Relationship Between Acute Stress Responses and Quality of Life in Chinese Health Care Workers During the COVID-19 Outbreak - Frontiers
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ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 16 March 2021
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.599136
Relationship Between Acute Stress
Responses and Quality of Life in
Chinese Health Care Workers During
the COVID-19 Outbreak
Lan Zhang 1† , Rongjian Ji 1† , Yanbo Ji 1 , Min Liu 2 , Renxiu Wang 3 and Cuiping Xu 1*
1
Department of Nursing, Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Shandong University, Shandong, China, 2 School
of Nursing, Shandong First Medical University, Shandong, China, 3 School of Nursing, Shandong University of Traditional
Chinese Medicine, Shandong, China
This study aimed to determine the relationship between acute stress and quality of
life and explore their influencing factors on health care workers. A descriptive cross-
sectional study was conducted, and a sample of 525 health care workers was recruited
from 15 hospitals through a convenient sampling method. Participants completed an
Edited by:
Margarita Limon, online self-report questionnaire to assess their acute stress and quality of life. Descriptive
Autonomous University of Madrid, and multiple linear regression statistics were used for this analysis. The results regarding
Spain
acute stress responses varied significantly among the differences in marital status,
Reviewed by:
Paula Maria Di Nota,
physical activity, work status, perceived risk of contracting COVID-19, and the expected
Justice Institute of British Columbia duration of the pandemic. Moreover, a younger age, lack of physical activity, being a
(JIBC), Canada
front-line medical staff, and higher acute stress scores indicated a worse quality of
Sara Marelli,
San Raffaele Hospital (IRCCS), Italy life. Healthcare workers’ acute stress was negatively correlated with their quality of life.
Zezhi Li, Therefore, the authorities should pay special attention to health care workers’ mental
Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
health and provide them with timely protection during the pandemic.
*Correspondence:
Cuiping Xu Keywords: acute stress, coronavirus, health care workers, quality of life, China
abc181818123@163.com
† These authors share first authorship
INTRODUCTION
Specialty section:
This article was submitted to The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), an acute respiratory disease caused by β-coronavirus,
Health Psychology, has spread worldwide since it first appeared in Wuhan, China, in December 2019 (Paules et al.,
a section of the journal 2020). As of June 26, 2020, more than 9.2 million confirmed cases and 470,000 deaths have been
Frontiers in Psychology reported worldwide, including 85,119 confirmed cases and 4,647 deaths in China (World Health
Received: 26 August 2020 Organization, 2020). The World Health Organization (WHO) officially declared the COVID-19
Accepted: 19 February 2021 pandemic a public health emergency of international concern on January 30, 2020, marking the
Published: 16 March 2021
third pandemic of coronavirus in the 21st century (Mahase, 2020).
Citation: To control the COVID-19 pandemic swiftly, health care workers throughout China actively
Zhang L, Ji R, Ji Y, Liu M, Wang R participated in medical treatment, disease prevention, and logistics support. However, due to the
and Xu C (2021) Relationship
shortage of personal protective materials in the early stages, the persistence of the disease, and the
Between Acute Stress Responses
and Quality of Life in Chinese Health
highly contagious nature of the COVID-19 virus, health care workers were at risk of being infected
Care Workers During the COVID-19 with COVID-19 (Van Doremalen et al., 2020). Previous studies have showed a link between chronic
Outbreak. Front. Psychol. 12:599136. work-related stress among healthcare workers and post-traumatic stress disorder (Laposa et al.,
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.599136 2003; Robertson and Perry, 2010). Meanwhile, long work hours and high-pressure environments
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 599136Zhang et al. Acute Stress and Quality of Life increase the physical and psychological stress among medical stress and QoL, and (3) to evaluate the influencing factors of staff, leading to anxiety, depression, and, at worst, suicide acute stress and QoL. (Goyal et al., 2020). Quality of life (QoL) refers to an individual’s self-perception of goals, expectations, standards, and concerns in the context MATERIALS AND METHODS of different cultures and value systems (Kuyken et al., 1995). Traumatic life events have various psychological and Sample physiological consequences, affecting an individual’s well-being Calculations were performed using G-Power statistical software and QoL (Garfin et al., 2018). For example, adults who (G∗ Power Version 3.1.9.7), and the recommended sample experienced an earthquake exhibit acute stress symptoms, size was 280. The inclusion criteria of the study were as psychological distress, and maladaptive behaviors (Dorahy et al., follows: (a) people who obtained a certificate of professional 2016). Correspondingly, some studies reported that Ebola qualification, (b) staff on duty in hospitals during the COVID- survivors suffered from various physical and mental sequelae 19 pandemic, (c) and people who volunteer to participate in (James