PREPARE FOR ANGER, LOOK FOR LOVE: A READY RECKONER FOR CRISIS SCENARIO PLANNERS LYNETTE M. MCDONALD, UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND JOHN COKLEY ...
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Prepare for anger, look for love:
A ready reckoner for crisis scenario planners
Lynette M. McDonald, University of Queensland
John Cokley, Swinburne University of Technology
Abstract
literature on multi-criteria decision analysis
A range of organisational crises are explored (Wenstøp, 2005), emotional intelligence
to discover how people react during a crisis (Callahan, 2008), and visionary management
and why, with a view to planning strategic (Malaska & Holtius, 1999: 357).
actions based on those reactions. We Planners have not yet fully investigated the
conclude that people react, not just according variety, strength or impact of consumer
to how they feel but also, less obviously, that feelings, thoughts, and behaviours that
their behaviour can be predicted using a company crises generate. Yet understanding
clear understanding of those feelings. This both consumers’ psychological and behavioural
article narrows the field of feelings, or crisis reactions is important to shape realistic
emotions, to six categories and provides a crisis preparation, and for response success. In
reliable spectrum along which these emotions the area of strategic development of crisis
operate. Using this spectrum we propose a management scenarios, there is an abundance
taxonomy or ‘ready reckoner’ of actions of general treatments of emotions. However,
which individuals and organisations can take researchers have only started to empirically
in response to these emotional reactions.i examine consumer crisis emotion responses in
the past five years (Kim & Cameron, 2011).
Introduction Consequently, little attention has been paid to
determining the reactions of consumers in real
The nature of organisational crises, coupled crisis situations. Instead, crisis studies
with the seriousness of their impact and the predominantly use case study examinations or
likelihood that they will receive high levels of experiments. Insight into consumers’ crisis
media attention, suggests the need for crisis reaction processes is of interest to scenario
scenario planners to reliably predict how planners, crisis researchers, and public relations
consumers will respond to companies in practitioners, in particular those combating
crisis. Crises trigger emotions in impacted damage to corporate reputation, as well as
consumers which facilitate or hinder the marketing managers dealing with plummeting
effectiveness of crisis response strategies sales.
(Coombs & Holladay, 2005) and determine Mindful of that research gap, this article
crisis behaviour, such as negative purchase presents a conceptual framework based on a
and investment intent (Jorgensen, 1996) and review of the literature and the results of an
negative word-of-mouth behaviour exploratory qualitative study. First, we set out
(McDonald, Sparks, & Glendon, 2010). In the context from scenario and crisis
scenario planning, emotions and behaviours management literature, then present a
are normally considered as input variables, theoretical framework using Weiner’s (1986,
used as ingredients added into this plan 1995) Attribution Theory (WAT) and
design (Van Notten, Rotmans, Van Asselt, & Situational Crisis Communication Theory
Rothman, 2003). However, justification for (Coombs, 2007; Coombs & Holladay, 2002)
examining expected emotional outputs in which both successfully explain crisis
scenario planning is generally available in reactions.
1
McDonald, L. M. & Cokley, J. (2013). Prepare for anger, look for love: A ready reckoner for crisis scenario
planners. PRism 10(1): http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.htmlNext, we investigate consumers’ emotional situations. The role of emotions in managers’
and behavioural responses to crises using intuitive decision process during crisis
eight focus groups whose participants had situations was underscored in Sayegh, Anthony,
experienced organisational crises. Systematic and Perrewe’s (2004) conceptual model of
coding via content analysis identified the managerial crisis decision-making. Yet much of
prevalence of emotions and behaviours and the research has focused on managerial
patterns of subsequent emotion-linked monitoring of personal emotions, rather than on
behaviour. We suggest that a consumer- response to others’ emotions, both of which
centric approach to crisis reactions is likely to form the cornerstones of emotional intelligence
offer valuable new advice for use during (EI). Salovey and Mayer’s (1990, p. 189)
preparation for scenario planners, and for widely-accepted definition of EI highlights this
crisis managers. Finally, we present a need for emotion responsiveness as being, “The
speculative taxonomy of behaviours and ability to monitor one’s own and others’
remedial actions in a ‘ready reckoner’, shown emotions, to discriminate among them, and to
in Table 1, below. use the information to guide one’s thinking and
actions”. Therefore, in a crisis situation, crisis
Literature review managers need to not only monitor their own
Scenario planning emotions, but also incorporate an awareness of
The unpredictable nature of organisational the emotions elicited in those impacted by the
crises – caused more by corporate crisis, and in formulating responses, effectively
mismanagement and white collar crime as by deal with the emotions generated.
