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U.S. Department of Justice
Office of Justice Programs
National Institute of Justice
National Institute of Justice
R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f
Julie E. Samuels, Acting Director May 2000
Issues and Findings
Police Attitudes Toward Abuse
Discussed in this Brief: The of Authority: Findings From
Police Foundation’s nationally
representative telephone survey of
925 randomly selected American
a National Study
police officers from 121 depart-
ments explores the officers’ views By David Weisburd and Rosann Greenspan with Edwin E. Hamilton, Hubert Williams,
on the abuse of police authority. and Kellie A. Bryant
Officers also provided information
on different forms of abuse they Serious cases of abuse of police authority Foundation—a nonprofit organization in
have observed, the frequency of often stimulate intense public debate. Washington, D.C., that seeks to improve
abuse in their departments, and For example, a videotape of Rodney policing in America through research—
effective strategies for controlling King being beaten by Los Angeles police surveyed a representative national sample
abuse. General findings, as well as
differing attitudes of black, white,
officers or reports of the torture of Abner of American police officers to explore
and other minority officers, are pre- Louima by New York City police capture their attitudes on the abuse of authority
sented and discussed in this Brief. the public’s attention and raise troubling by police (see “Study Methodology”). The
questions regarding the limits of legiti- survey sought to determine whether offic-
Key issues: Unlike previous studies
on the abuse of police authority,
mate police authority in a democratic ers view abuse of authority as an inevi-
this survey provides a nationwide society. Are such events isolated occur- table byproduct of increased efforts to
portrait of how police officers view rences in particular police departments control crime and disorder. It also asked
this critical issue. The 92-question or extreme examples of a more general what forms of abuse exist, how common
survey assessed American police problem plaguing police departments abuse of authority is, and what strategies
officers’ views on a number of
important issues relating to the
across the United States? Does the fact and tactics would be most effective in pre-
abuse of police authority in the that such abuses often involve minority venting police from abusing authority. The
United States: victims reveal important disparities in the survey also considered how community-
way that law enforcement officers treat oriented policing has affected officers’ at-
● Whether officers believe that
the abuse of police authority is a
members of certain racial, socioeco- titudes on abuse of authority and the rule
necessary byproduct of efforts to nomic, or cultural groups? In turn, what of law. In particular, it explored whether
reduce and control crime. measures can be taken to constrain po- community policing has led police to show
lice abuse, and which are likely to be greater respect for the rights of citizens or,
● What types of abuse and
attitudes toward abuse officers
most effective? Although such questions conversely, has increased the potential for
observe in their departments. have been raised and debated in the me- police abuse and encouraged police offic-
Within this broad issue, the survey dia, by politicians, and by police scholars ers to expand the boundaries of accept-
explores officers’ views on the code and administrators, little is known about able use of police authority.
of silence, whistle blowing, and how police officers themselves view these
the extent to which a citizen’s Relatively few surveys of police attitudes
demeanor, race, or class affects
critical issues.
toward abuse of authority have been con-
the way that he or she is treated
by police.
With the support of the Office of Com- ducted, and these have focused primarily
munity Oriented Policing Services, on specific police agencies or local or
● What strategies or tactics U.S. Department of Justice, the Police State jurisdictions.1 Some of these studies
(including first-line supervision,
community policing, citizen review
boards, and training) officers
continued…R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f
Issues and Findings yield important insights regarding the departments or regions of the country.
continued… problem of police abuse of authority. Results of the Police Foundation’s study,
Studies conducted across two midwestern by contrast, are based on a telephone sur-
find to be effective means of
preventing officers from abusing States (one in Illinois and one in Ohio), vey of a representative national sample of
authority. for example, suggest that a significant more than 900 American police officers.
minority of police officers have observed Their responses provide the first national
The survey also analyzed responses
police using “considerably” more force portrait of police attitudes toward the
according to the participants’ race,
rank, and sex. than necessary when apprehending a sus- abuse of authority.
pect. In the Illinois study, more than 20
Key findings: The results of the percent of the officers surveyed reported
survey indicate that the majority of
General findings
having observed this type of abuse2; in
American police officers believe Overview of findings. The use of force
that: the Ohio study, 13 percent of respondents
had seen such abuse.3 Moreover, both is a relatively rare occurrence in Ameri-
● It is unacceptable to use more studies suggest that police harassment of can policing,4 but previous studies sug-
force than legally allowable to
minorities is not an isolated occurrence. gest that when it does occur, it may often
control someone who physically escalate to the level of excessive force.
assaults an officer. More than 25 percent of officers surveyed
in the Illinois study and 15 percent of For example, a 1996 reexamination of
● Extreme cases of police abuse of those in the Ohio study stated that they 5,688 cases in the 1977 Police Services
authority occur infrequently. had observed an officer harassing a citi- Study data found that reasonable force
zen “most likely” because of his or her was used in 37 cases (0.65 percent) and
● Their departments take a “tough
stand” on the issue of police abuse. race. that improper force was used in 23 cases
(0.40 percent).5 Therefore, improper force
●At times their fellow officers use Prior studies such as these provide was used in 38 percent of encounters that
more force than necessary when suggestive findings on police officers’ involved force. As the author of that study,
making an arrest.
attitudes toward the abuse of authority. Robert Worden, stated, “[I]ncidents in
● It is not unusual for officers to Nonetheless, the conclusions that may which improper force was used represent
ignore improper conduct by their be drawn from them are limited by the a substantial proportion of the incidents
fellow officers. fact that they were conducted in specific in which any force (reasonable or
● Training and education are effec-
tive ways to reduce police abuse.
