, tradition, cultural food systems,
Weight loss appears to be most beneficial covered in this review. For recommen- health beliefs, knowledge of foods that
for individuals with diabetes early in the dations on bariatric surgery, see the ADA promote health and prevent disease, and
disease process (72,76,83). In the Look Standards of Medical Care (1). economics/resources to buy health-
AHEAD study, participants with early- promoting foods (95).
stage diabetes (shortest duration, not treated Optimal mix of macronutrients Eating patterns have also evolved
with insulin, good baseline glycemic con- c Evidence suggests that there is not an over time to include patterns of food
trol) received the most health benefits ideal percentage of calories from car- intake among specific populations to
with a small percentage of individuals bohydrate, protein, and fat for all people eating patterns prescribed to improve
achieving partial or complete diabetes re- with diabetes (B); therefore, macronu- health. Patterns naturally occurring
mission (84). It is unclear if the benefits trient distribution should be based on within populations based on food avail-
result from the reduction in excess weight individualized assessment of current ability, culture, or tradition and those
or the energy restriction or both. Long- eating patterns, preferences, and met- prescribed to prevent or manage health
term maintenance of weight, following abolic goals. (E) conditions are important to research.
weight reduction, is possible, but research Eating patterns studied among individu-
suggests it requires an intensive program Although numerous studies have at- als with type 1 or type 2 diabetes were
with long-term support. Many individuals tempted to identify the optimal mix of reviewed to evaluate their impact on di-
do regain a portion of their initial weight macronutrients for the meal plans of abetes nutrition goals. The following eat-
loss (77,85). Factors contributing to the people with diabetes, a systematic review ing patterns (Table 3) were reviewed:
individual’s inability to retain maximal (88) found that there is no ideal mix that Mediterranean, vegetarian, low fat, low
weight loss include socioeconomic status, applies broadly and that macronutrient carbohydrate, and DASH.
an unsupportive environment, and phys- proportions should be individualized. The Mediterranean-style eating pat-
iological changes (e.g., compensatory On average, it has been observed that peo- tern, mostly studied in the Mediterranean
changes in circulating hormones that en- ple with diabetes eat about 45% of their cal- region, has been observed to improve car-
courage weight regain after weight loss is ories from carbohydrate, ;36–40% of diovascular risk factors (i.e., lipids, blood
achieved) (86). calories from fat, and the remainder pressure, triglycerides) (11,72,88,100) in
The optimal macronutrient intake to (;16–18%) from protein (89–91). Regard- individuals with diabetes and lower com-
support reduction in excess body weight less of the macronutrient mix, total energy bined end points for CVD events and stroke
has not been established. Thus, the cur- intake should be appropriate to weight man- (83) when supplemented with mixed nuts
rent state of the literature does not sup- agement goals. Further, individualization of (including walnuts, almonds, and hazel-
port one particular nutrition therapy the macronutrient composition will depend nuts) or olive oil. Individuals following an
approach to reduce excess weight, but on the metabolic status of the individual energy-restricted Mediterranean-style eat-
rather a spectrum of eating patterns that (e.g., lipid profile, renal function) and/or ing pattern also achieve improvements in
result in reduced energy intake. A weight food preferences. A variety of eating patterns glycemic control (88). Given that the stud-
loss of .6 kg (approximately a 7–8.5% have been shown modestly effective in man- ies are mostly in the Mediterranean region,
loss of initial body weight), regular phys- aging diabetes including Mediterranean-style, further research is needed to determine if
ical activity, and frequent contact with Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension the study results can be generalized to
RDs appear important for consistent (DASH) style, plant-based (vegan or vege- other populations and if similar levels of
beneficial effects of weight loss interven- tarian), lower-fat, and lower-carbohydrate adherence to the eating pattern can be
tions (85). In the Look AHEAD study, patterns (36,46,72,92,93). achieved.