accidents or consumer activism (Annual ICM Emotions and behaviours are normally
Crisis Report, 2010) – coupled with the considered as input variables, rather than
seriousness of their impact on consumers and outputs, in scenario planning (Van Notten et al.,
the likelihood that they will receive high 2003). An input variable is an ingredient used
levels of media attention, suggests the need to plan a scenario and how it plays out, and an
for scenario planners to reliably predict how output is what is expected to take place as a
consumers will respond emotionally and result. Their incorporation is sometimes studied
behaviourally to companies in crisis. as a characteristic of the level of integration of
Scenario planning workshops are a the scenario, that is, the extent to which
strategic decision-making tool used to help a components relevant to the study subject are
senior management team explore multiple incorporated and brought together to form a
plausible futures for the organisation and whole (Van Notten et al., 2003).
identify and select feasible and robust Yet an examination of real-life crises, such
strategies to deal with those futures (Franco, as the present study undertakes, demonstrates
Meadows, & Armstrong, 2012). Scenario that events and developments are seldom
planning “can be used to improve integrated, and are often more described as
performance across a range of industries “disruptive” (Van Notten et al., 2003, p. 432).
facing changing, uncertain futures”, and is Failure to predict and then incorporate
especially useful in crisis management, for emotional outcomes into strategic planning can
public policy makers, and as a long-range result in the kind of “overconfidence and tunnel
business planning tool (Bradfield, Wright, vision” Schoemaker (1995, p. 25) warns against
Burt, Cairns, & Van Der Heijden, 2005, pp. even though that author did not include
796-797). Scenario planning has enjoyed a emotions in that 1995 study. Justification for
wide acceptance among practitioners and examining expected emotional outputs in
academics to support decisions when scenario planning is generally available in
formulating strategies (Franco et al., 2012). literature on multi-criteria decision analysis
Faced with the unpredictable nature of the (Wenstop, 2005), emotional intelligence
current business environment, managers (Callahan, 2008), and visionary management
routinely cope with decision-making in crisis (Malaska & Holstius, 1999).
2
McDonald, L. M. & Cokley, J. (2013). Prepare for anger, look for love: A ready reckoner for crisis scenario
planners. PRism 10(1): http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.htmlIn sum, the psychological aspects of crisis The predominant models used to investigate
reactions have not been factored into crisis reactions to company crises are Weiner’s
management planning (Wester, 2011), or into (1986, 1995) attribution theory (WAT) and
crisis scenario planning. Instead, crisis Coombs and Holladay’s (2002) Situational
managers rely on stereotypical assumptions Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT), based
on how the public will react, paying little on WAT and revised by Coombs (2007).
attention to the reactions of the public in a Investigations using WAT or SCCT have
real crisis situation (Wester, 2011). predominantly used experimental research to
Understanding both the organisation’s investigate consumer crisis response. Both
assumptions and how its stakeholders might WAT and SCCT state that, following a
behave in a crisis helps shape its crisis negative event, stakeholders make attributions
preparation or response success (Pearson & about the event cause which determines the
Clair, 1998, cited in Alpasan, Green, & level of responsibility, eliciting emotions
Mitroff, 2009). However, anticipating and which, in turn, generate behaviours.