Exhibit 1. General attitudes toward the use of force (in percent)
● A department’s chief and first-line
supervisors can play an important Strongly Strongly
role in preventing police from abus- Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
ing authority. Police are not permitted to use 6.2b 24.9 60.5 8.4
as much force as is often necessary
● Community-oriented policing in making arrests. (n=912)a
reduces or has no impact upon
the potential for police abuse. It is sometimes acceptable to use 3.3 21.2 55.2 20.3
more force than is legally allowable
In addition, the survey finds race to control someone who physically
to be a divisive issue for American assaults an officer. (n=912)
police. In particular, black and
Always following the rules is not 3.8 39.1 49.6 7.6
nonblack officers had significantly
compatible with getting the job
different views about the effect of done. (n=919)
a citizen’s race and socioeconomic
status on the likelihood of police a. Numbers in parentheses represent valid responses.
abuse of authority and about the b. The frequencies are weighted to reflect the population parameters. The 95-percent confidence intervals
effect of community policing on for responses in this exhibit range between plus or minus 1.0 percent and 4.0 percent for the frequencies
the potential for abuse. reported. Such confidence intervals are commonly noted as the margin of error or sampling error of the
survey findings.
Target audience: Legislators, Note: Totals may not equal 100 percent due to rounding.
policymakers, prosecutors, judges,
police chiefs, police officers, and
others interested in the critical issue
of police officers’ abuse of police
authority. 2R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f
improper) was used.”6 In his 1980
Exhibit 2. Use of force behavior in officers’ departments (in percent)
reanalysis of 1,565 cases in Albert
Reiss’ 1967 data, Robert Friedrich simi- Sometimes,
Never Seldom Often, or Always
larly found that reasonable force had
been used in 52 cases (3.3 percent) and Police officers in [your department] 16.0b 62.4 21.7
that excessive force was used in 28 use more force than is necessary
to make an arrest. (n=922)a
cases (1.8 percent).7 Excessive force
was thus used in 35 percent of encoun- Police officers in your department 31.8 53.5 14.7
respond to verbal abuse with
ters that involved force. Nevertheless,
physical force. (n=922)
it is unclear whether the same results
would be found today, because police a. Numbers in parentheses represent valid responses.
policies and training regarding use of b. The frequencies are weighted to reflect the population parameters. The 95-percent confidence
force have changed since these data intervals for responses in this exhibit range between plus or minus 1.0 percent and 4.0 percent for
the frequencies reported. Such confidence intervals are commonly noted as the margin of error or
were collected. Moreover, given the sampling error of the survey findings.
difficulties of defining excessive force in Note: Totals may not equal 100 percent due to rounding.
studies based on systematic social ob-
servations, a general caveat regarding Although a substantial minority of The code of silence. Some of the
these reported statistics is in order. officers in the sample expressed strongest and most varied opinions
the view that the police should be expressed by respondents concerned
In trying to understand why incidents
permitted to use more force, the over- the difficult question of whether offic-
involving force escalate to the level of
whelming majority did not believe ers should report other officers’ mis-
excessive force, the authors asked offic-
that officers regularly engaged in the conduct. Responses on this subject
ers in the sample a series of questions
excessive use of force. A mere 4.1 suggest the possibility of a large gap
about their attitudes toward the use of
percent thought that police officers between attitudes and behavior. That
force and the behavior of fellow officers.
regularly used more physical force is, even though officers do not believe
Responses show that most police officers
than necessary when making arrests, in protecting wrongdoers, they often
in the United States disapprove of the use
and almost all of the officers (97.1 do not turn them in.
of excessive force. Nonetheless, a sub-
percent) agreed that serious cases of
stantial minority believed that officers More than 80 percent of police sur-
misconduct (like the Rodney King
should be permitted to use more force veyed reported that they do not accept
case in Los Angeles and the Abner
than the law currently permits and found the “code of silence” (i.e., keeping
Louima case in New York) were
it acceptable to sometimes use more force quiet in the face of misconduct by
“extremely rare” in their departments.
than permitted by the laws that govern others) as an essential part of the
them.8 The officers revealed these beliefs Still, respondents did not give their mutual trust necessary to good polic-
in responses to several questions (see ex- fellow officers a completely clean ing (see exhibit 3). However, about
hibit 1). More than 30 percent of the report. Almost 22 percent agreed or one-quarter (24.9 percent) of the
sample agreed or strongly agreed that po- strongly agreed that officers in their sample agreed or strongly agreed that
lice officers are not permitted to use as departments sometimes (or often or whistle blowing is not worth it, more
much force as is often necessary when always) use more force than necessary, than two-thirds (67.4 percent) reported
making arrests. Almost 25 percent agreed and only 16 percent reported that their that police officers who report inci-
or strongly agreed that, to control a per- fellow officers never do so (see exhibit dents of misconduct are likely to be
son who is physically assaulting an of- 2). Although more than 90 percent given a “cold shoulder” by fellow
ficer, it is sometimes acceptable for the found it inappropriate for officers to officers, and a majority (52.4 percent)
officer to use more force than legally respond to verbal abuse with physical agreed or strongly agreed that it is not
allowable. Moreover, more than 40 per- force, almost 15 percent indicated that unusual for police officers to “turn a
cent agreed or strongly agreed that al- officers in their departments engaged blind eye” to other officers’ improper
ways following the rules is incompatible in such behavior at least sometimes. conduct (exhibit 3). A surprising 6 in
with getting their job done. 10 (61 percent) indicated that police
3R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f
Survey Methodology
T he telephone survey of a randomly
selected national sample of police officers
113 ultimately agreed to participate in the
survey (for an overall departmental participa-
8.5 percent of the weighted sample
being female.
was administered by Mathematica Policy tion rate of 93.4 percent). Participating de-
Research, Inc., a research and analysis firm partments cooperated by submitting rosters Notes
based in Princeton, NJ, under the direction of all full-time sworn personnel, with the
of the Police Foundation.a Staff members a. The authors extend thanks to Rhoda
rank, address, and telephone number of
Cohen, who served as project director for
of the Police Foundation developed the each officer. Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.
survey instrument after reviewing available
prior studies and considering the results of From those lists, the authors took a b. In addition to the important contributions
a series of focus groups with police schol- weighted representative sample of 1,060 of the police scholars, chiefs, and officers who
ars and managers and police rank and officers,g 925 of whom completed the sur- participated in the focus groups and the offic-
file.b The survey took officers an average vey (for a completion rate of 87.3 percent). ers who participated in a pretest of the survey,
Combining the departmental participation the authors consulted several police research-
of 25 minutes to complete and was ad-
ers about the development of the survey
ministered with careful concern for pro- rate of 93.4 percent with the officer com-
instrument. The authors extend particular
tecting participants’ anonymity, privacy, pletion rate of 87.3 percent results in an thanks to Professors Carl Klockars, Peter
and confidentiality. overall response rate for the survey of Manning, Steve Mastrofski, Albert Reiss,
81.5 percent.h Jerome Skolnick, and Robert Worden.