weight loss strategies associated with lower Six vegetarian and low-fat vegan stud-
BMI in overweight or obese individuals Eating patterns ies (36,93,101–103,131) in individuals
with type 2 diabetes included weekly self- c A variety of eating patterns (combinations with type 2 diabetes were reviewed. Stud-
weighing, regular consumption of break- of different foods or food groups) are ies ranged in duration from 12 to 74
fast, and reduced intake of fast foods (87). acceptable for the management of di- weeks, and the diets did not consistently
Other successful strategies included in- abetes. Personal preferences (e.g., tra- improve glycemic control or CVD risk
creasing physical activity, reducing portion dition, culture, religion, health beliefs factors except when energy intake was re-
sizes, using meal replacements (as appro- and goals, economics) and metabolic stricted and weight was lost. Diets often
priate), and encouraging individuals with goals should be considered when did result in weight loss (36,101–
diabetes to eat those foods with the greatest recommending one eating pattern 103,131). More research on vegan and
consensus for improving health. over another. (E) vegetarian diets is needed to assess diet
6 DIABETES CARE care.diabetesjournals.orgEvert and Associates
Table 3dReviewed eating patterns
Type of eating pattern Description
Mediterranean style (96) Includes abundant plant food (fruits, vegetables, breads, other forms of cereals, beans, nuts and seeds); minimally
processed, seasonally fresh, and locally grown foods; fresh fruits as the typical daily dessert and concentrated
sugars or honey consumed only for special occasions; olive oil as the principal source of dietary lipids; dairy
products (mainly cheese and yogurt) consumed in low to moderate amounts; fewer than 4 eggs/week; red meat
consumed in low frequency and amounts; and wine consumption in low to moderate amounts generally
with meals.
Vegetarian and vegan (97) The two most common ways of defining vegetarian diets in the research are vegan diets (diets devoid of all flesh foods
and animal-derived products) and vegetarian diets (diets devoid of all flesh foods but including egg [ovo] and/or
dairy [lacto] products). Features of a vegetarian-eating pattern that may reduce risk of chronic disease include
lower intakes of saturated fat and cholesterol and higher intakes of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, soy
products, fiber, and phytochemicals.
Low fat (98) Emphasizes vegetables, fruits, starches (e.g., breads/crackers, pasta, whole grains, starchy vegetables), lean protein,
and low-fat dairy products. Defined as total fat intake ,30% of total energy intake and saturated fat intake ,10%.
Low carbohydrate (88) Focuses on eating foods higher in protein (meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, eggs, cheese, nuts and seeds), fats (oils,
butter, olives, avocado), and vegetables low in carbohydrate (salad greens, cucumbers, broccoli, summer squash).
The amount of carbohydrate allowed varies with most plans allowing fruit (e.g., berries) and higher carbohydrate
vegetables; however, sugar-containing foods and grain products such as pasta, rice, and bread are generally
avoided. There is no consistent definition of “low” carbohydrate. In research studies, definitions have ranged from
very low-carbohydrate diet (21–70 g/day of carbohydrates) to moderately low-carbohydrate diet (30 to ,40% of
calories from carbohydrates).
DASH (99) Emphasizes fruits, vegetables, and low-fat dairy products, including whole grains, poultry, fish, and nuts and is
reduced in saturated fat, red meat, sweets, and sugar-containing beverages. The most effective DASH diet was also
reduced in sodium.
quality given studies often focus more evidence exists on the effects of the DASH income) (95), these factors should be
on what is not consumed than what is eating plan on health outcomes specifically considered when individualizing eating
consumed. in individuals with diabetes; however, one pattern recommendations.