planning for these reactions must be firmly Although emotions facilitate or impede the
grounded in actual situations (Wester, 2011). effectiveness of crisis response strategies
In order to do so, it is necessary to investigate (Coombs & Holladay, 2005), emotion is a new
actual consumer crisis responses. crisis research frontier (Jin & Pang, 2010), with
investigations predominantly examining anger
Explaining consumer reactions and sympathy. Exceptions include the
Crises typically involve and affect multiple examination of schadenfreude (Coombs &
stakeholders. The primary stakeholders in a Holladay, 2005), sadness (Jin, 2009), fear (Jin,
crisis are those most directly involved 2009; McDonald, et al., 2010; Wester, 2011),
(Benoit, 2004). Using a stakeholder approach surprise (McDonald, et al., 2010; Wester,
to crisis management, Alpasan et al. (2009) 2011), and grief (Wester, 2011). As researchers
suggested that managers’ attention to assume that positive emotions are unlikely to
stakeholders should be dependent upon the occur (Wester, 2011), research on positive
actual or potential risk or harm or injury crisis emotions in a crisis is predominantly
caused by organisational decisions and limited to sympathy (e.g., Coombs & Holladay,
actions. A group frequently negatively 2005; Jorgensen, 1996), although McDonald et
affected by crises is consumers. al. (2010) investigated joy. Although
Researchers have not taken a consumer- Frederickson, Tugade, Waugh, and Larkin
centric approach to determining the factors (2003) identified multiple emotional reactions
that are important in predicting consumers’ to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on
reactions to crises. This creates a theoretical New York, no identified study has questioned
problem for scenario planners, and a practical consumers about the array of emotions that
problem for downstream managers seeking to organisational crises elicit. There remains a
develop appropriate crisis management strong need to explore the full variety of
strategies. It suggests a need to shift the emotions felt by crisis-impacted consumers.
research focus to a consumer-centric This leads to the first research question:
approach in order to understand the thoughts, RQ 1: What emotions do various crises
feelings, and behaviours evoked as consumer evoke in consumers?
responses to crises. Insight into consumers’ Congruent with WAT and SCCT,
crisis reaction processes is of interest to experiments have established that different
scenario planners, crisis researchers, and crisis emotions elicit different behavioural
public relations practitioners, in particular responses. For example, anger predicts negative
those combating damage to corporate purchase intentions (e.g., Coombs & Holladay,
reputation, as well as marketing managers 2007; Jorgensen, 1996), negative word-of-
dealing with plummeting sales. mouth behaviour (Coombs & Holladay, 2007;
McDonald et al., 2010), and complaining
3
McDonald, L. M. & Cokley, J. (2013). Prepare for anger, look for love: A ready reckoner for crisis scenario
planners. PRism 10(1): http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.html(Jorgensen, 1996; McDonald et al., 2010). RQ 3: Is involvement implicated in
Sadness creates a preference for emotional consumers’ emotion response to crises?
support, while fear leads to venting intentions
or avoidance (Jin, 2009), complaining and Method
negative word-of-mouth behaviour Rather than wait opportunistically for a crisis to
(McDonald et al., 2010). Joy predicts loyalty occur, recalled crises were investigated using
and negatively predicts negative word-of- eight focus groups to investigate consumers’
mouth behaviour (McDonald et al., 2010). emotional and behavioural range of responses.
Sympathy may engender stronger supportive Focus groups provide rich, detailed information
behaviour from stakeholders (Coombs & (Morgan, 1998) and are an excellent method to
Holladay, 2005). In taking an experimental gain insight into a particular subject matter,
approach, these studies do not capture the especially concerns that are important to a
potential spectrum of behavioural reactions particular audience (Lawrence & Berger, 1999).
that crises elicit from consumers. Therefore, Participants (n = 54) were enlisted from an
our second research question is: east coast capital city in Australia using
RQ 2: What behaviours do various crises purposive sampling as they were required to
evoke in consumers? have experienced the effects of organisational
Congruent with most appraisal theories, crises. Recruitment techniques included media
Weiner (1986) suggests that events elicit releases submitted to metropolitan media
emotions through a two-part appraisal outlets requesting participants affected by
process, with primary appraisal of the company crises. During the focus groups, in
personal relevance of the event determining line with Zikmund’s (1997) recommendations,
emotional intensity, and secondary appraisal a professional moderator established rapport
of the negative event cause determining the and effectively channelled conversation to the
experience of discrete emotions of anger and areas of concern using a funnelling technique.