Sample selection. To select a representa-
tive national sample of police officers, the Sample characteristics. Because of the c. The sample was selected using probability
authors used a multistage or “clustered” stratified and clustered sampling procedures proportional to size (PPS) methods. Each of
used in this study, the authors included a the 5,042 departments was assigned a mea-
sampling method.c Selection of the
sure of size based on an estimate of the
sample began by defining the sampling correction (based on weighting each depart-
number of full-time sworn officers in the de-
frame (that is, the universe of relevant po- ment and police officer according to the pro- partment (estimates were based on Maguire,
lice departments throughout the country portion of the actual population of American Edward R., Jeffrey B. Snipes, Craig D. Uchida
from which to select officers). For inclu- police officers that they represented) when and Margaret Townsend. 1998. “Counting
sion in the sampling frame, a department reporting survey responses.i In the weighted Cops: Estimating the Number of Police
had to: sample, 70 percent of the officers were Departments and Police Officers in the USA.”
drawn from the rank and file, with sergeants Policing: An International Journal of Police
● Have primary responsibility for pro- Strategies and Management 21(1): 97–120.)
constituting about 15 percent and 13 per-
viding police services to a residential Departments were assigned to one of three
cent holding the rank of lieutenant or above. groups, based on size. The first group in-
population. More than 20 percent of the officers were cluded nine departments, each of which was
under 30 years old, and more than 8 percent so large that it was certain to be sampled
● Have a minimum of 10 full-time sworn
were over 50. Almost three-quarters of the using PPS methods. These departments were
officers.
officers were either married or living with selected with probability 1.0 and called “cer-
someone as married. tainty selections.” The two other groups or
● Be either a municipal or a county
strata were “the middle group” (departments
police agency. The weighted sample indicated that Ameri- with 25 or more full-time sworn officers) and
can policing reflects the racial and ethnic “the smallest group” (departments with 10–
The sampling frame identified consisted 24 officers). The authors then divided the
composition of the population of the United
of 5,042 police departments, which em- strata into four geographic regions and identi-
States. Approximately 80.8 percent of the
ployed the great majority (between 91.6 fied a stratified sample of departments that
officers in the sample, for example, are
and 94.1 percent) of all full-time sworn included 9 certainty selections, 84 depart-
white (compared with 80.3 percent of the ments from the middle group, and 28 from
officers serving in local police agencies in
U.S. population),10.7 percent are black the smallest stratum.
the United States.d In 1997, the number
(compared with 12 percent of the national
of officers in these 5,042 departments d. The authors thank Ed Maguire for his
population), and 9.6 percent are of Hispanic,
was estimated at about 350,000.e From assistance in developing the list of police
Latino, or Spanish origin (compared with
the 5,042 departments, the authors se- agencies. Maguire developed the sampling
8.8 percent of the U.S. population).j How-
lected 121 representative departments frame by combining information contained in
ever, American policing continues to be a the Uniform Crime Reports, the 1992 Census
(based on size and region),f and of these,
predominantly male profession, with only
4R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f
Exhibit 3. Code of silence (in percent)
Strongly Strongly
of Law Enforcement Agencies, and a list of Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
police departments provided by the Office of
Community Oriented Policing Services. (See The code of silence is an essential part 1.2b 15.7 65.6 17.5
also Maguire, Edward R., “The Police Foun- of the mutual trust necessary to good
dation Use of Force Study: Sampling Frame policing. (n=905)a
Design Issues,” memorandum prepared for
the Police Foundation, October 20, 1997.)
Whistle blowing is not worth it. 3.1 21.8 63.5 11.7
(n=904)
e. Ibid.
An officer who reports another officer’s 11.0 56.4 30.9 1.8
misconduct is likely to be given the
f. See note c.
cold shoulder by his or her fellow
g. The authors based selection of officers on officers. (n=908)
a final sample goal of between 925 and 950
It is not unusual for a police officer to 1.8 50.6 43.3 4.4
completed surveys. For certainty depart-
turn a blind eye to improper conduct
ments, the number of officers selected was
by other officers. (n=908)
based on a proportion of the total number
of officers in the department. For depart- Police officers always report serious 2.8 36.2 58.5 2.5
ments with 25 or more officers, 10 officers criminal violations involving abuse of
per department were included in the authority by fellow officers. (n=899)
sample, and for departments with 10–24 of-
ficers, an average of 4.5 officers per depart- a. Numbers in parentheses represent valid responses.
ment were included (a random half of the b. The frequencies are weighted to reflect the population parameters. The 95-percent confidence
departments in this group was allocated for intervals for responses in this exhibit range between plus or minus 0.5 percent and 4.0 percent for
5 selections, and the other half was allo- the frequencies reported. Such confidence intervals are commonly noted as the margin of error or
cated for 4). sampling error of the survey findings.
Note: Totals may not equal 100 percent due to rounding.
h. The overall response rate is the product of
the officer completion rate (87.3 percent)
and the departmental participation rate
(93.4 percent). officers do not always report even seri- (51.2 percent) disagreed or strongly
ous criminal violations that involve the disagreed with the statement (see
i. The weighting procedure was developed
abuse of authority by fellow officers.9 exhibit 4).