The low-fat eating pattern is one that would expect similar results to other stud-
has often been encouraged as a strategy to ies using the DASH eating plan. In one Individual macronutrients
lose weight or to improve cardiovascular small study in people with type 2 diabetes,
health within the U.S. In the Look AHEAD the DASH eating plan, which included a Carbohydrates
trial (77), an energy-reduced low-fat eating sodium restriction of 2,300 mg/day, im- c Evidence is inconclusive for an ideal
pattern was encouraged for weight loss, proved A1C, blood pressure, and other amount of carbohydrate intake for peo-
and individuals achieved moderate success cardiovascular risk factors (46). The blood ple with diabetes. Therefore, collabora-
(76). However, in a systematic review (88) pressure benefits are thought to be due to tive goals should be developed with the
and in four studies (70,71,75,103a) and in the total eating pattern, including the re- individual with diabetes. (C)
a meta-analysis (103b) published since the duction in sodium and other foods and c The amount of carbohydrates and avail-
systematic review, lowering total fat intake nutrients that have been shown to influ- able insulin may be the most important
did not consistently improve glycemic con- ence blood pressure (99,105). factor influencing glycemic response after
trol or CVD risk factors. Benefit from a low- The evidence suggests that several eating and should be considered when
fat eating pattern appears to be more likely different macronutrient distributions/ developing the eating plan. (A)
when energy intake is also reduced and eating patterns may lead to improve- c Monitoring carbohydrate intake, whether
weight loss occurs (76,77). ments in glycemic and/or CVD risk by carbohydrate counting or experience-
For a review of the studies focused factors (88). There is no “ideal” conclu- based estimation, remains a key strategy in
on a low-carbohydrate eating pattern, see sive eating pattern that is expected to achieving glycemic control. (B)
the CARBOHYDRATES section. Currently benefit all individuals with diabetes c For good health, carbohydrate intake
there is inadequate evidence in isocaloric (88). Total energy intake (and thus por- from vegetables, fruits, whole grains,
comparison recommending a specific tion sizes) is an important consideration legumes, and dairy products should
amount of carbohydrates for people no matter which eating pattern the indi- be advised over intake from other
with diabetes. vidual with diabetes chooses to eat. Be- carbohydrate sources, especially
In people without diabetes, the DASH cause dietary patterns are influenced by those that contain added fats, sugars,
eating plan has been shown to help food availability, perception of health- or sodium. (B)
control blood pressure and lower risk fulness of certain foods and by the indi-
for CVD and is frequently recommended vidual’s preferences, culture, religion, Evidence is insufficient to support one
as a healthful eating pattern for the gen- knowledge, health beliefs, and access specific amount of carbohydrate intake for
eral population (104–106). Limited to food and resources (e.g., budget/ all people with diabetes. Collaborative
care.diabetesjournals.org DIABETES CARE 7Position Statement
goals should be developed with each per- Quality of carbohydrates glycemic improvement (119,131–133). Fi-
son with diabetes. Some published studies ber intakes to improve glycemic control,
comparing lower levels of carbohydrate Glycemic index and glycemic load based on existing research, are also unreal-
intake (ranging from 21 g daily up to c Substituting low–glycemic load foods istic, requiring fiber intakes of .50 g/day.
40% of daily energy intake) to higher for higher–glycemic load foods may Studies examining fiber’s effect on
carbohydrate intake levels indicated im- modestly improve glycemic control. (C) CVD risk factors are mixed; however, to-
proved markers of glycemic control and tal fiber intake, especially from natural
insulin sensitivity with lower carbohy- The ADA recognizes that education food sources (vs. supplements), seems
drate intakes (92,100,107–111). Four about glycemic index and glycemic load to have a beneficial effect on serum cho-
RCTs indicated no significant difference in occurs during the development of indi- lesterol levels and other CVD risk factors
glycemic markers with a lower-carbohydrate vidualized eating plans for people with such as blood pressure (11,88,134). Be-
diet compared with higher carbohydrate diabetes. Some organizations specifically cause of the general health benefits of fi-
intake levels (71,112–114). Many of these recommend use of low–glycemic index ber, recommendations for the general
studies were small, were of short duration, diets (124,125). However the literature public to increase intake to 14 g fiber/
and/or had low retention rates (92,107, regarding glycemic index and glycemic 1,000 kcals daily or about 25 g/day for
109,110,112,113). load in individuals with diabetes is com- adult women and 38 g/day for adult
Some studies comparing lower levels plex, and it is often difficult to discern the men are encouraged for individuals with
of carbohydrate intake to higher carbo- independent effect of fiber compared with diabetes (105).
