Economic Impacts of Natural Hazards on Vulnerable Populations in VANUATU
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Economic Impacts of Natural
Hazards on Vulnerable Populations
in VANUATUContents
List of abbreviations ii
Executive summary 1
1
Hazard and exposure 2
1.1. Overview of risks 2
1.2. Cyclones 5
1.3. Earthquakes and tsunamis 7
1.4. Volcanoes 7
1.5. Droughts 8
2 Vulnerability and impacts
2.1. Economic profile
2.2. Agriculture and fisheries
9
9
10
2.3. Tourism 11
2.4. Commerce and industry 12
2.5. Housing and settlements 12
2.6. Low-income and informal workers 13
2.7. Gender 15
2.8. Youth 19
3
Coping mechanisms 22
3.1. Types of coping mechanisms 22
3.2. Adaptive social protection 22
3.3. Remittances 24
3.4. Financial inclusion 26
3.5. Insurance 27
3.6. Migration and relocation 28
3.7. Community-based support 30
4
Conclusions 32
4.1. Hazard, exposure, and vulnerability 32
4.2. Coping mechanisms 33
References 36
iList of abbreviations
ADB Asian Development Bank
CRED Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters
CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
EM-DAT Emergency Events Database
ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GFDRR Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery
GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit
IASC Inter-Agency Standing Committee Reference Group on Risk, Early Warning and
Preparedness
IDMC Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre
IFRC International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
ILO International Labour Organization
IMF International Monetary Fund
INFORM Index for Risk Management
MSME Micro-, small-, and medium-sized enterprises
NDMO National Disaster Management Office (Vanuatu)
OCHA United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PCRAFI Pacific Catastrophe Risk Assessment and Financing Initiative
SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community
TC Tropical Cyclone
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNDRR United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNICEF United Nations Childrens’ Fund
USD United States dollar
VUV Vanuatu vatu (unit of currency)
WASH Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
WFP World Food Programme
WTO World Trade Organization
iiExecutive summary
Vanuatu is highly exposed to natural hazards, Support systems that can help poor and
with cyclones regularly damaging property and disadvantaged populations cope with the impacts of
causing long-term cumulative economic harm. natural hazards include:
Tropical cyclones, with associated storm surges
• Social protection systems that can rapidly adapt
and flooding, are the principal hazard affecting
in crisis situations can support the immediate
Vanuatu, but the country is also exposed to
needs of affected people as well as longer-term
earthquakes and tsunamis, volcanoes, and
reconstruction. Vanuatu has very limited social
droughts. Climate change is expected to
protection systems in place but has undertaken
exacerbate weather-related hazards.
some small-scale pilot projects in partnership with
Vanuatu’s relatively small economy, dominated international agencies.
by tourism and subsistence agriculture, is highly • Remittances contribute to poverty reduction,
vulnerable to natural hazards. Tourism is nature- wealth creation, social protection, and economic
based and dependent on coastal and inland growth in many countries. In Vanuatu, remittances
ecosystems which are vulnerable to damage are low compared with regional peers, but are rising
from natural hazards. Agriculture is vulnerable and becoming an increasingly important source of
to damage from cyclones and droughts, and income and protection for households.
the majority of the population of Vanuatu relies
• Financial inclusion can be a significant contributor
heavily on subsistence agriculture for livelihoods
to development, poverty reduction, and disaster
and food security. Climate change is expected
resilience. Financial inclusion currently plays a
to adversely affect agriculture through
limited role in disaster resilience in Vanuatu, as
increased frequency of extreme weather
the economy is very much cash-based and there
events, sea level rise, and disruption of aquatic
is limited familiarity with and uptake of financial
ecosystems.
services.
Natural hazards disproportionately affect poor • Insurance can be an important tool for managing
people, workers in the informal economy, risks associated with natural hazards, but insurance
women, and youths. Poor people tend to is not widely available or commonly used in
be more exposed to hazards than wealthier Vanuatu. The majority of people and businesses
people, are more severely affected by hazards, have no insurance protection, and coverage
and have fewer resources available to them against natural hazards is difficult to obtain.
to cope when disasters do occur. Poverty • Migration, both internally and internationally, can
is a significant issue in Vanuatu, although support development and disaster resilience.
there is a lack of recent data to confirm the Vanuatu currently has low levels of emigration,
current situation, and the country has high but has been an increasingly active participant in
levels of informal and vulnerable employment seasonal worker programs in the region. Relocation
and subsistence economic activity. Gender of settlements at risk of natural hazards has been
inequality is a significant challenge, and women undertaken in several instances and Vanuatu is
and girls are often excluded from decision- seen as a leader in developing appropriate policies
making roles, limited in economic opportunities, on this issue.
and suffer high levels of gender-based violence.
• Community-based support mechanisms are a
Youths are affected by disruption to education
common way for communities to manage risk,
caused by natural hazards and from a shortage
especially in rural and poor communities. Vanuatu
of employment opportunities which is due in
has very strong traditions of community support,
part to the effects of natural hazards.
and has resources of traditional knowledge and
traditional governance structures that greatly
enhance disaster resilience.
11. Hazard and exposure
1.1. Overview of risks
Pacific island countries are widely regarded Tropical cyclones and earthquakes are the
as experiencing the highest risks associated principal hazards affecting Vanuatu, although
with natural hazards in the world due to their the country is also exposed to volcanoes,
high exposure to a variety of hazards, their tsunamis, and droughts. Vanuatu is located in
geographical remoteness, and their dispersion an area known for the frequent occurrence
across a large area (ADB [Asian Development of tropical cyclones with damaging winds,
Bank], 2018, p. 2; World Bank, 2017a, p. rains, and storm surge (PCRAFI, 2011, p. 3). It
81). Across the region, hydrological and is also located on the Pacific “Ring of Fire”,
meteorological events cause the majority of placing it at risk of earthquakes and tsunamis
economic losses, with cyclones being the most (PCRAFI, 2011, p. 3), which are rare, but can
serious hazard, while geo-hazards are the major be extremely damaging when they do occur.
cause of human loss (Utz, 2017, p. 81). The effects of climate change in Vanuatu by
the end of this century are expected to include
Vanuatu is ranked as the most hazardous
continued El Niño and La Niña events, rising
country in the world by WorldRiskIndex on the
annual mean temperatures and maximum daily
basis of its high exposure to natural hazards
temperatures, continued ocean acidification
and relatively low coping capacity (Day et al.,
and increased coral bleaching, continued sea
2019). An International Monetary Fund (IMF)
level rise, and slightly decreased frequency of
study estimates that Vanuatu has a 57% chance
cyclone formation but increased maximum
of suffering a significant1 disaster related to
wind speeds (Australian Bureau of Meteorology
natural hazards each year (Lee et al., 2018,
and CSIRO [Commonwealth Scientific and
p. 7). The Pacific Catastrophe Risk Assessment
Industrial Research Organisation], 2014, pp.
and Financing Initiative (PCRAFI) estimates that
320–339).
cyclones, earthquakes, and tsunamis cause
average annual damage and losses equivalent
to 6.6% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and
that within the next 50 years, Vanuatu has a 50%
chance of experiencing a loss due to cyclones,
earthquakes, or tsunamis valued at more
than 45% of GDP, and a 10% chance of a loss
exceeding 74% of GDP (PCRAFI, 2011, pp. 1, 5).