by John Hall of Mathematica Policy Re-
search, Inc. For a full description of the
weighting procedure, readers may contact
The role of race, class, and de- Do other extralegal factors, such as
the authors or refer to the full technical meanor. The role of societal and other whether a citizen is black or white,
report: Weisburd, David, Rosann Greenspan, extralegal factors in law enforcement poor or middle class, make a differ-
Kellie Bryant, Edwin E. Hamilton, Hubert has long been a concern of criminolo- ence in the type of treatment he or
Williams, and David Olson, Abuse of Author-
ity in the Age of Community Policing: A Pre-
gists.10 Examining how demeanor she is likely to receive from the po-
liminary Study of Issues and Attitudes, Final affects police behavior, scholars have lice? The criminological literature
Report, Washington, DC: Police Foundation. generally found that a citizen’s disre- is split on the extent to which race
This report is forthcoming in 2000 from spectful or hostile manner increases affects everyday policing,12 the likeli-
the Police Foundation, 1201 Connecticut
Avenue N.W., Suite 200, Washington, DC
the likelihood of his or her arrest.11 hood of being arrested,13 and the use
20036. The Police Foundation’s survey shows of excessive force.14 Of the sample,
American police almost evenly divided about one in six (17 percent) believed
j. U.S. Census Bureau, Census of Population
and Housing, 1990: Summary Tape File 3,
on the issue of whether a police officer that whites are treated better by police
Washington, DC: Bureau of the Census, is more likely to arrest a person who than blacks and other minorities,
1991. displays what the officer considers to and about one in 10 (11.1 percent)
be a bad attitude. Almost half (48.8 believed that more police violence
percent) of the officers in the sample occurs against blacks than against
agreed or strongly agreed that a bad whites (see exhibit 4). Fourteen per-
attitude would increase the likelihood cent of the sample believed that police
of arrest, and just more than half officers use physical force against poor
5R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f
people more often than they do against majority (almost 90 percent) believed and professionals have recently empha-
middle-class people in similar situa- that good first-line supervisors were sized the importance of changing
tions. These responses suggest that effective in preventing police officers models of police training, renewing
most American police do not believe from abusing their authority (see departments’ commitments to training,
that race and class are important in exhibit 5). In focus-group sessions, and exploring vastly different training
understanding police abuse of author- police supervisors indicated that su- curriculums.18 As reflected in exhibit 5,
ity. However, findings presented later pervisors serving as role models was a the majority of police officers in the
in this Research in Brief suggest that critical aspect in good first-line lead- sample who had received training in
black officers and nonblack (white and ership.16 Although 90 percent of the ethics, interpersonal skills, or cultural
other minority) police officers strongly survey sample stressed the importance sensitivity believed that such training
disagree about the salience of race. of good supervisors in preventing could play a role in controlling abuse of
abuse, only 55 percent agreed or police authority. A substantial majority
Methods of controlling abuse of strongly agreed that most abuse could (82.2 percent) of officers who had re-
authority. Officers in the sample be stopped with more effective meth- ceived training in law enforcement eth-
were asked how their departments ods of supervision (see exhibit 5). ics (in the academy or after becoming
handle cases of abuse of authority. an officer) agreed that such training
Officers overwhelmingly (92.6 percent) The survey also examined the extent to was effective in preventing the abuse of
reported that their departments take a which specialized training helps con- authority. A similar majority (80.3 per-
very tough stance on improper behav- trol the abuse of authority. Contrary cent) of those who had received police
ior by police and overwhelmingly (94.4 to the traditional view that most impor- training in interpersonal skills or rela-
percent) disagreed with the suggestion tant policing lessons are obtained tions believed that the training pre-
that investigations of police miscon- through experience in the field rather vented the abuse of authority, and
duct are usually biased in favor of the than in the academy,17 police scholars almost 75 percent of officers who had
police (see exhibit 5).
Can leadership within a department Exhibit 4. The impact of demeanor, race, and socioeconomic status
on police behavior (in percent)
make a difference in preventing police
officers from abusing authority? Polic- Strongly Strongly
ing scholars have often recognized Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
the importance of a police chief’s role. A police officer is more likely to arrest 2.1b 46.7 45.1 6.1
Jerome Skolnick and James Fyfe, for a person who displays what he or
example, have argued that “[T]he chief she considers to be a bad attitude.
(n=917)a
is the main architect of police officers’
street behavior. This is so because the Police officers often treat whites 1.2 15.8 57.8 25.2
better than they do blacks and other
strength and direction of street-level
minorities. (n=914)
police peer pressures ultimately are
determined by administrative defini- Police officers are more likely to use 1.7 9.4 55.6 33.3
physical force against blacks and
tions of good and bad policing and by other minorities than against whites
the general tone that comes down from in similar situations. (n=916)
the top.”15 Almost 85 percent of the
Police officers are more likely to use 1.9 12.3 57.9 27.9
sample agreed or strongly agreed that physical force against poor people
a police chief’s strong position against than against middle-class people in
the abuse of authority can make a big similar situations. (n=918)
difference in deterring officers from a. Numbers in parentheses represent valid responses.
abusing their authority (see exhibit 5). b. The frequencies are weighted to reflect the population parameters. The 95-percent confidence
intervals for responses in this exhibit range between plus or minus 0.5 percent and 4.0 percent for
As important as the officers in the the frequencies reported. Such confidence intervals are commonly noted as the margin of error or
sample viewed the role of the chief in sampling error of the survey findings.
preventing abuse, an even greater Note: Totals may not equal 100 percent due to rounding.
6R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f
received training in human diversity, citizen review boards an effective way lunch, professional discount, or gift
cultural differences, cultural aware- to prevent police misconduct. of appreciation).19 Others maintain that
ness, or ethnic sensitivity reported that community policing has no discernible
the training prevented the abuse of Effects of community-oriented impact on corrupt behavior.20 As dis-
authority. policing. Some scholars have sug- cussed below, officers surveyed in the
gested that community-oriented study generally believed that a close
When asked about the effectiveness policing decreases the likelihood that relationship with the community, such
of different institutional procedures for officers will engage in gross forms as that resulting from community-
addressing abuses of authority, most of corruption (such as extortion) but oriented policing, did not increase the
considered internal affairs units effec- increases the chance that they will risk of police corruption.
tive (78.6 percent). A much smaller engage in softer or less serious forms
percentage (37.8 percent) considered of corruption (such as accepting a free The study examined officers’ attitudes
toward police corruption in two ways.
Exhibit 5. Controlling abuses of authority (in percent) First, researchers asked officers
whether they agreed with the following
Strongly Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
statement (which includes no refer-
ence to community policing): “Fre-
Your police department takes a very 35.2b 57.4 6.6 0.9 quent friendly contact with local
tough stance on improper behavior
by police. (n=921)a residents and merchants increases
the likelihood that police officers will
Investigations of police misconduct 0.4 5.1 72.4 22.0
accept free lunches, discounts, or gifts
are usually biased in favor of the
police. (n=914) of appreciation for effective service.”