hydrate intake levels revealed improve- that of glycemic index on glycemic con- Research has also compared the ben-
ments in serum lipid/lipoprotein measures, trol or other outcomes. Further, studies efits of whole grains to fiber. The Dietary
including improved triglycerides, VLDL used varying definitions of low and high Guidelines for Americans, 2010 defines
triglyceride, and VLDL cholesterol, total glycemic index (11,88,126), and glyce- whole grains as foods containing the en-
cholesterol, and HDL cholesterol levels mic response to a particular food varies tire grain seed (kernel), bran, germ, and
(71,92,100,107,109,111,112,115). A among individuals and can also be af- endosperm (105). A systematic review
few studies found no significant differ- fected by the overall mixture of foods con- (88) concluded that the consumption of
ence in lipids and lipoproteins with a sumed (11,126). whole grains was not associated with im-
lower-carbohydrate diet compared with Some studies did not show improve- provements in glycemic control in indi-
higher carbohydrate intake levels. It ment with a lower–glycemic index eating viduals with type 2 diabetes; however, it
should be noted that these studies had pattern; however, several other studies may have other benefits, such as reduc-
low retention rates, which may lead to using low–glycemic index eating patterns tions in systemic inflammation. Data from
loss of statistical power and biased results have demonstrated A1C decreases of the Nurses’ Health Study examining
(110,113,116). In many of the reviewed 20.2 to 20.5%. However, fiber intake whole grains and their components (ce-
studies, weight loss occurred, confound- was not consistently controlled, thereby real fiber, bran, and germ) in relation to
ing the interpretation of results from ma- making interpretation of the findings dif- all-cause and CVD-specific mortality
nipulation of macronutrient content. ficult (88,118,119,127). Results on CVD among women with type 2 diabetes
Despite the inconclusive results of risk measures are mixed with some show- suggest a potential benefit of whole-grain
the studies evaluating the effect of dif- ing the lowering of total or LDL choles- intake in reducing mortality and CVD
fering percentages of carbohydrates in terol and others showing no significant (128). As with the general population, in-
people with diabetes, monitoring carbo- changes (120). dividuals with diabetes should consume
hydrate amounts is a useful strategy for at least half of all grains as whole grains
improving postprandial glucose control. Dietary fiber and whole grains (105).
Evidence exists that both the quantity c People with diabetes should consume
and type of carbohydrate in a food in- at least the amount of fiber and whole Resistant starch and
fluence blood glucose level, and total grains recommended for the general fructansdResistant starch is defined
amount of carbohydrate eaten is the public. (C) as starch physically enclosed within intact
primary predictor of glycemic response cell structures as in some legumes, starch
(55,114,117–122). In addition, lower Intake of dietary fiber is associated granules as in raw potato, and retrograde
A1C occurred in the Diabetes Control with lower all-cause mortality (128,129) amylose from plants modified by plant
and Complications Trial (DCCT) intensive- in people with diabetes. Two systematic breeding to increase amylose content. It
treatment group and the Dose Adjustment reviews found little evidence that fiber has been proposed that foods containing
For Normal Eating (DAFNE) trial partici- significantly improves glycemic control resistant starch or high amylose foods
pants who received nutrition therapy that (11,88). Studies published since these re- such as specially formulated cornstarch
focused on the adjustment of insulin doses views have shown modest lowering of may modify postprandial glycemic re-
based on variations in carbohydrate intake preprandial glucose (130) and A1C sponse, prevent hypoglycemia, and re-
and physical activity (13,123). (20.2 to 20.3%) (119,130) with intakes duce hyperglycemia. However, there are
As for the general U.S. population, of .50 g of fiber/day. Most studies on no published long-term studies in sub-
carbohydrate intake from vegetables, fiber in people with diabetes are of short jects with diabetes to prove benefit from
fruits, whole grains, legumes, and milk duration, have a small sample size, and the use of resistant starch.