1
This analysis was based on the Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT), which counts disasters involving 10 or more deaths,
100 or more people affected, the declaration of a state of emergency, or a call for international assistance.
2Different agencies, using different Figure 1: Natural Hazard Forecasts
methodologies, provide different assessments of
WorldRiskReport
risk for Vanuatu.
Risk
Risk quintile
score
• WorldRiskReport ranks Vanuatu as the most
2
hazardous country in the world due to high Exposure 99.88 Very high
exposure to natural hazards and lack of
coping capacities. The ranking process uses Vulnerability 56.78 High
27 indicators and assigns countries scores
ranging from 0 (least risk) to 100 (greatest risk) Susceptibility 35.32 High
(Day et al., 2019, pp. 44, 56). Lack of coping
84.36 High
capacity
• INFORM (Index for Risk Management) 3
Lack of adaptive
assesses the relative risk of countries 50.66 High
capacity
experiencing humanitarian crises, taking into
(Day et al., 2019)
account exposure to hazards, vulnerability
of the population, and coping capacity. INFORM
INFORM ranks Vanuatu joint 50th (tied with
Tonga) out of 191 countries on exposure to Epidemic
Natural hazards
natural hazards, meaning that approximately Drought
one quarter of the countries of the world Tropical cyclone
have higher risk. It considers Vanuatu to have Tsunami
particularly high risks of tsunamis, earthquakes, Flood
Earthquake
and cyclones, and a low risk of flood and
drought (IASC [Inter-Agency Standing
Overall risk
Lack of coping capacity
Committee Reference Group on Risk, Early Vulnerability
Warning and Preparedness], 2020). Natural hazard & exposure
• ThinkHazard4 provides an overview of Low High
natural hazards at national and local levels. Relative risk compared with other
countries worldwide
It considers Vanuatu to have a high risk
(IASC, 2020)
of flooding in urban and coastal areas,
geophysical hazards, and cyclones (GFDRR ThinkHazard
[Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and
Recovery], 2020). Urban flood
Tsunami
Coastal flood
High risk Volcano
Earthquake
• The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre Landslide
Cyclone
(IDMC)5 models the risk of future population
Medium risk Extreme heat
displacements, and projects the greatest risks
for Vanuatu to be related to cyclones and River flood
Very low risk Wildfire
Water scarcity
storm surge (IDMC, 2019).
(GFDRR, 2020)
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre
2
Developed by Ruhr University Bochum and Bündnis Average expected number of displacements per year
Entwicklung Hilft.
3
Developed by the Inter-Agency Standing Committee Cyclonic wind 2,134
Reference Group on Risk, Early Warning and Preparedness
and the European Commission. Storm surge 1,125
4
Developed by the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction Earthquake 417
and Recovery (GFDRR) managed by the World Bank.
5
Part of the Norwegian Refugee Council, a humanitarian Tsunami 1
non-governmental organization.
(IDMC, 2019)
3Agencies that record past disasters agree that Figure 2: Historical Disasters
cyclones have caused the greatest economic
EM-DAT: Damage, 1990-2020
losses in Vanuatu. DesInventar6 and EM-DAT7
(Emergency Events Database) are the two Volcanic activity
main global datasets of disasters related to Tsunami
natural hazards. They use different inclusion Cyclone
criteria, data sources, and reporting practices, Flood
so they are not necessarily comparable. In Earthquake
particular, DesInventar includes significantly Drought
more events than EM-DAT, especially high- 0 250 500
frequency, low-impact events; EM-DAT tends Damage in million USD
to show lower estimates of impacts and to lack (CRED, 2020)
estimates of damages in smaller countries;
data collection practices in both datasets DesInventar: Losses, 1990-2020
appear to vary from one country to another
and may not always be comparable between Drought
Volcano
countries; and both datasets appear to cover
Storm (local)
flooding inadequately (Edmonds & Noy, 2018,
Storm surge
pp. 482–484). For Vanuatu, both datasets
Landslide
agree that cyclones are the hazards that have
Tsunami
caused the most damage or loss, although Earthquake
they differ slightly regarding the number of Flood
events and magnitude of damage or loss that Cyclone
they record (CRED [Centre for Research on the Epidemic
Epidemiology of Disasters], 2020; UNDRR [United 0 100
Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction], Losses in million USD
2020). PCRAFI has also compiled a database (UNDRR, 2020)
cataloguing more than 600 disasters across
15 countries in the region (PCRAFI, 2013, pp. PCRAFI: number of recorded disasters
53–57). Of the 82 events recorded for Vanuatu, Tropical cyclone 50
almost all were cyclones (50) or earthquakes Earthquake 26
(26); no tsunamis or storm surges were recorded Flood 3
(PCRAFI, 2013, p. 57). Severe local storm 2
Landslide 1
Storm surge 0
Tsunami 0
(PCRAFI, 2013, p. 57)
6
Operated by the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), drawing on data from partners around the
world; data for the Pacific region are provided by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC).
7
Operated by the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) at the Catholic University of Louvain.