Although approximately 20 percent of
If a police chief takes a strong position 24.5 60.3 13.8 1.4
against abuses of authority, he or
the officers agreed or strongly agreed
she can make a big difference in with the statement, almost 80 percent
preventing officers from abusing their disagreed or strongly disagreed with it.
authority. (n=920) Second, because almost all the officers
Good first-line supervisors can help 22.9 66.9 9.3 0.9 in the sample (98.4 percent) claimed
prevent police officers from abusing to be familiar with the concept of
their authority. (n=921) community-oriented policing, the
Most police abuse of force could be 7.3 48.0 39.5 5.2 survey asked whether officers thought
stopped by more effective methods that community policing increased,
of supervision. (n=913) decreased, or had no impact on the
risk of corrupt behavior. Only 7.1 per-
(Questions below are applicable only to officers who cent thought that community policing
have received training in the area specified) Yes No increased the risk of corruption (see
Do you think training in ethics is effective at preventing 82.2 17.8 exhibit 6). More than one-third (35.8
abuse of authority? (n=576) percent) of the officers thought it
Do you think training in interpersonal skills or relations is 80.3 19.7 decreased the risk of corruption, and
effective at preventing abuse of authority? (n=674) more than one-half (57.1 percent)
Do you think training in human diversity or cultural awareness 74.9 25.1 believed that it had no impact (see
is effective at preventing abuse of authority? (n=807) exhibit 6).
a. Numbers in parentheses represent valid responses. Do officers see any relationship be-
b. The frequencies are weighted to reflect the population parameters. The 95-percent confidence tween community policing and exces-
intervals for responses in this exhibit range between plus or minus 0.5 percent and 4.0 percent for sive force? Almost none believed that
the frequencies reported. Such confidence intervals are commonly noted as the margin of error or
sampling error of the survey findings. community policing increased the
Note: Totals may not equal 100 percent due to rounding. number (2.0 percent) or seriousness
(3.4 percent) of incidents involving
7R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f
be included in each category.) How-
Exhibit 6. The role of community policing (in percent)
ever, after detecting strong differences
Increases Decreases Has No Impact in the responses of white and nonwhite
Do you think that community policing 7.1 b
35.8 57.1 officers, the authors divided the non-
increases, decreases, or has no impact white category into two subcategories
on the risk of corrupt behavior? (n=883)a (black officers and other minority of-
Do you think that community policing 2.0 50.9 47.1 ficers) and reexamined the data. The
increases, decreases, or has no impact reexamination revealed that black of-
on the number of incidents involving
ficers’ opinions on abuse of authority
excessive force? (n=885)
differed significantly from those of
Do you think that community policing 3.4 42.2 54.4 white and other minority officers.
increases, decreases, or has no impact
on the seriousness of incidents involving The survey revealed that the attitudes
excessive force? (n=884)
of “other minority” officers were
a. Numbers in parentheses represent valid responses. more similar to those of white police
b. The frequencies are weighted to reflect the population parameters. The 95-percent confidence officers than to those of black officers.
intervals for responses in this exhibit range between plus or minus 0.5 percent and 4.0 percent for Although the survey may not be gener-
the frequencies reported. Such confidence intervals are commonly noted as the margin of error or
sampling error of the survey findings. alizable beyond police officers, its
findings seem to corroborate the view
that there is a racial divide between
excessive force (see exhibit 6). to “cross the line” and use tactics pro-
whites and blacks in American soci-
One-half of the officers surveyed hibited by law remains unanswered.
ety—a divide so pronounced that even
(50.9 percent) said that community
the apparently strong culture of polic-
policing reduced the number of inci- Additional findings by race, ing does not transcend it.
dents involving excessive force, and rank, and sex
42.2 percent thought that it decreased Differences among black, white, and
the seriousness of incidents. Approxi- The general findings described above
other minority officers did not emerge
mately one-half of the officers reported reflect how officers in the sample (as
on every issue addressed by the sur-
that community policing had no im- a group) view a number of issues relat-
vey. When different opinions (based
pact on either the number of incidents ing to the abuse of authority. But the
on race) did occur, however, the dis-
of excessive force (47.1 percent) or data also reveal important findings
parity was strong, and the types of
the seriousness of those incidents regarding how different subgroups in
questions that officers answered differ-
(54.4 percent) (see exhibit 6). the sample view these issues. To iden-
ently (based on their race) could be
tify and explore these differences, this
grouped into meaningful configura-
The community policing partnership section breaks down the officers’ re-
tions. As reported earlier, 17 percent
is often a complicated one. Almost all sponses to selected questions accord-
of all officers in the weighted sample
officers in the sample (96.9 percent) ing to the responding officers’ race,
agreed or strongly agreed that police
indicated that police officers some- rank, and sex.
officers often treat whites better than
times have to explain to individuals
Impact of race: White, black, and they treat blacks and other minorities.
and groups of citizens that the police
other minority officers. By far, the Yet more than half (51.3 percent) of
are prohibited by law from using cer-
most striking differences among sub- the black officers agreed or strongly
tain tactics that citizens may encour-
groups of officers in the sample were agreed that whites receive better treat-
age them to use. Approximately 2 out
among police officers of different ment. By contrast, less than one-fourth
of 10 officers (21.4 percent), however,
races. The sample was originally di- of the other minority officers (23.4
felt that they could use more aggres-
vided into two racial categories: white percent) and less than one-eighth of
sive tactics than they otherwise would
and nonwhite. (Officers were grouped white officers (11.9 percent) agreed
if the community asked them to do so.
in this manner to ensure that a suffi- or strongly agreed with the statement
The question of whether requests from
ciently large number of officers would (see exhibit 7).