et al., 2019). Most existing studies have focused on the research and sign the informed consent form. In total, the victims of COVID-19. Furthermore, several studies have 525 participants from 15 hospitals were recruited using a explored the mental health and QoL of health care workers convenient sampling method. The participants were divided during the outbreak. In their systematic review, de Pablo et al. into three categories according to their occupation: (1) doctors; (2020) summarized that 62.5% of health care workers reported (2) nurses; (3) auxiliary staff, including technical executives general health concerns during the outbreak of SARS, MERS- (pharmacists, therapists, dieticians, and so others). Frontline CoV, and COVID-19. Adverse psychological responses such as medical staff were defined as individuals who had direct contact high levels of anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress with confirmed or suspected cases through diagnosis, treatment, disorders may occur among front-line medical staff who are nursing, nosocomial infection control, case sample collection, in direct contact with the COVID-19 patients (Chersich et al., and pathogen detection. Otherwise, they were classified as non- 2020; Nochaiwong et al., 2020). Moreover, recent studies have frontline medical staff. demonstrated that the outbreak of COVID-19 had a significant impact on QoL of health care workers (Huang et al., 2020; Instruments Suryavanshi et al., 2020). Demographic Characteristics In facing this international health emergency, researchers All participants were required to complete a demographic strongly advise that everyone pay special attention to health questionnaire, including gender, age, marital status, occupation, care workers’ mental health and support them during the professional title, education level, disease, physical activity level, COVID-19 outbreak (Xiang et al., 2020). Acute stress responses and work status. Physical activity was defined as aerobic exercise usually occur in the first month after a traumatic event, that lasted for at least 30 min per session and was categorized into accompanied by dissociative, re-experiencing, avoidance, and never, low (1–2 times per week), moderate (3–5 times per week), hyperarousal symptoms (Garfin et al., 2015). A study from and high (6 or more times per week). Toronto demonstrated that health care workers who had been Participants were invited to answer questions related to in contact with SARS patients reported a severe acute trauma COVID-19. They were required to give an honest response to the response (Maunder et al., 2004). Front-line medical staff may following questions: a) What is the current pandemic situation report more severe psychological symptoms and worse QoL in your area? b) Have you been to Wuhan (in the last month)? (An et al., 2020). Pietrzak et al. (2012) found that police c) What is your current infection status regarding COVID-19? who were older and widowed or divorced were more likely d) What do you think are your chances of being infected with to suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder after experiencing COVID-19? e) How long do you think the pandemic will last? traumatic events. In addition, several recent studies have proved that regular physical activity can lead to positive behavioral Acute Stress Response changes, strengthen the immune system, and reduce negative Acute stress response was measured by the Stanford Acute psychological impacts (Alsalhe et al., 2020; Jiménez-Pavón et al., Stress Reaction Questionnaire (SASRQ); it is a valid research 2020; Slimani et al., 2020). Although theoretical and empirical instrument with good reported internal reliability (0.80–0.95) evidence suggested that there might be a strong link between and test-retest reliability (0.69) (Cardeña et al., 2000). Participants acute stress and general health outcomes, acute post-traumatic were invited to fill out the Chinese version of SASRQ to report stress responses have not been well studied in health care whether they had experienced acute stress related to COVID- workers (Holman et al., 2014; Jeronimus et al., 2019). It is 19. The SASRQ is a 30-item questionnaire that rates acute imperative to assess the acute stress responses after a traumatic reactions to trauma on a 5-point Likert scale. It includes four event to predict long-term health consequences (Dai et al., different subscales and three additional questions about the 2018). Accordingly, it is equally important to investigate the traumatic event, which refers to COVID-19 in our study. The physical and mental health of health care workers during the questionnaire consists of the following: dissociative reactions (10 COVID-19 outbreak. The purpose of our study is as follows: items), re-experiencing of trauma (6 items), avoidance (6 items), (1) to determine the status of acute stress and QoL in health hyperarousal (6 items), and impairment in social functioning care workers, (2) to explore the relationship between acute (2 items). The symptoms are considered positive if a score Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 599136
Zhang et al. Acute Stress and Quality of Life
above three is obtained on at least one item of each subscale IBM SPSS ver. 23.0 for Windows (IBM Corporation, Chicago,
(Roberge et al., 2010). A total score (range 0–150) is calculated IL, United States).
through the sum of each item, with higher scores implying more
serious acute stress.