41.2. Cyclones
Cyclones, bringing damaging winds, heavy are experienced at dealing with cyclones
rain, flooding, and storm surges, are the most (Dornan & Newton Cain, 2015, p. 24). Estimates
significant natural hazard for Vanuatu. The of the decrease in the country’s GDP growth
country experiences an average of 2 to 2.4 rate attributable to the cyclone vary from 2.0
cyclones per year, mainly between November to 2.8 percentage points (Lee et al., 2018, p. 22;
and April (Australian Bureau of Meteorology WTO [World Trade Organization], 2019, p. 1).
and CSIRO, 2014, p. 320; Handmer & Iveson,
Climate change is expected to lead to fewer
2017, p. 60). Storm surges associated with
but more powerful cyclones by the end of this
cyclones, and flooding due to heavy rains, are
century. Different climate models produce
common occurrences (Jackson et al., 2017, p.
varying projections of cyclone formation rates,
365). Landslides are also occasionally triggered
with a majority suggesting a likely decrease
by precipitation from cyclones (Jackson et al.,
of 15% to 35% in cyclone formation affecting
2017, p. 365). The average annual losses caused
Vanuatu by the end of the century. Global
by cyclones has been estimated at 5.0% of GDP
projections suggest that maximum wind speeds
(PCRAFI, 2011, p. 5).
could increase by 2% to 11%, which would lead
In 2015, TC (Tropical Cyclone) Pam, the most to exponentially higher damage, and that
intense cyclone in the country’s history, caused rainfall within 100 km of cyclone centers could
widespread damage and economic loss. The increase by around 20%; there are no local
storm caused damage and loss estimated projections of cyclone intensity specifically for
at 64% of GDP, temporarily displaced 65% of Vanuatu (ADB, 2018, p. 5; Australian Bureau of
households in affected areas (mostly finding Meteorology and CSIRO, 2014, p. 333).
shelter with friends, family, or community
Global evidence shows that the economic
shelters in their local areas), destroyed crops
damage caused by cyclones is long-lasting
on a large scale leading to food security
and cumulative. A study of the long-term
issues and reliance on emergency food aid,
economic impacts of tropical cyclones that
damaged and contaminated water supplies,
examined 6,712 storm events found that the
damaged 81% of homes in affected areas, and
impact on GDP caused by a cyclone lasts at
“compromised the livelihoods of at least 80%
least twenty years, and that countries that are
of Vanuatu’s rural population” (Government
repeatedly exposed to cyclones experience
of Vanuatu, 2015b, pp. ix, 3; Handmer &
a cumulative and effectively permanent loss
Nalau, 2019, p. 374; SPC [Secretariate of the
to GDP. More powerful storms cause more
Pacific Community], 2016, pp. 6, 11; WFP, 2016,
long-term damage: each additional meter per
pp. 5–6). Heavy rain and storm surges led to
second (3.6 km/h) increase in average annual
coastal and fluvial flooding, and damage to
wind exposure lowers per capita economic
buildings and other infrastructure in some areas
output by 0.37% twenty years later, and an
(Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, pp. 34, 56, 62;
increase in a country’s cyclone exposure by
Rey et al., 2017, pp. 263–266). Only 11 people
one standard deviation lowers GDP by 3.6
were killed as a result of the cyclone, which
percentage points twenty years later (Hsiang
is low considering the extensive damage to
& Jina, 2014). One study in Vanuatu, on Efate
property that it inflicted; the low death toll is
island, indicated that recovery from TC Pam at
attributed both to government preparedness
the local village level could take anywhere from
and to the resilience of the Ni-Vanuatu8, who
five months to three years: some respondents
8
The people of Vanuatu.
5reported that crops and fruit trees could take a reported that food supplies were fully available
year and a half to be re-established, and that within one to two months, that communities had
rebuilding most houses took two to three years essentially recovered in four to five months, and
with some houses still not fully repaired up to four that most houses were rebuilt within one year
years after the cyclone, while other respondents (Jennings et al., 2020, p. 29).
Table 1: Livelihood disruptions resulting from TC Pam
Post-cyclone status Anticipated time to
Activity Profitability
and issues recovery
Cannot be easily
Fishing (tuna, marlin, reef fish) High 3 months
located
Trapping lobster and coconut Cannot be located,
High 6 months
crabs may be gone
Activities
Some seedlings
primarily
Sandalwood farming High destroyed, but trees 3 months
undertaken
mainly intact
by men
Kava cultivation High Largely wiped out 4 years
Copra cultivation High Largely wiped out 12 months
Sales of Prepared Foods Not possible in current
Low 6 months
Activities (local) conditions
primarily Pandanus all
Weaving handicrafts Medium 12 months
undertaken destroyed
by women Sewing machine
Sewing (for local sale) Low Variable
damaged and lost
Vegetable and fruit sales (to
Medium Mainly destroyed 6 months
Vila and Tanna)
Interrupted due to
Activities
Tourist services Medium damage and lack Variable
undertaken
of transport
by men
and Work in guesthouses and Many damaged and
Medium Variable
women restaurants closed
Only root crops left in
Cultivation of other crops Medium 3–6 months
most locations
(Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, p. 97)
61.3. Earthquakes and tsunamis
Vanuatu is located on the Pacific “Ring of coastal uplift with associated coral death, loss
Fire”, placing it at risk of earthquakes and of fishing grounds and reduced sea access for
tsunamis (PCRAFI, 2011, p. 3). Such events are fishing but no significant damage to crops or
rare but can be extremely damaging when property (Eriksson et al., 2017, p. 52). Vanuatu
they do occur. Vanuatu has experienced 18 has a 40% chance of experiencing a significant
significant earthquakes9 since 2000, or about 0.9 earthquake that could cause heavy damage
earthquakes per year (National Geophysical to well-engineered buildings within the next
Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/ 50 years (PCRAFI, 2011, p. 3). On average,
WDS), 2020). The most recent non-volcanic the country is expected to incur damage
earthquake, of magnitude 7.0, occurred in amounting to 1.5% of GDP due to earthquakes
Malampa province in April 2016 and led to and tsunamis (PCRAFI, 2011, p. 5).
1.4. Volcanoes
Most of Vanuatu’s islands are volcanic in costing about VUV 47 million (approximately
origin, and there are six active volcanoes in USD 493,000), mostly funded by the Vanuatu
the country which have triggered humanitarian government with some assistance from China
relief efforts and large-scale evacuations and New Zealand (Nimau et al., 2019, pp. 12–
several times in recent years. Mount Yasur on 15), and another ash fall in 2016 affected 20,000
Tanna island (population approximately 29,000), people and led to a humanitarian relief effort
for example, is an almost continuously active costing at least VUV 150 million (approximately
volcano that emits gases, smoke, ash, and USD 1.4 million) (PCRAFI, 2018, p. 1). More
frequent bursts of lava (Nimau et al., 2019, pp. recently, eruptions of the volcano Manaro Voui
7, 11–12). Ash, in particular, routinely affects on Ambae island led to evacuating the entire
large areas of the island, with larger eruptions population, approximately 11,000 people, to
sometimes prompting significant humanitarian other islands in 2017 for a month, and then
interventions. An eruption in 2013 damaged again in mid-2018 for approximately six months
most of the vegetation across the Whitesands (IDMC, 2018, p. 31; IOM, 2019; PCRAFI, 2018, pp.
district and led to a humanitarian relief effort 2–5; WTO, 2019, p. 27).