the community sometimes lead officers
8R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f
The divergence between the views of communities they serve.21 Approxi- boards further demonstrate their faith
black officers and those of other offic- mately 65 percent of black officers in the community—with slightly less
ers was even more pronounced on the (compared with 49.2 percent of white than 70 percent of black officers in the
question of whether police officers officers) believed that community- sample agreeing or strongly agreeing
are more likely to use physical force oriented policing was capable of re- that citizen review boards are effective
against blacks and other minorities ducing the number of incidents involv- at preventing police misconduct, com-
than against whites in similar situa- ing excessive force, and 63 percent of pared with one-third (33.3 percent) of
tions. Although only 1 in 20 (5.1 black officers (compared with 39 per- white officers who found the boards
percent) white officers in the sample cent of white officers) believed that effective (exhibit 8).
believed that blacks and other minori- community policing could decrease
ties received such unequal treatment, the seriousness of incidents involving Impact of rank: Supervisors ver-
well over half of the black officers sur- excessive force. Black officers’ re- sus nonsupervisors. Although the
veyed (57.1 percent) thought that po- sponses regarding citizen review majority of officers in the sample—
lice officers were more likely to use
physical force against blacks and other
minorities than against whites in simi- Exhibit 7. Impact of officers’ race on attitudes toward treatment of minority
lar situations. The opinion of other and poor citizens (in percent)
minority officers (12.4 percent of whom Police officers often treat whites better than blacks and other minorities.
agreed or strongly agreed with the
Strongly Strongly
statement) was much closer to that of Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
the white officers (see exhibit 7).
White officers 0.7 11.2 60.5 27.7
Black officers were also more likely
Black officers 4.6 46.7 39.8 8.9
than whites and other minorities to
report unequal treatment by police Other minority officers 2.4 21.0 53.8 22.9
on the basis of socioeconomic status. Chi-square=41.78, df=6, and pR e s e a r c h i n B r i e f
supervisors and nonsupervisors
Exhibit 8. Impact of officers’ race on attitudes toward community policing and
alike—agreed that supervision plays citizen review boards (in percent)
an important role in controlling abuse
of authority (see exhibit 5), this belief Community-oriented policing increases, decreases, or has no impact on the number of
incidents involving excessive force.
is particularly strong among supervi-
sors themselves. For instance, 87 Increases Decreases Has No Impact
percent of nonsupervisors (primarily White officers 1.2 49.2 49.6
patrol officers) and 97 percent of su-
Black officers 6.6 65.4 28.1
pervisors indicated that good first-line
supervisors could help prevent police Other minority officers 3.9 50.1 46.0
officers from abusing their authority Chi-square=20.92, df=4, and pR e s e a r c h i n B r i e f
Exhibit 9. Comparing supervisors with nonsupervisors (in percent) Discussion
Good first-line supervision can help prevent police officers from abusing their authority.
Results of the survey suggest that po-
lice officers have complex and some-
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree times contradictory attitudes toward
Nonsupervisors 16.5 70.2 12.4 0.9 the abuse of authority. On the one
hand, the survey reveals positive
Supervisors 38.5 58.8 1.9 0.8
evidence of American police officers’
Chi-square=76.12, df=3, and pR e s e a r c h i n B r i e f
The survey also provides surprising for a wide range of police abuse—from 2. Martin, Christine, Illinois Municipal Offic-
and important lessons about police petty corruption to acts of violence. ers’ Perceptions of Police Ethics, Chicago,
officers’ views on ways to control the The survey does not address whether IL: Illinois Criminal Justice Information
abuse of authority. Consistent with community policing has, in fact, low- Authority, 1994.
the suggestions of certain scholars and ered the level of abuse in American 3. Knowles, Jeffrey J., The Ohio Police
police professionals,23 most officers policing, but it shows police officers’ Behavior Study, Columbus, OH: Office of
believed that training and education belief that it has. Criminal Justice Services, 1996.
are effective methods for reducing
police abuse. A substantial majority of The effect of an officer’s race on his or 4. Worden, Robert E., and Robin L.
officers who had received training in her attitudes was particularly striking Shephard, “Demeanor, Crime, and Police
in the study. Comparing black officers’ Behavior: A Reexamination of the Police
interpersonal skills or taken courses
views about police abuse with those of Services Study Data,” Criminology 34(1996):
in ethics or diversity believed that the 83–105.
education or training was effective in white and other minority officers, the
preventing misbehavior. These re- authors found significant and substan- 5. Worden, Robert E., “The ‘Causes’ of
sponses may not establish the effec- tial differences. As discussed in detail Police Brutality: Theory and Evidence on
tiveness of such programs, but they earlier in this Research in Brief, a Police Use of Force,” in Police Violence:
do show that American police find small minority of white officers in the Understanding and Controlling Police Abuse
sample believed that police treat white of Force, ed. William A. Geller and Hans
them important and useful.
citizens better than they treat black or Toch, New Haven, CT: Yale University
Officers in the sample also empha- other minority citizens in similar situa- Press, 1996.
sized the importance of police man- tions, while a majority of black police 6. Ibid., 36.
agement in preventing violence and officers held this view. Similar differ-
other forms of police abuse. A sub- ences existed between black and other 7. Friedrich, Robert J., “Police Use of Force:
stantial majority believed that when officers’ views on the likelihood of po- Individuals, Situations, and Organizations,”
a chief of police takes a strong stand lice using force against minorities and The Annals of the American Academy of Po-
litical and Social Science 452(1980): 82–97.
against police violence, rank and file poor citizens. In addition, the survey
officers will follow his or her lead. found that black officers had a more 8. Questions were worded to encompass
Similarly, officers identified strong positive view of community policing’s the varying laws and departmental policies
first-line supervision as an effective ability to control the abuse of police that govern police officers in different
way to prevent abuse and violence by authority. The magnitude of these jurisdictions.
police. These findings reinforce schol- race-based differences in opinion
9. Interpreting responses to this item is
ars’ and police professionals’ long-held suggests a large gap between black
difficult, however, because respondents’
view that developing effective methods police officers and other officers in disagreement with the statement, “Police
of supervision and strong supervisors the sample. Such a deep divide was officers always report serious criminal viola-
should be a first priority for police not predicted at the outset of the study tions involving abuse of authority by fellow
departments as they attempt to control and may reflect the salience of race officers,” does not indicate how often they
and prevent abuse of authority. as a central divide not only among believe such nonreporting occurs.