Quality of Life RESULTS
The Chinese version of the World Health Organization Quality
of Life Questionnaire (WHOQoL-BREF) demonstrated good Sample Characteristics and Distribution
reliability (0.76–0.90) and validity (0.72–0.82); it was used to of SASRQ and QoL
assess the QoL of hospital employees in this study. This 26- Among 525 volunteers, 502 completed the questionnaire, of
item instrument, rated on a 5-point Likert scale (range 1–5), which 47 were excluded because of missing or implausible data.
consists of two questions on general health and four domains: Finally, 455 individuals were included in this study, with a
physical health (7 items), psychological well-being (6 items), response rate of 95.6% and an effective rate of 86.6%. Sample
social relationships (3 items), and environment (8 items). characteristics of participants, SASRQ, and QoL scores are
The total score ranges from 26 to 130, with higher scores summarized in Table 1. More than half of the respondents were
reflecting a better QoL. under 35 years old (64.0%) and had received undergraduate
education or above (94.7%). Of the total, 251 (55.2%) thought
Procedure that the outbreak was under control, 292 (64.2%) believed
A non-probabilistic and convenience sampling method was the pandemic would last more than two months, and 408
conducted. Potential respondents were recruited exclusively (89.7%) thought they were at risk of contracting COVID-
through online methods (QQ, Wechat, E-mail, etc.) and were sent 19. Regarding the participants’ scores for SASRQ, among
the questionnaire link. To reduce the risk of infection during the the 455 volunteers (356 women) who enrolled in the study,
COVID-19 pandemic, all participants were invited to complete nearly half (48.8%) experienced dissociative reactions; 26.6%
an online self-report questionnaire anonymously by clicking the reported symptoms of trauma re-experience; 22.6% exhibited
survey link or scanning the Quick Response code. avoidance symptoms; 42.4% experienced hyperarousal, and
31.9% suffered from maladaptive behaviors. The mean scores
Experimental Design on SASRQ and QoL were 25.88 (SD = 21.84) and 65.60
A cross-sectional descriptive correlational design was conducted (SD = 12.60), respectively.
on health care workers to assess their acute stress response In the univariate analysis, the acute stress response levels
and QoL during COVID-19. Before recruitment commenced, varied significantly among differences in marital status (F = 4.062,
the study was designed following the Helsinki principles and p = 0.018) and physical activity (F = 5.457, p = 0.002). Acute stress
approved by the Local Ethics Committee of Qianfoshan Hospital was significantly higher in people who were divorced/widowed
Affiliated with Shandong University (2020S517). All respondents and those who were not physically active. The statistical
provided informed consent (completed online) to participate in differences in the degrees of acute stress were intimately tied
the research (10 February to 17 February, 2020). This study is to the perceived risk of contracting COVID-19 (F = 12.698,
reported as per the STROBE checklist. p < 0.001) and perceived pandemic status (F = 4.306, p = 0.014).
Participants who perceived a medium or high risk of contracting
Statistical Analyses COVID-19 and perceived an upward trend in the pandemic’s
Descriptive statistics were generated for all variables. The infection rate showed higher scores in SASRQ. Similarly, the
continuous demographic data included mean and standard front-line medical staff (t = 5.307, p < 0.001) and people who
deviation (SD), whereas frequencies and percentages were used had been to Wuhan in the last month (t = 2.941, p = 0.003) were
to summarize the categorical variables. For each variable, significantly more likely to exhibit acute stress.
Kolmogorov-Smirnov’s test was utilized to inspect the normality, Regarding QoL, there was a significant difference in physical
and Levene’s test was performed to determine the homogeneity activity (F = 8.072, p < 0.001), work status (t = −6.009,
of variance. The independent-samples t-test (or Mann–Whitney p < 0.001), and the perceived risk of contracting COVID-19
U-tests) and the one-way analysis of variance (or Welch’s (F = 10.477, p < 0.001). The front-line medical staff was more
test) were used to evaluate the differences in continuous likely to report a worse QoL. Participants who were regularly
variables. The post hoc test was performed with Bonferroni physically active and those who perceived themselves to be at
correction or Dunnet T3 test, depending on the homogeneity no or low risk of contracting COVID-19 showed higher QoL
of variance test. Criteria for entry into the multiple linear scores (Table 1).