9
Defined as meeting at least one of the following criteria: caused deaths, caused moderate damage (approximately $1
million or more), magnitude 7.5 or greater, Modified Mercalli Intensity X or greater, or the earthquake generated a tsunami
(National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS), 2020).
71.5. Droughts
Droughts have serious impacts on subsistence The impact of climate change on the risk of
agriculture and on water supplies, which in drought is uncertain. The incidence of drought
Vanuatu are heavily dependent on rainwater may remain approximately unchanged under
harvesting. Droughts are generally associated most carbon emissions scenarios, and may
with the El Niño10 phenomenon, which affects decrease slightly under conditions of high
precipitation patterns across the Pacific. emissions, but these projections carry a low
Region-wide, high dependence on subsistence degree of confidence because there is a
agriculture makes Pacific islands vulnerable lack of consensus on projections of average
to the effects of El Niño conditions including rainfall and on potential changes in the El Niño
drought (Thomalla & Boyland, 2017, p. 40). In phenomenon, which directly influences drought
Vanuatu, the drought that occurred during the (Australian Bureau of Meteorology and CSIRO,
2016 El Niño led to shortages of drinking water, 2014, pp. 331–332).
hindered the regrowth of crops damaged
by TC Pam the previous year, and required
emergency food distribution targeting 90,000
people (Eriksson et al., 2017, p. 52; OCHA
[United Nations Office for the Coordination of
Humanitarian Affairs], 2015, p. 4).
10
El Niño is a naturally occurring warming of the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean which is observed every two to seven years,
leading to weakening of prevailing trade winds, reduced ocean upwelling and altered ocean currents, and changes to
wind, sea surface temperature and precipitation patterns (Australian Bureau of Meteorology and CSIRO, 2014, pp. 347–348).
82. Vulnerability and Impacts
2.1. Economic profile
Vanuatu’s relatively small economy is
Figure 3: Vanuatu GDP annual change
dominated by a large and growing tourism
industry and subsistence agriculture. Vanuatu
10
ranks 141st out of 189 countries on the Human
GDP growth (annual %)
8
Development Index, falling within the ‘medium
6
human development’ category (UNDP
4
[United Nations Development Programme],
2
2019, p. 302). Economic development is
0
hampered by its geographical remoteness,
-2
widely dispersed islands, high costs of public
-4
service provision and of transportation and
-6
trade, and vulnerability to external economic
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
2017
2019
shocks, notably those resulting from natural
hazards (Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, p.
(World Bank 2020c)
2; WTO, 2019, p. 25). Its relatively small size
means that domestic markets tend to be too Figure 4: Vanuatu employment by sector
small for industries to benefit from economies
of scale (Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, p. 80
% of total employment
2). Economic activity is concentrated in the 70
Agriculture
two most populous urban centres, Port Vila 60
and Luganville (Rust, 2019, p. 10). The formal 50
Services
economy is narrowly based, driven primarily 40
by tourism, agriculture, international aid, and 30
construction (Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, 20
Industry
p. 2; Handmer & Iveson, 2017, p. 61; PCRAFI, 10
2015, p. 7; WTO, 2019, p. 25). Tourism is the 0
largest industry by share of GDP and by share
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
2017
2019
of export earnings (see section 2.3 below), but
agriculture, mostly carried out on a subsistence (World Bank 2020c)
basis, is the dominant economic activity, with
approximately 80% of the population relying
to some degree on subsistence farming for
livelihood and food security (VNSO [Vanuatu
National Statistics Office], 2013, cited in
Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, p. 16).
92.2. Agriculture and fisheries
Subsistence agriculture is the principal caused by TC Pam were estimated at VUV
economic activity and source of livelihoods 6.1 billion (approximately USD 56 million; 8.0%
in Vanuatu. Although agriculture contributes of GDP) (Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, pp.
less to GDP than the service sector, agriculture 16, 127), but the financial value of the crops
remains the principal economic activity and lost does not fully represent the livelihood and
source of livelihood for the vast majority of food security impacts on rural households.
ni-Vanuatu (Mackenzie-Reur & Galgal, 2018, Crops suffered 69% of the total agricultural
p. 9). Agriculture makes up 25% of GDP and damage and loss, followed by forestry (16%),
mostly consists of crop production (79% of livestock (9%), and fisheries (6%) (Government
the agriculture sector) with livestock (14%), of Vanuatu, 2015b, p. 16). Most of the crop
forestry (5%), and fisheries (3%) making small losses (58%) were in kava, a major export
contributions (Government of Vanuatu, crop, which is fragile and vulnerable to strong
2015b, p. 16). Vanuatu’s agriculture sector is winds (Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, p. 18).
dominated by semi-subsistence farmers using Approximately half of all agricultural households
mostly household labor; approximately 80% in the affected areas lost all or part of their
of Vanuatu’s population relies on agriculture crops, including crops such as kava, copra, and
(mainly crops, livestock, and fisheries) for cocoa that will take up to a year to re-establish
livelihoods and for food and nutrition security, (potentially three to four years for kava)
and at least 71% of the rural population derives (Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, pp. 19, 90, 97).
some income from agricultural activities (VNSO, Across the affected areas, 85% of households
2013, cited in Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, were engaged in subsistence farming, and
p. 16). In 2016, 42% of all households in Vanuatu slightly more than half of these households had
grew coconuts as cash crops, 32% grew no other sources of income (REACH, 2015, pp.
kava, 16% grew cocoa, and 4% grew coffee 34–35). Following the cyclone, food security
(Vanuatu National Statistics Office, 2017, p. was a significant problem: food prices rose
217). Kava production nationally has increased dramatically in rural areas, availability of fruit
significantly in recent years – kava was the and vegetables was very restricted, people in
country’s third largest export commodity in affected areas were rationing food, and about
2014 but made up 53% of all exports by the end 200,000 people received emergency food aid
of 2019 (Vanuatu Department of Agriculture from the government, NGOs, and the World
and Rural Development, 2016, p. 11; Vanuatu Food Programme (Hollema et al., 2015, pp.