sympathy. Folkes, Koletsky, and Graham’s Participants were asked to recall their emotions,
(1987) work on product failure (missed flight) who or what they were directed at, and their
using WAT suggests that consumer anger duration, crisis causes, and responsibility. Data
increased with the primary appraisal of the was videotaped and transcribed. The analysis
importance of the failure. Choi and Lin’s method selected was a quantitative approach
(2009) analysis of one product crisis found using systematic coding via an iterative content
that highly-involved consumers were angry analysis. We used an inductive method to allow
and attributed blame to a company. patterns and themes to emerge, and established
McDonald et al. (2010) found that an audit trail in data collection and analysis to
involvement impacted five emotions: anger, enhance reliability (see Miles & Huberman,
fear, joy, surprise and sympathy. Yet, 1994).
although Weiner (1986, 1995) cited the A number of taxonomies of basic emotions
importance of personal relevance of an event exist. Weiss and Cropanzano’s (1996) appraisal
in the attribution process, he does not include theory, Affective Events Theory, noted Shaver,
it in his model, nor is it included in the SCCT Schwartz, Kirson and O’Connor’s (1987)
model. McDonald and Härtel (2000) semantic classification, which clustered 213
suggested that involvement determines crisis emotion words into six primary families of
outcomes, not just for those personally anger, fear, joy, love, sadness, and surprise.
impacted, but if a crisis impinges on an Emotions were categorised using the Shaver et
individual’s values, concerns, needs, interests, al. (1987) classification. Behaviour coding was
goals or beliefs. Although involvement based on categories of problem-focused and
determines emotion intensity, the role of emotion-focused coping behaviour described
involvement in response to a crisis is by Folkman and Lazarus (1988). Problem-
neglected. From this arises the third research focused coping aims to alter the distress-
question: causing situation and includes rational problem-
4
McDonald, L. M. & Cokley, J. (2013). Prepare for anger, look for love: A ready reckoner for crisis scenario
planners. PRism 10(1): http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.htmlsolving techniques (e.g., creating an action because … I was in the vicinity … and I’m
plan) and confrontive strategies (Folkman & going, “shit”…’. Participants used sadness
Lazarus, 1988). Emotion-focused coping category words such as sympathy, disappointed,
behaviour is aimed at regulating distress and sorry, and unhappy when speaking of the
involves such strategies as seeking social company, or those affected by the crisis. For
support, distancing, avoidance, positive example, a comment expressed in regards to the
reappraisal, and escape-avoidance (Folkman extortion crisis was: ‘I felt sorry for the
& Lazarus, 1988). Involvement was company and I thought, I hope they catch the
determined via reports of a crisis personally bastard that done it.’ In response to an airline
impacting participants, via use of emphatic safety crisis where the airline was seen as
statements, profanities, or by identifying responsible, some positive emotions were
strong emotions (e.g., hate versus dislike). related to schadenfreude: ‘seeing their name go
through the mud,’ or else relief as: ‘I’m glad
Results it’s happened. They are grounded and we’ll be
Respondents recalled 12 crises, including safe.’ Participants used surprise category words
legionella outbreaks, an airline safety crisis, such as surprise, shock, amazement, or
and product recalls following contamination, unsurprised. For one gas plant crisis which left
or after tampering and extortion. All the city without natural gas for cooking and
participants had been impacted by a crisis, heating, surprise was related to the unexpected
with most affected by several crises, explosion of the gas plant and loss of an
including one who was involved in a class essential product. As one said: ‘I was taken by
action suit after being hospitalised. surprise ... you don’t expect to wake up in the
Research question 1 investigated the morning and go, “something’s blown up”.’
emotions that various crises evoke in Participants used love category words such as
consumers. Most participants recalled liking, compassion, fond, and love. For the
multiple emotions in response to the recalled airline safety crisis, where the crisis was seen as
crises. More than 80 emotion words were a ‘beat-up’ by a government agency and the
articulated. Two coders independently sorted media, participants used a high number of love
the remaining 30% of emotion content in words, with a general fondness directed at the
which emotion states were described, company because, ‘airlines in Australia are as
exhibiting 86% reliability when coding good as it gets’.