regression included variables with p ≤ 0.10 in univariate
analysis (Kang et al., 2015). Subsequently, the bivariate Pearson’s Correlations Among SASRQ and QoL
correlation analysis was utilized to determine the correlation As shown in Table 2, the study participants’ acute stress
between acute stress and QoL. Stepwise multiple regression response negatively correlated with QoL (r = −0.611, p < 0.001).
analysis was used to identify which variables influenced acute Furthermore, the five dimensions of SASRQ significantly and
stress response and QoL. All statistical analyses were two- negatively correlated with all QoL dimensions, which exhibited a
sided, and a p-value less than 0.05 was defined as statistically strong negative association (r < −0.60) between acute stress and
significant. All original data were input and calculated by the QoL in health care workers (all p < 0.001).
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 3 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 599136Zhang et al. Acute Stress and Quality of Life
TABLE 1 | Univariate analysis of acute stress and quality of life with demographic (n = 455).
Variables n (%) Acute stress response Quality of life
Mean ± SD t/F p (post hoc) Mean ± SD t/F p (post hoc)
Gender −0.913 0.362 0.588 0.557
Male 99 (21.8) 24.11 ± 23.34 66.26 ± 12.66
Female 356 (78.2) 26.38 ± 21.41 65.42 ± 12.59
Age (years) 1.197 0.303 2.406 0.091
≤ 35 291 (64.0) 25.58 ± 21.09 64.65 ± 12.56
35–60 154 (33.8) 27.07 ± 23.67 67.19 ± 12.50
>60 10 (2.2) 16.40 ± 8.82 68.85 ± 13.46
Marital status 4.062 0.018 0.393 0.675
Divorced/Widoweda 7 (1.5) 27.86 ± 10.53 a > b, p = 0.016† 61.53 ± 7.21
Marriedb 267 (58.7) 22.40 ± 1.37 a > c, p = 0.007† 65.56 ± 12.12
Singlec 181 (39.8) 20.35 ± 1.51 65.82 ± 13.45
Occupation 0.456 0.634 1.305 0.272
Nurse 229 (50.3) 25.42 ± 21.80 66.33 ± 12.99
Doctor 162 (35.6) 25.57 ± 21.66 65.41 ± 12.64
Auxiliary staff 64 (14.1) 28.30 ± 22.60 63.48 ± 10.87
Professional title 0.053 0.949 1.683 0.187
Primary 282 (62) 25.62 ± 21.08 64.78 ± 12.63
Intermediate 112 (24.6) 26.26 ± 23.30 67.27 ± 12.27
Senior 61 (13.4) 26.39 ± 22.86 66.33 ± 12.88
Educational level 1.334 0.264 1.326 0.266
Associate degree or below 24 (5.3) 24.96 ± 17.97 68.24 ± 12.23
Bachelor’s degree 212 (46.6) 27.67 ± 23.06 64.69 ± 13.19
Master’s degree or above 219 (48.1) 24.26 ± 20.94 66.19 ± 12.02
Chronic disease history −1.624 0.105 0.416 0.677
Yes 14 (3.1) 16.57 ± 22.73 66.98 ± 11.82
No 441 (96.9) 26.18 ± 21.77 65.56 ± 12.63
Physical activity 5.457 0.002
Nevera 313 (68.8) 28.28 ± 22.78 a > c, p = 0.029‡ 63.71 ± 12.41 8.072 < 0.001
1–2 times/weekb 68 (14.9) 21.16 ± 20.68 69.01 ± 11.41 b > a, p = 0.001†
3–5 times/weekc 60 (13.2) 21.07 ± 16.67 70.58 ± 11.79 c > a, p < 0.001†
6 times or more/weekd 14 (3.1) 15.79 ± 16.11 70.05 ± 16.19
Front-line medical staff 5.307 b, p < 0.001‡ 66.81 ± 12.76 a > d, p < 0.001†
(Continued)
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 4 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 599136Zhang et al. Acute Stress and Quality of Life
TABLE 1 | Continued
Variables n (%) Acute stress response Quality of life
Mean ± SD t/F p (post hoc) Mean ± SD t/F p (post hoc)
Medium riskc 124 (27.3) 34.15 ± 25.67 d > a, p = 0.005‡ 61.78 ± 1 0.98 b > c, p < 0.001†
High riskd 12 (2.6) 44.25 ± 22.23 d > b, p < 0.042‡ 56.17 ± 10.40 b > d, p = 0.003†
Expected duration of the pandemic 5.173 0.072 1.014 0.386
1–2 monthsa 163 (35.8) 23.32 ± 19.09 66.55 ± 12.27
2–3 monthsb 253 (55.6) 26.01 ± 21.35 65.07 ± 12.41
3–6 monthsc 33 (7.3) 32.49 ± 30.76 66.18 ± 14.91
≥6 monthsd 6 (1.3) 53.83 ± 32.15 59.08 ± 15.66
SD, standard deviation; COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019.