National Statistics Office, 2020, p. 2) – so kava’s 10–16; Wentworth, 2020, pp. 78–81; WFP, 2016,
contribution to household incomes is likely to pp. 5–6). Within one month of the cyclone, 85%
have increased. The extent to which kava may of households had replanted their subsistence
have replaced other crops is uncertain. Nearly gardens, but even the fastest-growing crops
all households in coastal villages (32% of all needed at least three months to reach maturity
households in Vanuatu) are involved in coastal (REACH, 2015, p. 35). Fishing was badly affected
fishing, mostly at a subsistence level, with about for several weeks following the cyclone, but
6% of all households engaged in fishing for sale served as an alternative source of food and
(Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, p. 17). livelihood for many households whose crops
had been damaged or destroyed, and fishing
Cyclones cause extensive damage, loss of had mostly returned to normal by the time of an
production, and harm to livelihoods in the assessment a year and a half later, apart from
agriculture sector. The total damage and the loss of some fishing areas (Eriksson et al.,
economic losses in the agricultural sector 2017, pp. 52–53).
10Climate change is expected to adversely on agriculture include reduced availability
affect agriculture and fisheries through of fresh water, changes in growing seasons,
increased frequency of extreme weather, increases in pests and diseases, sea level rise,
changes in sea level rise, and disruption of saltwater inundation and intrusion into coastal
aquatic ecosystems. Across the Pacific region, land and groundwater, ocean acidification
most cash crops are vulnerable to extreme and coral reef deterioration, reduced fisheries
weather events. High winds from more intense productivity, loss of coastal land, damage
tropical cyclones severely threaten crops such to infrastructure and equipment, and
as bananas, breadfruit, and coconuts, and compromised food security (Government of
sugar cane is expected to be affected by Vanuatu, 2015a, pp. 6–7). It is possible that
flooding (Bell et al., 2016, p. 17). In Vanuatu, cacao production could be enhanced by rising
projected consequences of climate change temperatures (Bell et al., 2016, p. 17).
2.3. Tourism
Vanuatu has a large and growing tourism Tropical cyclone Pam caused significant
industry which is extremely important to economic harm to the tourism sector,
the country’s economy, but vulnerable to mostly through damage to accommodation
natural hazards. Estimates of the economic properties, but the impacts lasted only one
importance of travel and tourism to Vanuatu season. Damage and economic loss to the
range between 35% and 45% of GDP, between tourism sector was estimated at VUV 9.5
14% and 38% of total employment, and up to billion (approximately USD 87 million; 12.5%
67% of total export earnings (Connel, 2019, p. of GDP) (Government of Vanuatu, 2015b,
327; ILO [International Labour Organization], p. 29). Most of the damage was suffered by
2017a, p. 30; World Travel & Tourism Council, accommodation properties (88%), with the
2020; WTO, 2019, p. 31). The World Travel and greatest damage associated with two major
Tourism Council predicts industry growth of 4.1% hotels, but widespread lower-value damage
per year over the next decade with tourism’s was suffered by other accommodation
contribution to Vanuatu’s GDP expected to properties and by 88% of all tour operators
reach 50% of GDP by 2027 (WTO, 2019, p. 31). (Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, p. 31). Women
were expected to suffer greater job losses than
Tourism in Vanuatu is nature-based and
men, because in post-disaster situations the
highly dependent on coastal as well as
tourism industry commonly retains managerial
inland ecosystems. Major attractions include
and groundskeeping staff, who are mostly male,
adventure tourism, volcanoes, beaches,
and lays off housekeeping staff, who are mostly
cruising, cultural activities, diving and snorkeling,
female (Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, p. 34).
eco-tourism, and fishing (Perrottet & Garcia,
Tourist arrivals dropped by between 11% and
2016, pp. 12–13). Across the Pacific region,
17% following the cyclone (Perrottet & Garcia,
impacts of climate change are expected to
2016, p. 2; WTO, 2019, p. 31) but the decline was
include increased intensity of storms, increased
brief and the tourism sector had recovered to
temperatures and extreme weather events,
pre-cyclone levels by 2017 (Eriksson et al., 2017,
damage to infrastructure, beach erosion,
p. 52; WTO, 2019, p. 31). Some larger properties
damage to marine ecosystems, and policy
were slow to reopen (the Holiday Inn took more
responses such as carbon taxes which will
than 15 months) but smaller owner-operator
increase travel costs and negatively affect
guesthouses were able to reopen more quickly;
tourism development (Van Der Veeken et al.,
however, “many business owners who had
2016, p. 53).
not procured cyclone insurance folded in
the aftermath of the storm, unable to reinvest
sufficient savings in their businesses or to tap
sources of credit” (WTO, 2019, p. 31).
112.4. Commerce and industry
Vanuatu’s economy, apart from agriculture industry were estimated at VUV 3.3 billion
and tourism, is largely based on trade, with (approximately USD 30 million; 4.4% of GDP)
very little domestic manufacturing. As of 2013, (Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, p. 22).
commerce and industry contributed 36% of Home-based businesses are presumed to have
GDP, mostly in the form of retail trade (12% of been badly affected as 81% of households in
GDP), finance and insurance (7%), and real affected areas reported some level of damage
estate (7%) (Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, p. (REACH, 2015, p. 2), but no specific data on
23). Manufacturing makes up only 3% of GDP home-based small businesses could be located.
(Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, p. 23). Small- However, despite the high frequency of natural
scale production of handicrafts for the tourist hazards affecting Vanuatu, in a survey of
market is an important source of livelihoods MSMEs carried out in November 2016, only 1% of
for independent producers, wholesalers, and respondents identified natural hazards as being
market sellers, but the government is making among their most pressing problems; most
efforts to encourage more local production as it businesses identified more routine concerns
has been estimated that up to 90% of souvenirs such as competition from other businesses
sold in Vanuatu are manufactured overseas (31%) and finding customers (24%) as their most
and imported into the country to be sold to pressing problems (Reserve Bank of Vanuatu,
tourists (Vanuatu Department of Industry, 2017, 2016b, p. 27). MSMEs in the agriculture sector
p. 13). did, however, identify natural hazards and
climate change as creating credit risk which
TC Pam caused widespread damage to
inhibited borrowing (Reserve Bank of Vanuatu,
buildings and inputs to production. Damage
2016b, p. 46).