American police officers but in
Over the past three decades, Ameri- 10. See, e.g., Westley, William A., “Vio-
American society more generally.
can policing has undergone dramatic lence and the Police,” American Journal
changes in organization, tactics, and of Sociology 59(1953): 34–41.
Notes
philosophy. At the forefront of these 11. Klinger, David A., “More on Demeanor
changes has been a transition from 1. Indeed, the authors were able to identify and Arrest in Dade County,” Criminology
traditional military and professional only one national survey of police, and that 34(1996): 61–82; Lundman, Richard J.,
models of policing to innovative survey focused on police officers’ attitudes “Demeanor and Arrest: Additional Evidence
concerning rape. LeDoux, John C., and Rob-
models of community policing. The from Previously Unpublished Data,” Journal
ert R. Hazelwood, “Police Attitudes and of Research in Crime and Delinquency
surveyed officers believed that com-
Beliefs Toward Rape,” Journal of Police Sci- 33(1996): 306–353; Worden, “The ‘Causes’
munity policing reduces the potential ence and Administration 13(1985): 306–353.
12R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f
of Police Brutality: Theory and Evidence on 14. Researchers are divided on whether ra- 17. Bayley, David H., and Egon Bittner,
Police Use of Force” (see note 5). cial differences in the excessive use of force “Learning the Skills of Policing,” Law &
exist and on whether such disparities are Society Review 30(3)(1984): 586–606.
12. Moreover, Stephen Mastrofski and col- attributable to race itself. In his 1996 review,
leagues argue that, “Despite the obvious Kenneth Adams concludes that, “the avail- 18. See, e.g., Goldstein, Herman, “Improving
salience of race as an issue in policing able research on the question of whether the Policing: A Problem-Oriented Approach,”
over the last 30 years, there has been re- rate of excessive force is higher among mi- Crime and Delinquency 25(1979): 236–258;
markably little rigorous research in this norities is far from determinative” (Adams, see also Trojanowicz, Robert, and Bonnie
area.” Mastrofski, Stephen D., Roger B. Kenneth, “Measuring the Prevalence of Bucqueroux, Community Policing: How to
Parks, Christina DeJong, and Robert E. Police Abuse of Force,” in Police Violence: Get Started, Cincinnati, OH: Anderson
Worden, “Race and Every-Day Policing: Understanding and Controlling Police Abuse Publishing, 1994.
A Research Perspective,” paper delivered of Force, ed. William A. Geller and Hans
at the Twelfth International Congress 19. Weisburd, David, Jerome McElroy, and
Toch, New Haven, CT: Yale University
on Criminology, Seoul, Korea, August Patricia Hardyman, “Maintaining Order in
Press, 1996: 59). Worden (see note 5), for
24–28, 1998: 14. Community-Oriented Policing,” in Police
example, finds an independent race effect,
and Policing, ed. Dennis J. Kenney, New
while Albert Reiss does not (Reiss, Albert J.,
13. Michael Tonry, for example, argues York, NY: Praeger, 1989.
The Police and the Public, New Haven, CT:
that “few or no reliable, systematic data
Yale University Press, 1971). Others point 20. McElroy, Jerome, Colleen A. Cosgrove,
are available that demonstrate systematic
out that “the use of physical force has spe- and Susan Sadd, CPOP: The Research, An
[racial] discrimination” in arrest practices.
cial significance for racial minority commu- Evaluative Study of the New York City Com-
Tonry, Michael, Malign Neglect—Race,
nities” (Walker, Samuel, Cassia Spohn, and munity Patrol Officer Program. New York,
Crime, and Punishment in America, New
Miriam DeLone, The Color of Justice: Race, NY: The Vera Institute of Justice, 1990.
York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1995,
Ethnicity, and Crime in America, Belmont,
71. Although studies have found racial dis-
CA: Wadsworth, 1996, 97. See also 21. Findings regarding black officers’ more
parities in arrest practices, some attribute
Ogletree, Charles, Jr., Mary Prosser, Abbe optimistic view of community-oriented polic-
such disparities to causes other than race
Smith, and William Talley, Jr., Beyond the ing, and other minorities being closer in atti-
itself (see, e.g., Black, Donald, and Albert J.
Rodney King Story: An Investigation of tudes to whites than to blacks, are consistent
Reiss, Jr., “Police Control of Juveniles,”
Police Misconduct in Minority Communities, with the 1997 finding of Wesley Skogan and
American Sociological Review 35[1970]:
Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press, Susan Hartnett. Skogan, Wesley G., and
63–77; Lundman, Richard, Richard E.
1995). Susan M. Hartnett, Community Policing:
Sykes, and John P. Clark, “Police Control of
Chicago Style, New York, NY: Oxford Uni-
Juveniles: A Replication,” Journal of Re- 15. Skolnick, Jerome H., and James J. Fyfe, versity Press, 1997.
search in Crime and Delinquency 33[1978]: Above the Law: Police and the Excessive Use
306–353). Others find an independent race of Force, New York, NY: The Free Press, 22. National Center for Women and Policing,
effect (see, e.g., Smith, Douglas A. and 1993: 136; see also Skolnick, Jerome H., retrieved April 13, 1998, from National Cen-
Christy A. Visher. 1981. “Street-Level and David H. Bayley, The New Blue Line: ter for Women and Policing, on the World
Justice: Situational Determinants of Police Police Innovation in Six American Cities, Wide Web: www.feminist.org/police/
Arrest Decisions.” Social Problems 29[2]: New York, NY: The Free Press, 1986. ncwpAbout.html.
167–177; Smith, Douglas A., Christy A.