† p-value of Bonferroni correction.
‡ p-value of Dunnet T3 test.
The variables such as physical activity, perceived pandemic status, perceived risk of contracting COVID-19 and expected duration of the pandemic were divided into four
categories: a, b, c, and d, respectively. Marital status was divided into three categories: a, b, and c.
TABLE 2 | Correlation between acute stress response and quality of life.
Variables Total score of QoL scale Physical health Psychological health Social relationships Environment
Total score of SASRQ −0.611** −0.586** −0.546** −0.417** −0.549**
Dissociation −0.571** −0.540** −0.522** −0.394** −0.503**
Re-experiencing of trauma −0.529** −0.519** −0.450** −0.354** −0.493**
Avoidance −0.492** −0.475** −0.452** −0.315** −0.447**
Hyperarousal −0.624** −0.599** −0.554** −0.441** −0.545**
Impairment in functioning −0.414** −0.391** −0.354** −0.287** −0.390**
QoL scale, quality of life scale; SASRQ, Stanford Acute stress Reaction Questionnaire.
**p < 0.001 (2-tailed), based on Pearson’s correlation test.
Factors Influencing Acute Stress and hierarchical steps. Table 4 shows the results of the final multiple
Quality of Life linear regression model. In our study, falling between 35 and
60 years of age (β = 0.143, p < 0.001), physically active 3–
Stepwise multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to
5 times per week (β = −0.109, p = 0.004), being a front-line
determine the factors that influenced acute stress and overall
medical staff member (β = 0.137, p < 0.001), and the total score
QoL. Seven variables, which were significant in univariate
of SASRQ (β = −0.545, p < 0.001) collectively accounted for
analysis, were gradually included in the regression model based
41.2% of the variance of QoL (R2 = 0.425, adjusted R2 = 0.412).
on the seven hierarchical steps. Finally, all explanatory variables
Additionally, acute stress response accounted for most of the
were incorporated into our regression model and summarized in
variance (1R2 = 0.373, adjusted 1R2 = 0.372) (Table 4).
Table 3. With respects to multivariate linear regression analysis,
Table 3 revealed the following: marital status (single: β = −0.424,
p = 0.017; married: β = −0.443, p = 0.012); physical activity
(3–5 times/week: β = −0.094, p = 0.035); front-line medical DISCUSSION
staff (β = −0.182, p < 0.001); perceived risk of contracting
COVID-19 (high risk: β = 0.130, p = 0.010; medium risk: This study aimed to determine the relationship between acute
β = 0.276, p < 0.001); and the expected duration of the pandemic stress and QoL and explore the influencing factors on health care
(≥6 months: β = 0.095, p = 0.035) collectively accounted for workers during the outbreak of COVID-19. Our study presented
15.5% of the variance of SASRQ (R2 = 0.184, adjusted R2 = 0.155). that marital status, physical activity, work status, perceived risk
Since the variables in the regression analysis explain only a of contracting COVID-19, and the expected duration of the
small part of the variance, it also indicates that there may pandemic were significantly associated with the acute stress of
be other important predictive variables that have not been health care workers. Furthermore, age, physical activity, work
included, such as pre-existing mental and physical conditions or status, and acute stress responses significantly affected the QoL
pre-existing levels of acute stress and QoL. Therefore, further of health care workers.
research is needed. In the multiple linear regression analysis, results indicated
The dependent variable was computed as QoL. Acute stress that widowed individuals or those who experienced divorce
response and four significant variables derived from univariate reported more serious acute stress responses. As a traumatic
analysis were tested as independent variables. There were four event, divorce or loss of spouse is commonly accompanied
explanatory variables in the final regression model after five by numerous negative consequences and psychological distress.