and economic losses to commerce and
2.5. Housing and settlements
Housing in Vanuatu is often low-quality and p. 36). Studies looking at housing damage after
vulnerable to cyclone damage. Seventy-five TC Pam arrived at different conclusions: the
percent of the population of Vanuatu live Shelter Cluster found that buildings constructed
in rural areas, with 19% living in the capital, in the traditional style survived better than
Port Vila, and 6% in the country’s second city, houses using modern materials or methods,
Luganville (Vanuatu National Statistics Office, while a report by Save the Children concluded
2017, pp. 95–96). Most construction in rural that roofs constructed from traditional
areas is informal, unregulated, and not built materials suffered greater damage than roofs
according to any standards or codes, which constructed from modern materials (Handmer
makes communities vulnerable to building & Iveson, 2017, p. 64) and the government’s
damage and injury resulting from natural post-disaster needs assessment concluded that
hazards (Handmer & Iveson, 2017, p. 64). buildings constructed to modern standards
Vanuatu has a large stock (43%) of houses built survived better and called for more inspections
using traditional locally-available materials and to improve compliance with standards
techniques such as thatch, woven palm fronds, (Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, p. 27). Port
and woven cane; 30% of houses are built of Vila also has large informal settlements which
locally-available materials supplemented house 35% of the city’s population (as of
with features such as timber framing and 2013), where housing and infrastructure are
corrugated galvanized iron roofs; and 27% not disaster-resilient and access to services is
are of more durable timber or concrete block poor (NDMO [National Disaster Management
construction (Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, Office], 2018, p. 11). These informal settlements
12do not have official sanction and are generally six months after the cyclone, 86% of displaced
based on agreements with local land owners households had returned home and half of the
(Handmer & Iveson, 2017, p. 61). remainder expected to return home at some
point (Shelter Cluster, 2015, p. 14). Rebuilding
TC Pam caused extensive damage to housing
after TC Pam often tended to be done quickly
stock and temporarily displaced 65% of
and cheaply, and buildings were typically
households in affected areas. In affected
restored to their previous conditions in the
areas, 81% of households reported some level
same locations and using the same materials
of damage, with the most vulnerable houses
rather than raising standards (Handmer &
being those with thatched roofs (55% to 77%
Iveson, 2017, pp. 63–64). Within one to one
of such houses reported total destruction of
and a half months after the cyclone, 72% of
the roof, depending on the materials used)
households had completed enough repairs
and walls and floors of bamboo (56% of
that they “perceived that their immediate
bamboo walls and 63% of bamboo floors
shelter needs had been met”, and by five to
were completely destroyed) (REACH, 2015,
six months after the cyclone, this had risen to
pp. 20–21). Damage to homes also results in
85% (REACH, 2015, p. 24; Shelter Cluster, 2015,
loss of income from home-based livelihood
p. 20). Five to six months after the cyclone, 68%
activities, which particularly affects women
of households reported that they had received
(Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, p. 38). Sixty-
shelter assistance, consisting mostly of tarpaulins
five percent of households in the affected
(82%), building materials (35%), blankets (27%),
areas left their houses to stay in safer locations,
and tool kits (26%) (Shelter Cluster, 2015, p. 16).
suggesting widespread fears that houses were
However, most households (81%) reported that
not sufficiently robust to withstand the cyclone
they had relied on using recovered materials
(REACH, 2015, p. 2). Most stayed with friends
(sifting through debris) and locally-available
or family in their own community (53%) or in a
natural materials (Shelter Cluster, 2015, pp.
community-managed shelter such as a school
21–22).
or church (30%) (REACH, 2015, p. 12). By five to
2.6. Low-income and informal workers
Worldwide and across the Pacific, poor and less quickly (Hallegatte et al., 2017, p. 4; ILO
marginalized people are disproportionally [International Labour Organization], 2019a, p. 4;
exposed to natural hazards. Poor people SPC, 2018, p. 108; Utz, 2017, p. 90; Wehrhahn et
often live on low value land in locations al., 2019, p. 60).
where they are more exposed to hazards
The impacts of natural hazards are also
(including frequent, low-intensity hazards) than
disproportionately higher for poorer people
wealthier people are. They lack resources to
(Wehrhahn et al., 2019, p. 60). The same
invest in disaster-resilient housing and other
loss affects poor people more severely than
infrastructure, their employment and incomes
wealthy people because “their livelihoods
are less secure and they have less access to
depend on fewer assets, their consumption is
social protection schemes, and they have
closer to subsistence levels, they cannot rely
limited savings and limited access to insurance
on savings to smooth the impacts, their health
or affordable credit. When disaster strikes they
and education are at greater risk, and they
are often forced to adopt coping strategies
may need more time to recover and rebuild”
that have long-term negative impacts, such as
(Hallegatte et al., 2018, p. 4). The monetary
taking children out of school, selling productive
value of damage to assets and losses to
assets, or reducing food intake, and they
economic production does not fully reflect the
often receive less post-disaster support, and
13impacts on people’s well-being (Hallegatte that 13.2% of the population fell below the
et al., 2018, p. 4). For example, in Vanuatu, USD 1.90 per day international poverty line, and
most of the rural population lives in traditional 39.5% fell below the USD 3.20 per day lower-
housing made of palm leaves, bamboo and middle-income poverty line (World Bank, 2018,
other local materials, which has a low value in p. 1). Vanuatu also has a nationally-defined
monetary terms but is essential to inhabitants basic needs poverty line and food poverty line;
(Handmer & Nalau, 2019, p. 374). Women, in 2010, 12.7% of individuals were in basic needs
youth, children, the elderly, people living with poverty and only 3.2% were in food poverty
disabilities, and people belonging to ethnic (Anderson et al., 2017, p. 108). Poverty rates
or religious minorities are also more severely are higher in urban areas than in rural areas
affected by natural hazards than people who (Anderson et al., 2017, p. 23).
have more wealth, power, and influence.