emotion passages into the different emotion Participants frequently recalled several
categories. The strongest and most prevalent emotions for each crisis. Participants estimated
consumer emotion was anger, followed in that their emotions ranged in duration from
decreasing prevalence by fear, sadness, joy, transient states to a permanent, enduring
surprise, and love. condition. As one male participant said: ‘I’ll
Participants used such anger category always feel that way.’
words as angry, hate, disgusted, frustrated, Participants directed emotion at two distinct
outraged, and cynical. For example, in a groups: those considered responsible for the
company extortion crisis, anger was directed crisis or its effects, and those impacted by the
at the extortionist who, according to an older crisis. Those held responsible for the crises, and
male participant, was a: ‘nasty creature who targets of negatively-valenced emotions, were
should be hung, drawn and quartered’. predominantly companies and their managers.
Participants used fear category words such as Those also considered responsible, but external
afraid, scared, worried, distressed, and to the organisation, were state and federal
horrified in relation to themselves and those governments and their agents, the media, and
close to them. For example, in regards to a extortionists. Those impacted by crises and the
Legionella outbreak at a tourist attraction, a targets of positively valenced emotions
male participant said: ‘with regards to included the company and its employees as
Legionella, this is something that worries me victims, one’s social group, the general public
5
McDonald, L. M. & Cokley, J. (2013). Prepare for anger, look for love: A ready reckoner for crisis scenario
planners. PRism 10(1): http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.html(e.g., the elderly and sick), unions, and in some, but not all, cases. Several participants
employees used as scapegoats. indicated that they considered a negative event
Research question 2 considered the to be a crisis when it personally affected either
behaviours that crises evoked with behaviour themselves or their family, particularly their
coded as problem-focused or emotion- health and wellbeing. For example, in referring
focused coping behaviour. A total of 13 to the product tampering, one male participant:
behaviours were identified, both problem- ‘when things can impact your children you just
focused and emotion-focused coping get a lot more angry about it, and a lot more
behaviour, but predominantly emotion- potentially upset.’ However, some participants
focused, with boycott and avoidance being were outraged by crises that had not personally
common responses. impacted them, but instead impacted their
Crisis-specific behaviours (e.g., returning values, an innate sense of “what’s right”. For
products, using alternate facilities in the gas example, in one crisis, substantial anger was
crisis) were coded as problem-focused as directed at the company for scapegoating
these behaviours involve rational problem- employees. As one female explained: ‘There’s
solving techniques. Behaviours coded as both degrees of severity and degrees of impact on
emotion- and problem-focused were you personally or your conscience. Or you may
information searches using the Internet, not be impacted personally and still your
newspapers, government departments, the intention to purchase or deal with the company
companies involved and store staff, which may be influenced by that or (by the)
included seeking advice on alternate products. experiences of others.’
Behaviours categorised as emotion-focused
aimed at regulating distress were word-of- Discussion
mouth behaviour (e.g., discussions with This study identified a broader range of
family and friends), boycotts or encouraging emotions and behaviours than had been
others to boycott the company, product previously identified using WAT or SCCT.
avoidance, buying alternate brands, reduced Crises evoked a full array of consumer
product usage, complaining to a government emotions, not just anger and sympathy as
department or authority, to the media, to the posited by WAT. Many participants recalled a
company, taking legal action, and inaction variety of emotions felt towards the company
(e.g., continued product use). Boycott or and its product. Negative emotions were
avoidance actions were reported by 20 of the directed at those considered responsible for the
54 participants, with some enduring boycotts crisis, and positive emotions towards those
and avoidance actions reported. Boycotts impacted by the crisis. Congruent with Weiner
were associated with anger and targeted the (1995), emotions have been expanded from
company involved in a major food WAT’s anger and sympathy to include a variety
contamination and product recall, while of emotions: strongest and most prevalent is
avoidance action appeared to be fear-driven anger, followed in decreasing strength and
and concerned organisations affected by a prevalence by fear, sadness, joy, surprise, and
legionella outbreak. love. Although emotions are generally
Research question 3 considered whether considered to be a temporary affective state,
crisis involvement was implicated in several participants reported enduring post-
consumers’ emotion response. There was the crisis feelings.