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 5 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 599136Zhang et al. Acute Stress and Quality of Life
Pérez et al. (2017) observed that people who had experienced Our findings suggested that the front-line medical staff
negative life events were more likely to be affected by a exhibited greater levels of acute stress. Wang et al. (2020)
major traumatic event, showing higher levels of anxiety, highlighted that acute stress disorder is a prominent
depression and post-traumatic stress. Consistent with previous psychological problem for front-line health professionals.
studies (Rosenbaum et al., 2015; Oppizzi and Umberger, Working on the front-line is an independent risk factor for
2018), our findings suggested that engagement with moderate negative emotions (Lai et al., 2020). Zhou et al. (2020) showed
physical activity could alleviate the acute stress response. As that workload was associated with psychological disturbances
an auxiliary means to usual care, physical activity has been in frontline medical staff. However, health care workers with a
proven to improve the health conditions caused by PTSD larger workload are less likely to participate in the survey and
(Rosenbaum et al., 2015; Oppizzi and Umberger, 2018). In a are more likely to receive psychological intervention, which
study conducted in New York, Shechter et al. (2020) found may lead to the underestimation of acute stress (Cole et al.,
that more than half of medical staff reported acute stress 2009; Zhou et al., 2020). Furthermore, the degree of perceived
since the outbreak of COVID-19, and the most common risk regarding contracting COVID-19 was associated with
coping style was physical activity. Based on the above findings, the level of acute stress response. Lin et al. (2007) reported
moderate and regular physical activity can help to deal that a medical staff ’s self-perceived risk of infection caused
with the psychological problems associated with COVID- by SARS could lead to severe PTSD. A study from Australia
19 quarantine. showed that the perceived risk of contracting COVID-19 was
TABLE 3 | Multiple linear regression analysis of the influencing factors of acute stress response.
Variables Unstandardized Std. error (SE) Standardized t p
coefficients (B) coefficients (β)
Marital status
Divorced/Widowed Reference
Married −19.608 7.791 −0.443 −2.517 0.012*
Single −18.905 7.898 −0.424 −2.394 0.017*
Physical activity
Never Reference
1–2 times/week −5.024 2.791 −0.080 −1.800 0.073
3–5 times/week −5.911 2.795 −0.094 −2.115 0.035*
6 or more times/week −9.367 5.528 −0.074 −1.695 0.091
Front-line medical staff
No Reference
Yes −8.275 2.144 −0.182 −3.859 < 0.001**
Have been to Wuhan (in the last month)
No Reference
Yes −10.774 5.982 −0.085 −1.801 0.072
Perceived pandemic status
Under control Reference
Prevail peak 3.038 4.022 0.037 0.755 0.451
Upward trend 3.430 2.623 0.063 1.308 0.192
Indetermination 0.546 2.670 0.009 0.205 0.838
Perceived risk of contracting COVID-19
No risk Reference
Low risk 6.359 3.244 0.143 1.960 0.051
Medium risk 13.530 3.561 0.276 3.799 < 0.001**
High risk 17.693 6.804 0.130 2.600 0.010*
Expected duration of the pandemic
1–2 months Reference
2–3 months 0.004 2.104 0.000 0.002 0.998
3–6 months 6.119 3.992 0.073 1.533 0.126
≥6 months 18.096 8.547 0.095 2.117 0.035*
R2 0.184
Adjusted R2 0.155
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019.
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.001.
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 6 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 599136Zhang et al. Acute Stress and Quality of Life
associated with acute mental health responses (Newby et al., have more experience, professional skills, sophisticated
2020). The high perceived risk not only causes significant coping strategies to deal with risks and crises, and pay
psychological distress and intense fear in individuals, but also less attention to negative information (Piotrkowska et al.,
prompts them to adopt protective measures (Lee et al., 2020; 2019). In the current study, people engaged in moderate
McCloskey and Heymann, 2020). We also demonstrated that a physical activity reported higher QoL levels than those who
long expectation of disease duration might increase acute stress. never exercised. Our findings are partly consistent with
Previous studies showed that prolonged exposure to traumatic Slimani et al. (2020), who reported that moderate physical
events usually indicated detrimental effects (Garfin et al., activity was positively correlated with all domains of QoL.
2015). When faced with emergencies, exposure to continuous, Similarly, the WHO recommends at least 150 min of moderate
unpredictable threats, and overestimation of negative effects can exercise per week to improve QoL during the outbreak
lead to intense anticipatory anxiety (Grupe and Nitschke, 2013). of COVID-19.