Vanuatu has high levels of subsistence
Vulnerable people in all these groups tend to
economic activity, and employment is largely
be overrepresented in the informal economy,
informal and vulnerable. Only 30% of the adult
more likely to be unemployed or in insecure
population (excluding full-time students) is in
work, and have less access to resources with
paid employment, with 35% producing goods
which to restore their livelihoods or adapt to
for their own consumption or for sale, 32% doing
climate change (ILO, 2019a, p. 12).
unpaid work in a family business or agricultural
Poverty is a significant issue in Vanuatu, plantation, or undertaking household duties,
although there is a lack of recent data to and 3% considered economically inactive
confirm the current situation. The most recent (Vanuatu National Statistics Office, 2017, pp. 75,
data available are from the 2010 Household 232).
income and Expenditure Survey, which showed
Figure 5: Adult population by economic activity
Male Female
Unpaid
work 23%
Producing Unpaid
Producing
goods 36% work 40%
goods 35%
Employed
38% Employed
22%
Economically
Economically
inactive 3%
inactive 3%
(Vanuatu National Statistics Office, 2017, pp. 75–80)
The formal economy is relatively small, but formal employment (Government of Vanuatu,
the size of the informal economy is difficult to 2015b, pp. 88–89), while the ILO estimates
measure: the government’s post-disaster needs that 40% of total employment is informal (ILO,
assessment following TC Pam estimated that 2017b, p. 31). The ILO also considers 74% of
20% of the labor force (26% of working-age employment in Vanuatu to be vulnerable
males and 14% of working-age females) were in (including people working on their own account
14and contributing family workers) in the sense of meet minimum needs, and 75% to 95% of
suffering from low job and income security and income-generating activities were disrupted
less protection under employment regulation (Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, pp. xii, 94). On
than work in the formal economy (ILO, 2019a, p. Tanna island, food crops took at least a year to
4). Approximately 80% of Vanuatu’s population recover, partly due to the impacts of drought
relies on agriculture (mainly crops, livestock, and conditions caused by El Niño; some remote
fisheries) for livelihood and for food and nutrition communities which lacked access to monetary
security, and at least 71% of the rural population income experienced significant food insecurity
derives some income from agricultural activities with increased health problems (Handmer
(VNSO 2013, cited in Government of Vanuatu, & Nalau, 2019, p. 375). People dependent
2015b, p. 16). on subsistence farming, especially in remote
locations with limited market economies, have
TC Pam had severe impacts on people living
limited options available to them; they “cannot
on low incomes and subsistence livelihoods.
simply change their livelihoods” (Handmer &
In affected areas, half of all agricultural
Nalau, 2019, p. 371).
households lost part or all of their crops
and required support in the short term to
2.7. Gender
Worldwide and across the Pacific, women strategy (Bogdan et al., 2019, pp. iv–v; ILO,
and girls are disproportionately vulnerable 2019a, p. 12). Women also usually have more
to the effects of natural hazards and climate limited opportunities than men to diversify their
change (Bogdan et al., 2019; Utz, 2017, p. livelihoods by taking up new occupations,
90). Women and girls have less ability than because of social norms, home-based
men to influence, participate in, and benefit responsibilities, or limited education (Thomas
from disaster risk reduction and recovery et al., 2019, p. 706). “Socially constructed roles
efforts, and from climate change mitigation and responsibilities, occupational segregation,
and adaptation efforts (Utz, 2017, p. 90). They and cultural norms” lead to women bearing
have less access than men to the resources burdens that include “increased time and
necessary to cope with and respond to labour workloads, health issues like malnutrition,
hazardous events, including information, increased rates of sexual and gender-based
employment opportunities, education, violence and even early child marriage”
health, land, financial resources and other (Bogdan et al., 2019, p. 33). Worldwide, even
economic assets, and basic rights (Utz, 2017, fatality rates in disasters tend to be higher
p. 90; Vincent et al., 2014, p. 105). Women for women than for men, “primarily due to
often have less access than men to early gendered differences in support to cope
warning systems such as weather forecasts with such events and insufficient access to
and warnings of floods and water levels, and information and early warnings” (Bogdan et al.,
are often less prepared to understand and act 2019, p. 33; ILO, 2019a, p. 12).
on the information due to gender differences
Gender also interacts with other social
in literacy, mobility, access to public venues,
characteristics to affect how individuals are
work schedules, and preferences for different
impacted by natural hazards (Bogdan et
communication media (Bogdan et al., 2019,
al., 2019, p. 4). Across Asia, the Pacific, and
pp. 26–33; IFRC [International Federation of
Africa, women in rural areas tend to be more
Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies], 2010,
vulnerable than those in urban areas; older
p. 32). Women’s livelihoods often depend on
women and women with disabilities are
natural resources that are affected by natural
more severely affected because of a lack
hazards, and on assets that are vulnerable to
of accessible infrastructure and information;
disasters or to being sold as a negative coping
15pregnant and lactating women are at higher al., 2019, p. iv). Social norms generally call for
risk because of inadequate health services men to be “brave and heroic, and engage
following disasters; and widowed and divorced in risky life-saving behaviors that increase their
women tend to be more vulnerable (Bogdan et likelihood of mortality” (Bogdan et al., 2019,
al., 2019, p. 23). p. 25; Vincent et al., 2014, p. 106). They also
have increased tendencies to suffer mental
Gendered social norms mean that men suffer
health issues from isolation and worry, including
different risks compared to women, particularly
depression, and to use alcohol as a coping
physical and mental health risks and pressures
mechanism (Bogdan et al., 2019, p. 25). Men
for migration. Most research on the gendered
often migrate (from rural to urban areas, or
impacts of climate-related hazards considers
overseas) in search of new livelihoods, which
effects on women, with “scarce evidence”
can strain households and break up families
available about impacts on men (Bogdan et
(Bogdan et al., 2019, p. 25).