should be encouraged over other sources of evaluate the combination of high-fiber Fructans are an indigestible type of
carbohydrates, or sources with added fats, and low–glycemic index foods, and in fiber that has been hypothesized to have a
sugars, or sodium, in order to improve some cases weight loss, making it difficult glucose-lowering effect. Inulin is a fructan
overall nutrient intake (105). to isolate fiber as the sole determinant of commonly added to many processed food
8 DIABETES CARE care.diabetesjournals.orgEvert and Associates
products in the form of chicory root. Based on two systematic reviews and Nonnutritive sweeteners and
Limited research in people with diabetes meta-analyses of studies conducted in hypocaloric sweeteners
is available. One systematic review that persons with diabetes, it appears that c Use of nonnutritive sweeteners (NNSs)
included three short-term studies in peo- free fructose (naturally occurring from has the potential to reduce overall calorie
ple with diabetes showed mixed results of foods such as fruit) consumption is not and carbohydrate intake if substituted for
fructan intake on glycemia. There are no more deleterious than other forms of caloric sweeteners without compensation
published long-term studies in subjects sugar unless intake exceeds approxi- by intake of additional calories from other
with diabetes to prove benefit from the mately 12% of total caloric intake food sources. (B)
use of fructans (135). (136,137). Many foods marketed to peo-
ple with diabetes may contain large The U.S. Food and Drug Administra-
Substitution of sucrose for starch amounts of fructose (such as agave nec- tion has reviewed several types of hypo-
c While substituting sucrose-containing tar); these foods should not be consumed caloric sweeteners (e.g., NNSs and sugar
foods for isocaloric amounts of other in large amounts to avoid excess caloric alcohols) for safety and approved them
carbohydrates may have similar blood intake and to avoid excessive fructose for consumption by the general public,
glucose effects, consumption should be intake. including people with diabetes (145).
minimized to avoid displacing nutrient- In terms of glycemic control, Cozma Research supports that NNSs do not
dense food choices. (A) et al. (138) conducted a systemic review produce a glycemic effect; however, foods
and meta-analysis of controlled feeding containing NNSs may affect glycemia
Sucrose is a disaccharide made of trials to study the impact of fructose on based on other ingredients in the product
glucose and fructose. Commonly known glycemic control compared with other (11). An American Heart Association and
as table sugar or white sugar, it is found sources of carbohydrates. Based on 18 tri- ADA scientific statement on NNS con-
naturally in sugar cane and in sugar beets. als, the authors found that isocaloric ex- sumption concludes that there is not
Research demonstrates that substitution of change of fructose for carbohydrates enough evidence to determine whether
sucrose for starch for up to 35% of calories reduced glycated blood proteins and did NNS use actually leads to reduction in
may not affect glycemia or lipid levels (11). not significantly affect fasting glucose or body weight or reduction in cardiome-
However, because foods high in sucrose are insulin. However, it was noted that appli- tabolic risk factors (146). These conclu-
generally high in calories, substitution cability may be limited because most of sions are consistent with a systematic
should be made in the context of an overall the trials were less than 12 weeks in du- review of hypocaloric sweeteners (in-
healthful eating pattern with caution not to ration. With regard to the treatment of cluding sugar alcohols) that found little
increase caloric intake. Additionally, as hypoglycemia, in a small study comparing evidence that the use of NNSs lead to
with all people, selection of foods contain- glucose, sucrose, or fructose, Husband reductions in body weight (147). If NNSs
ing sucrose or starch should emphasize et al. (139) found that fructose was the are used to replace caloric sweeteners,
more nutrient-dense foods for an overall least effective in eliciting the desired up- without caloric compensation, then NNSs
healthful eating pattern (105). ward correction of the blood glucose. may be useful in reducing caloric and
Therefore, sucrose or glucose in the form carbohydrate intake (146), although fur-
Fructose of tablets, liquid, or gel may be the pre- ther research is needed to confirm these
c Fructose consumed as “free fructose” ferred treatment over fruit juice, although results (147).