expectation that, as involvement refers to how Participants recalled a wide variety of
personally relevant an event is to an behaviours, many of which had not been
individual and determines emotional previously examined in crisis literature. They
intensity, it could be detected via reports of a were: (1) word-of-mouth behaviour (e.g.,
crisis personally affecting participants, via discussions with family and friends;
emphatic statements or profanities, or by encouraging others to boycott the company),
identifying strong emotions. This was evident (2) boycotts (stopped purchase, anger-based)
6
McDonald, L. M. & Cokley, J. (2013). Prepare for anger, look for love: A ready reckoner for crisis scenario
planners. PRism 10(1): http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.html(3) product avoidance (stopped purchase, This study applies attribution theory to
fear-based), (4) buying alternate brands, (5) company crises in order to understand better
reduced product usage, (6) complaining to a how consumers react to company crises and
government department or authority, (7) what to do with that understanding. It presents a
complaining to the media, (8) complaining to conceptual framework, supported by the results
the company, (9) taking legal action, (10) of eight focus groups, for further examination
inaction (continued product use), (11) of the consumer response process.
information searches [Internet, newspapers, Congruent with McDonald and Härtel’s
government departments, the companies (2000) suggestion, when consumers experience
involved and store staff, which included a crisis (including the re-experience which
seeking advice on alternate products] (12) follows crisis reminder cues) their involvement
returning products and (13) using alternate level can be activated, depending upon whether
facilities. These behaviours were categorised the crisis has impacted on them or their family
as either emotion-focused or problem-focused and friends personally, or else impacted on
(Folkman & Lazarus, 1988). Emotion- their beliefs and values. This involvement
focused behaviour, such as talking over the might be a more appropriate construct to apply
crisis with family members, reduces the stress to company crises than personal importance or
involved in dealing with a crisis, while personal relevance because it taps into
problem-focused behaviour allows consumers’ concerns, needs, values, interests,
participants to deal with crisis practicalities, goals, and beliefs.
such as returning the product involved in a We find that crises elicit (a) a range of six
recall. emotions, (b) 13 separate behaviours and (c)
Involvement, rather than merely the degree that involvement may be implicated in emotion
of personal importance, is implicated in crisis response.
response, and values can activate The strongest and most prevalent consumer
involvement, congruent with McDonald and emotion identified was (1) anger, followed in
Härtel’s (2000) contention that involvement is decreasing strength and prevalence by (2) fear,
triggered, not just for those personally (3) sadness, (4) joy, (5) surprise and (6) love.
impacted, but when a crisis impinges on an This may be the first study that uncovered
individual’s values, concerns, needs, interests, feelings categorised as love. Love is almost
goals or beliefs. undetectable in many situations, but appears
linked to crises that are external to, and
Limitations uncontrollable by, the organisation. The
Despite producing rich data, focus groups intensity of language, intonation, and use of
have limitations. This study was exploratory profanities indicated that participants did not
using a small sample, so that data were just recall emotions, but re-experienced them
context-bound. The general population when discussing crises. This is supported by the
sample self-selected mainly in response to James-Lange (1890, cited in Levine, Prohaska,
study publicity so there may have been Burgess, Rice, & Laulhere, 2001) theory of
demand characteristics: i.e. participants may emotion which argues that emotion can be
have participated in the study because they triggered as easily by memory of an event as by
had experienced, and therefore reported, its direct perception. Although emotions are
strong reactions. There is also the issue of widely viewed as temporary affective states
internal consistency, with some participants (e.g., Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996), this “re-
adjusting their position after interacting with experiencing effect” when recalling crises or
others, as seen in the case of the natural gas when reminded of crises may go some way
crisis. towards explaining on-going boycott and
avoidance actions, continued years after the
Conclusions and implications original crisis.