Table 2: Gendered impacts of climate change in Asia, the Pacific, and Africa
Women Men
• Mortality risks among men with
• Higher mortality and morbidity
heroic behavior and rescue
rates in disasters
workers
• Extra workloads (time and labor)
Physical • Migration for livelihood
• Malnutrition
diversification
• Sexual and gender-based violence
• Other health issues, like
during and after disasters
rheumatism
• Loss of small household livestock • Loss of livestock and assets
• Loss of livelihoods connected with
natural resources, less time to re-
establish them
Material
• Loss of land because of
inheritance issues
• Disparities in access to disaster
relief and aid
• Psychological issues associated • Psychological impacts including
mostly with fear of gender-based social isolation, trauma,
Psychological violence and feelings of shame depression, stress that can lead
during disasters and stress for to alcohol abuse and even
providing food for the family suicide
• Girls (early marriage) and • Rural and poor men
adolescent girls (risk of sexual • Widowers
harassment)
• Rural women and women without
access to resources
Most affected
• Women living in low-lying areas
groups
• Disabled and older women
• Widowed, divorced, and single
women
• Pregnant and lactating women
• Female-headed households
• Positive: change in household
• Negative: weaker family structures,
Gender relations and community roles, women
domestic violence
taking leadership
(Bogdan et al., 2019, p. 22)
16In Vanuatu, gender inequality is a significant 2011, p. 55). A 2013 survey showed that 56% of
challenge, and women’s political and men and 60% of women agree that a husband
economic participation is significantly limited is justified in beating his wife.11 (Vanuatu Ministry
by social norms. Women are largely excluded of Health; Vanuatu National Statistics Office;
from decision-making processes at the national and the Secretariat of the Pacific Community,
and local levels, including the traditional 2013, pp. 228–232). Marriage at a young age
local governance systems present in all is common (21% of girls are married before the
communities, and face challenges accessing age of 18), which put girls at high risk of abuse
paid employment outside of agriculture (CARE, (Girls not Brides, 2020; Taylor & Michael, 2013,
2015, p. 3; Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, p. pp. 12–13), and the practice of bride-price
103, 2015a, p. 26). Men and women tend to is cited as a factor in perpetuating violence
undertake different types of livelihood activities: against women (Taylor & Michael, 2013, p. 12).
men typically undertake more profitable National policy and law criminalizes gender-
activities including fishing, growing cash based violence, provides access to protection
crops, and operating shops, while women are orders, and seeks to counter some traditional
typically involved in activities such as weaving discriminatory practices and address gender
mats and baskets, selling prepared food at inequalities (Taylor & Michael, 2013, p. 17), but
markets, sewing clothes for sale, and growing nevertheless gender-based violence is high,
vegetables for subsistence or sale (Government widely accepted, and often considered to be
of Vanuatu, 2015b, p. 95). Gender-based a private matter to be resolved within families
inequality is deeper in urban areas than in following traditional customs (Anderson et al.,
rural areas, and there is significant disparity 2017, p. 119; Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, p.
in wages and economic opportunities (Rust, 103).
2019, p. 10). The labor force participation rate
There is limited evidence available about
in 2016 was 61.7% for women and 80.5% for
gender-based violence under emergency
men (ILO, 2017b, p. 29). The government has
conditions in Vanuatu. Worldwide, evidence
made significant efforts to acknowledge the
shows that gender-based violence often
impacts of natural hazards on women’s social
increases following disasters, in all countries
and economic well-being and to collect sex
at all stages of development (Masson et al.,
and age disaggregated data in disaster risk
2016, p. 11). Assessment reports for disasters in
reduction work, and is seeking to increase
Vanuatu have raised concerns and highlighted
women’s participation in decision-making
risks, but provide little robust evidence on the
forums (Government of Vanuatu, 2015a, pp. 16,
incidence of gender-based violence following
26), and recent post-disaster needs assessments
disasters. Following two tropical cyclones in
such as the one that followed TC Pam in 2015
2011, a counseling center on Tanna island
demonstrate significant attention to gender
reported more than a tripling in domestic
issues.
violence cases (CARE, 2015, p. 8). Surveys of
Gender-based violence in Vanuatu is evacuees from Ambae island in 2017 found
widespread and widely accepted based on that between 10% and 35% of respondents
traditional social norms. A study on violence had observed increases in domestic violence
against women and girls conducted in 2009 and child abuse (Gender & Protection Cluster,
found that 60% who have ever been in a 2017b, p. 5, 2017c, p. 5, 2017a, p. 3). Following
relationship have experienced either physical TC Pam in 2015, emergency shelter facilities
or sexual violence or both by a husband or on Emae and Tanna islands were noted to be
intimate partner (Vanuatu Women’s Centre, often overcrowded and lacking privacy and
11
Specifically, respondents agreed that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife for one or more of the following
reasons: she burns the food, argues with him, goes out without telling him, neglects the children, or refuses to have sexual
intercourse with him.
17lighting, particularly around toilet facilities, to women, not only affecting households’ own
which are identified as risk factors for sexual food supplies but also affecting women who
violence (CARE, 2015, p. 8; Government of prepared and sold food in markets, which is
Vanuatu, 2015b, p. 106), but no data on another major economic activity for women
outcomes regarding gender-based violence (Morioka, 2016, p. 24). The government’s post-
following TC Pam could be located. A review disaster needs assessment of TC Pam noted
of the Australian government’s response to that women were more likely than men to be
Cyclone Pam stated that “Vanuatu Women’s affected by the cyclone because of women’s
Crisis Centre and communities reported that higher poverty levels, disproportionate share
domestic violence had increased in the weeks of family care work, and because women
and months following the cyclone,” but no are often employed in low-skilled work
figures are given (Office of Development (Government of Vanuatu, 2015b, pp. 94, 105).
Effectiveness, 2017, p. 61). Women spend four times as many hours as men
on unpaid household work (27.2 hours per week
Natural hazards can disproportionately affect
compared with 6.6 hours for men) during normal
women’s livelihoods by damaging natural
times13, and women’s domestic and caring
resources that women rely on and because
workloads increased dramatically following
women’s social roles can inhibit them from
the cyclone (Government of Vanuatu, 2015b,
pursuing alternative income-earning activities.
p. 105). Following TC Pam, women tended to
In Vanuatu, for example, making handicrafts
have high workloads, experience post-disaster
is a major economic activity for women which
emotional distress, have their voices filtered
was badly affected because of extensive
through male managers, have their finances
damage to pandanus trees12 (Government
controlled by husbands, and undertake
of Vanuatu, 2015b, p. 97; Morioka, 2016, p.
stereotypical income-generating activities
24). The government lifted a seasonal ban on
(Clissold et al., 2020, p. 108). Some authors also
sandalwood harvesting, a role taken by men,
note that women played an important role in
to stimulate the economy, but the damage
post-disaster recovery by sharing resources,
to pandanus trees that affected women’s
helping each other across formal and informal
livelihoods did not attract much attention
social networks, and through diversification,
because they were not officially regarded as
adaptation, and entrepreneurialism (Clissold et
an agricultural commodity (Morioka, 2016, p.
al., 2020, p. 108).
24). The loss of food crops was a double blow
12
A tree whose leaves are cut into strips and used for weaving baskets, mats, and other handicrafts.
13
These figures are cited by multiple sources; they come from a study carried out in 2000 by Foundation of the People of
South Pacific International: Whyte, J., S. Siwatibau, et al. (2000). Vanuatu Rural Time Use Survey.
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