(i.e., naturally occurring in foods such availability and convenience should be
as fruit) may result in better glycemic considered. Protein
control compared with isocaloric intake There is now abundant evidence from c For people with diabetes and no evi-
of sucrose or starch (B), and free fructose studies of individuals without diabetes dence of diabetic kidney disease, evi-
is not likely to have detrimental effects that because of their high amounts of dence is inconclusive to recommend an
on triglycerides as long as intake is not rapidly absorbable carbohydrates (such as ideal amount of protein intake for op-
excessive (.12% energy). (C) sucrose or high-fructose corn syrup), timizing glycemic control or improving
c People with diabetes should limit or large quantities of SSBs should be avoided one or more CVD risk measures; there-
avoid intake of sugar-sweetened bev- to reduce the risk for weight gain and fore, goals should be individualized. (C)
erages (SSBs) (from any caloric sweet- worsening of cardiometabolic risk factors c For people with diabetes and diabetic
ener including high-fructose corn syrup (140–142). Evidence suggests that con- kidney disease (either micro- or macro-
and sucrose) to reduce risk for weight suming high levels of fructose-containing albuminuria), reducing the amount of
gain and worsening of cardiometabolic beverages may have particularly adverse ef- dietary protein below the usual intake
risk profile. (B) fects on selective deposition of ectopic and is not recommended because it does
visceral fat, lipid metabolism, blood pres- not alter glycemic measures, cardio-
Fructose is a monosaccharide found sure, insulin sensitivity, and de novo lipo- vascular risk measures, or the course
naturally in fruits. It is also a component genesis, compared with glucose-sweetened of glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
of added sugars found in sweetened beverages (142). In terms of specific effects decline. (A)
beverages and processed snacks. The of fructose, concern has been raised re- c In individuals with type 2 diabetes,
term “free fructose” refers to fructose garding elevations in serum triglycerides ingested protein appears to increase
that is naturally occurring in foods such (143,144). Such studies are not available insulin response without increasing
as fruit and does not include the fructose among individuals with diabetes; how- plasma glucose concentrations. Therefore,
that is found in the form of the disaccharide ever, there is little reason to suspect that carbohydrate sources high in protein
sucrose, nor does it include the fructose in the diabetic state would mitigate the ad- should not be used to treat or prevent
high-fructose corn syrup. verse effects of SSBs. hypoglycemia. (B)
care.diabetesjournals.org DIABETES CARE 9Position Statement
Several RCTs have examined the ef- Total fat Mediterranean-style eating pattern has
fect of higher protein intake (28–40% of c Evidence is inconclusive for an ideal been studied extensively over the last de-
total energy) to usual protein intake (15– amount of total fat intake for people cade. Six published RCTs that included
19% total) on diabetes outcomes. One with diabetes; therefore goals should individuals with type 2 diabetes reported
study demonstrated decreased A1C be individualized (C); fat quality ap- improved glycemic control and/or blood
with a higher-protein diet (148). How- pears to be far more important than lipids when MUFA was substituted for
ever, other studies showed no effect on quantity. (B) carbohydrate and/or saturated fats
glycemic control (149–151). Some trials (70,72,83,100,108,172). However, some
comparing higher protein intakes to usual Currently, insufficient data exist to of the studies also included caloric restric-
protein intake have shown improved lev- determine a defined level of total energy tion, which may have contributed to im-
els of serum triglycerides, total choles- intake from fat at which risk of inade- provements in glycemic control or blood
terol, and/or LDL cholesterol (148,150). quacy or prevention of chronic disease lipids (100,108).
However, two trials reported no improve- occurs, so there is no adequate intake or In 2011, the Evidence Analysis Li-
ment in CVD risk factors (149,151). Fac- recommended daily allowance for total fat brary (EAL) of the Academy of Nutrition
tors affecting interpretation of this research (167). However, the IOM did define an and Dietetics found strong evidence that
include small sample sizes (148,151) and acceptable macronutrient distribution dietary MUFAs are associated with im-
study durations of less than 6 months range (AMDR) for total fat of 20–35% of provements in blood lipids based on 13
(148–150). energy with no tolerable upper intake studies including participants with and
Several RCTs comparing protein lev- level defined. This AMDR for total fat without diabetes. According to the EAL,
els in individuals with diabetic kidney was “estimated based on evidence 5% energy replacement of saturated fatty
disease with either micro- or macroalbu- indicating a risk for CHD [coronary heart acid (SFA) with MUFA improves insulin
minuria had adequately large sample sizes disease] at low intake of fat and high in- responsiveness in insulin-resistant and
and durations for interpretation. Four takes of carbohydrate and on evidence for type 2 diabetic subjects (173).