7
McDonald, L. M. & Cokley, J. (2013). Prepare for anger, look for love: A ready reckoner for crisis scenario
planners. PRism 10(1): http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.htmlThirteen main resultant behaviours were of the repercussions of consumer emotions, and
identified and the strongest behaviour, thus enhance crisis management, especially in
boycott, was tied to the strongest emotion, developing crisis communications.
anger. Avoidant behaviours were tied to fear, Reminder cues might reignite the
and some of these behaviours were reported involvement process, resulting in a re-
as continuous, accentuated by fresh media experience of dominant crisis emotions. Since
reports acting as reminder cues, temporarily emotion may be reconstructed in view of later
reactivating the attribution-emotion- attributions (Levine et al., 2001) this might
behaviour process. The extent that this mean that later media reports, especially those
occurs, and whether this re-experience means assigning blame to the company, might reignite
that emotions may be re-constructed on the the consumer reaction process, perhaps
spot (as some researchers suggest) is not resulting in the revision of attributions,
known. emotions, and behaviours. For managers, where
In discussing the patterns of emotion- the original crisis elicited negative emotions,
linked behaviour, we argue that there is scope there may be a future consumer backlash when
for categorisation of the identified behaviours fresh reports appear later. The extent to which
according to their key driver: emotional or this occurs, and whether this re-experience
problem-solving. We tabulated this means that emotions are reconstructed on the
categorisation of behaviours to create a spot (as some researchers suggest), could be
speculative list of remedial actions that usefully researched. For scenario planners, this
organisations could apply. may provide the opportunity to plan scenarios
We speculate that such a categorisation incorporating these crisis emotions, or else
would result in a configuration such as shown planning scenarios which may help to tap into
in Table 1 (the ready reckoner, below), which dormant emotions.
suggests possible managerial response during Further experimental design could test the
crises. main constructs identified using a large general
population sample to increase generalisability
Recommendations for further research and validity. Future investigation and
Taking this consumer-centric approach to confirmation of the ready reckoner is likely to
crisis reactions is likely to offer valuable new provide further understanding of the
advice for use during preparation for scenario repercussions of consumer emotions in business
planners. Its application in crisis scenario planning, and thus enhanced crisis
planning may provide further understanding management, especially communications.
8
McDonald, L. M. & Cokley, J. (2013). Prepare for anger, look for love: A ready reckoner for crisis scenario
planners. PRism 10(1): http://www.prismjournal.org/homepage.htmlTable 1: Speculative categorisation of behaviours and possible remedial actions - The ready
reckoner
Scale of Emotion-based Possible Aim of Problem- Possible Emotional aim
involvement of behaviour management response focused management of response
participant linked to response behaviour response
responsibility linked to
accountability
Operator Word-of- Company Reduce ‘fear’ Boycotts Pre-emptive Promote ‘joy’
inserts figure mouth outreach to and ‘sadness’ product recall + (= relief)
from 1-10 (1 is behaviour community stakeholder
min, 10 is max) groups engagement
to determine (stakeholder
the strength of engagement)
response
needed
Reduced Brand Promote Returning Provide and Promote
product extension ‘surprise’ products promote a third- ‘surprise’ and
usage (advertising party store-front ‘joy’, distance
different uses to facilitate this brand from
for the product for consumers ‘fear’ and
likely to ‘anger’
mitigate this
feature)
Complaining Proactive Distance brand Product Post-recall ‘new Promote
to a communication from ‘fear’ and avoidance product launch’ ‘surprise’
government with ‘anger’ [e.g. in the case
department or department or of paracetamol
authority authority to poisoning,
pre-empt and release of new
mitigate range with
complaints tamper-evident
packaging]
Complaining Proactive Promote ‘joy’ Buying Emphasis on Promote ‘love’
to the media communication (= relief) alternate previous brand
with media to brands loyalty
pre-empt and
mitigate
complaints,
emphasising
actions in
Column 4
Inaction Taking legal Establish a Distance brand
action department from ‘fear’ and
which can deal ‘anger’
at arm’s length
with litigants
Complaining Provide and Promote
to the promote a third- ‘surprise’ and
company party store-front ‘joy’
to facilitate this
for consumers
Information Distance brand
searches from ‘fear’ and
‘anger’
Using Variation on Promote
alternate brand extension ‘surprise’ and
facilities (advertising ‘joy’
different ways
consumers can
meet their
service needs)
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McDonald, L. M. & Cokley, J. (2013). Prepare for anger, look for love: A ready reckoner for crisis scenario
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