Visher, and Laura A. Davidson. “Equity and 16. Weisburd, David, Rosann Greenspan, 23. Grant, J. Douglas, and Joan Grant,
Discretionary Justice: The Influence of Race Kellie Bryant, Edwin E. Hamilton, Hubert “Officer Selection and the Prevention of
on Police Arrest Decisions.” Journal of Williams, and David Olson, Abuse of Author- Abuse of Force,” in Police Violence: Under-
Criminal Law and Criminology 75[1]: 234– ity in the Age of Community Policing: A Pre- standing and Controlling Police Abuse of
249; Worden, “The ‘Causes’ of Police liminary Study of Issues and Attitudes, Final Force, ed. William A. Geller and Hans Toch,
Brutality: Theory and Evidence on Police Report to the U.S. Department of Justice, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,
Use of Force” [see note 5]; and Lundman, Office of Community Oriented Policing Ser- 1996; Scrivner, Ellen M., The Role of Police
“Demeanor and Arrest: Additional Evidence vices, Washington, DC: Police Foundation, Psychology in Controlling Excessive Force,
from Previously Unpublished Data” [see 1998, appendix D. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice,
note 11]). Office of Justice Programs, National Institute
of Justice.
13R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f
Findings and conclusions of the research
David Weisburd, Ph.D., is Senior of the Police Foundation; and Kellie reported here are those of the author(s) and do
not necessarily reflect the official position or
Research Scientist at the Police A. Bryant, M.S., formerly Research policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
Foundation and Director of the Associate at the Police Foundation,
Institute of Criminology at Hebrew is a Deputy Marshal with the U.S. The National Institute of Justice is a
University Law School in Jerusa- Marshals Service. This study, con- component of the Office of Justice
Programs, which also includes the Bureau
lem, Israel; Rosann Greenspan, ducted by the Police Foundation,
of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of Justice
Ph.D., is Research Director of was supported by Grant Number 97– Statistics, the Office of Juvenile Justice and
the Police Foundation; Edwin E. CK–WX–0047, awarded on behalf of Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for
Hamilton, M.A., is Senior Research Community Oriented Policing Ser- Victims of Crime.
Analyst at the Police Foundation; vices, U.S. Department of Justice.
Hubert Williams, J.D., is President
This and other NIJ publications can be found at and downloaded from the NCJ 181312
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Related NIJ Publications and Products
Listed below are other National Institute of Justice publications and products related to police discretion, use of force, and community
policing. Where indicated, these documents can be obtained on the World Wide Web. Otherwise, printed copies can be ordered from
the National Criminal Justice Reference Service by calling 800–851–3420, or writing to NCJRS, Box 6000, Rockville, MD 20849.
Please note that when printed copies are out of stock, they are available as photocopies or through interlibrary loan.
Adams, Kenneth, Geoffrey P. Alpert, tions to an understanding of the impor- issues related to race as a risk factor for
Roger G. Dunham, Joel H. Garner, tance of several other factors including criminality and argues that such prac-
Lawrence A. Greenfield, Mark A. leadership, command behavior, supervision, tices are unwise and counterproductive
Henriquez, Patrick A. Langan, Christo- discipline, and the police subculture. even if they are legal.
pher D. Maxwell, and Steven K. Smith.
Use of Force by Police: Overview of Garner, Joel, John Buchanan, Tom Langworthy, Robert H., ed. Measur-
National and Local Data, Research Schade, and John Hepburn. Under- ing What Matters: Proceedings From
Report, 1999, NCJ 176330. Presents find- standing the Use of Force by and the Policing Research Institute Meet-
ings on the extent and nature of police Against the Police, Research in Brief, ings, Research Report, 1999, NCJ
use of force on both a local and national 1996, NCJ 158614. Examines 1,585 adult 170610. Presents a compilation of pa-
scale with particular attention to establish- custody arrests in Phoenix, Arizona, to pers presented at three meetings con-
ing accurate measurement guidelines. determine the use of force both by and vened to focus on how to measure
Also available at http://www.ojp.usdoj. against the police. crime, disorder, and fear; public atti-
gov/nij/pubs-sum/176330.htm. tudes and expectations; and the perfor-
Kelling, George L. “Broken Windows” mance of police in the expanding goals
Brady, Thomas V. Measuring What and Police Discretion, Research Report, of community policing. Also available at
Matters; Part One: Measures of Crime, 1999, NCJ 178259. Details how a police http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/pubs-sum/
Fear, and Disorder, Research in Action, officer’s role in order maintenance and 170610.htm.
1996, NCJ 162205. Discusses police per- crime prevention extends beyond arresting
formance and the need to establish mea- violators of the law and contends that Mastrofski, Stephen, Roger B. Parks,
surements of crime to improve police police officers should exercise discretion Albert J. Reiss, Jr., Robert E. Worden.
accountability. in every situation. Also available at Community Policing in Action: Les-
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/pubs-sum/ sons Learned from an Observational
Brady, Thomas V. Measuring What 178259.htm. Study, NIJ Research in Progress Semi-
Matters; Part Two: Developing Mea- nar, 1997. NCJ 167028 (videotape).
sures of What the Police Do, Research Kelling, George L. Crime Control, the Observes the various aspects of commu-
in Action, 1997, NCJ 167255. Summa- Police and Culture Wars: Broken Win- nity policing in Indianapolis, Indiana, par-
rizes seven papers prepared for a meeting dows and Cultural Pluralism, NIJ Per- ticularly police behavior and interaction
with NIJ and the Office of Community spectives on Crime and Justice Lecture with various citizens and types of neigh-
Oriented Policing Services that focused on Series, 1997, NCJ 168103 (videotape) borhoods and management styles of
expectations of the police by the general and NCJ 169608 (audiotape). Explains police supervisors.
public, the media, community organiza- the “broken windows” metaphor and
tions, local government, and other police concludes that multiple actions by citizens, Pinizzotto, Anthony J., Edward F.
constituencies. community groups, and the police are Davis, Charles E. Miller. In the Line of
effective in crime prevention. Fire: A Study of Selected Felonious
Gaffigan, Stephen J. and Phyllis P. Assaults on Law Enforcement Offic-
McDonald. Police Integrity: Public Kennedy, Randall. Race, the Police ers, 1997, NCJ 168972. Addresses forty
Service With Honor, 1997, NCJ 163811. and “Reasonable Suspicion,” NIJ Per- distinct cases of serious assaults on law
Analyzes how police integrity has broad- spectives on Crime and Justice Lecture enforcement officers.
ened from a narrow focus on police officer Series, 1998, NCJ 168967 (videotape)
behavior and internal corruption investiga- and NCJ 169609 (audiotape). Discusses
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