studies reported no difference in GFR increased obesity and its complications There is limited evidence in people
and/or albumin excretion rate (152–155), (CHD) at high intakes of fat” (167). These with diabetes on the effects of omega-6
while one smaller study found some po- recommendations are not diabetes-specific; polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs).
tentially beneficial renal effects with a however, limited research exists in individ- Controversy exists on the best ratio of
low-protein diet (156). Two meta-analyses uals with diabetes. Fatty acids are catego- omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids; PUFAs
found no clear benefits on renal parameters rized as being saturated or unsaturated and MUFAs are recommended substi-
from low-protein diets (157,158). One fac- (monounsaturated or polyunsaturated). tutes for saturated or trans fat (105,174).
tor affecting interpretation of these studies Trans fatty acids may be unsaturated,
was that actual protein intake differed from but they are structurally different and Omega-3 fatty acids
goal protein intake. Two studies reported have negative health effects (105). The c Evidence does not support recom-
higher actual protein intake in the lower type of fatty acids consumed is more im- mending omega-3 (EPA and DHA)
protein group than in the control groups. portant than total fat in the diet in terms supplements for people with diabetes
None of the five reviewed studies since of supporting metabolic goals and influ- for the prevention or treatment of car-
2000 demonstrated malnourishment as encing the risk of CVD (83,105,168); diovascular events. (A)
evidenced by hypoalbuminemia with low- thus more attention should be given to c As recommended for the general
protein diets, but both meta-analyses the type of fat intake when individualiz- public, an increase in foods containing
found evidence for this in earlier studies. ing goals. Individuals with diabetes long-chain omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and
There is very limited research in should be encouraged to moderate their DHA) (from fatty fish) and omega-3
people with diabetes and without kid- fat intakes to be consistent with their linolenic acid (ALA) is recommended
ney disease on the impact of the type of goals to lose or maintain weight. for individuals with diabetes because
protein consumed. One study did not of their beneficial effects on lipoproteins,
find a significant difference in glycemic Monounsaturated fatty acids/ prevention of heart disease, and associ-
or lipid measures when comparing a polyunsaturated fatty acids ations with positive health outcomes in
chicken- or red meat–based diet (156). c In people with type 2 diabetes, a observational studies. (B)
For individuals with diabetic kidney dis- Mediterranean-style, monounsaturated c The recommendation for the general
ease and macroalbuminuria, changing the fatty acid (MUFA)-rich eating pattern public to eat fish (particularly fatty fish)
source of protein to be more soy-based may benefit glycemic control and CVD at least two times (two servings) per
may improve CVD risk factors but does risk factors and can, therefore, be rec- week is also appropriate for people
not appear to alter proteinuria (159,160). ommended as an effective alternative to with diabetes. (B)
For individuals with type 2 diabetes, a lower-fat, higher-carbohydrate eating
protein does not appear to have a sig- pattern. (B) The ADA systematic review identified
nificant effect on blood glucose level seven RCTs and one single-arm study
(161,162) but does appear to increase in- Evidence from large prospective cohort (2002–2010) using omega-3 fatty acid
sulin response (161,163,164). For this studies, clinical trials, and a systematic supplements and one cohort study on
reason, it is not advised to use protein to review of RCTs indicate that high-MUFA whole-food omega-3 intake. In individuals
treat hypoglycemia or to prevent hypo- diets are associated with improved glyce- with type 2 diabetes (88), supplementa-
glycemia. Protein’s effect on blood glu- mic control and improved CVD risk or tion with omega-3 fatty acids did not im-
cose levels in type 1 diabetes is less clear risk factors (70,169–171). The intake of prove glycemic control, but higher-dose
(165,166). MUFA-rich foods as a component of the supplementation decreased triglycerides.
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