Meanwhile, the excessive psychological expectation of potential This study also highlighted that the QoL of front-line
negative stimuli is an important source of stress responses medical staff was worse than those who were not in direct
such as anxiety and hopelessness (Simmons et al., 2011). Our contact with patients. All health and safety personnel are
findings indicate that effective interventions are necessary shown to be at high risk; notably, Lai et al. (2020) showed
to promote health care workers’ mental health. Moderate that the more severe symptoms of depression, anxiety, and
physical activity and targeted psychological interventions insomnia were reported by front-line workers. Moreover,
may be practicable. heavy protective equipment and N95 masks make it difficult
In our model, factors affecting the QoL of individuals to breathe and communicate. Prolonged exposure to the
included age (36–60), being a front-line medical staff, virus and the possible risk of infection could increase work-
physical activity (3–5 times per week), and the extent of related and psychological stress. Furthermore, front-line
acute stress response. Older participants (ages between medical staff is more likely to encounter patients dying from
35 and 60) had a higher QoL than younger participants COVID-19. Research showed that the disposal of corpses
(age ≤ 35). Our conclusion is consistent with an air crash results in negative psychological reactions and a poor QoL,
observation, which found that older individuals reported which was the case in a sample of earthquake rescuers
a smaller increase in negative effects caused by the MH17 (Hsiao et al., 2019).
crash than younger participants (Jeronimus et al., 2019). Furthermore, the multiple linear regression analysis showed
One possible explanation might be that older medical staff that the most prominent potential risk factor was acute
TABLE 4 | Multiple linear regression analysis of the influencing factors of quality of life.
Variables Unstandardized Std. error (SE) Standardized t p
coefficients (B) coefficients (β)
Age (years)
≤35 Reference
36–60 3.814 1.001 0.143 3.812 < 0.001**
>60 −0.693 3.179 −0.008 −0.218 0.828
Physical activity
Never Reference
1–2 times/week 2.436 1.342 0.067 1.816 0.070
3–5 times/week 3.935 1.357 0.109 2.900 0.004*
6 or more times/week 1.449 2.691 0.020 0.539 0.590
Front-line medical staff
No Reference
Yes 3.601 1.036 0.137 3.476 0.001*
Perceived risk of contracting COVID-19
No risk Reference
Low risk −1.553 1.545 −0.061 −1.006 0.315
Medium risk −2.589 1.722 −0.092 −1.504 0.133
High risk −3.071 3.250 −0.039 −0.945 0.345
Acute stress response (SASRQ) −0.315 0.022 −0.545 −14.007 < 0.001**
R2 0.425
Adjusted R2 0.412
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; SASRQ, Stanford Acute stress Reaction Questionnaire. Explained variance of acute stress response: 1R2 = 0.373, Adjusted
1R2 = 0.372.
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.001.
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 7 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 599136Zhang et al. Acute Stress and Quality of Life
stress responses, which contributed 37.2% of the variance, a self-reported questionnaire, which does not include objective
while the remaining two factors only represented 4.0% of data or clinical diagnoses.
the variation on QoL. Our findings, along with previous
conclusions, indicated that acute stress response was associated
with QoL. A study on front-line health professionals during
the outbreak of COVID-19 showed that acute stress response CONCLUSION
led to serious emotional distress and chest pain (Wang
et al., 2020). Chaudhury et al. (2015) demonstrated that a This study displayed health care workers’ acute stress
history of acute stress increased individuals’ susceptibility to responses and QoL during the outbreak of the COVID-19
depression by changing molecular activity in the brain. Lefebvre pandemic. Factors such as marital status, physical activity,
et al. (2020) illustrated an inverse correlation between acute work status, perceived risk of contracting COVID-19, and
stress and QoL in samples of victims of violent crime and the expected duration of the pandemic were significantly
added the evidence that health-related QoL to remain stable associated with increased acute stress responses. In addition,
within 12 months. Another study emphasized that a serious younger individuals, lack of physical activity, front-line
onset of acute stress was significantly related to depressive medical staff, and higher acute stress scores indicated a
disorders and anxiety symptoms; often manifesting a year worse QoL. It is imperative that the physical and mental
later for the first time (Bryant et al., 2012). Recurrent, health of health care workers are improved, to help
acute stressors can increase the risk of hypertension by combat the COVID-19 pandemic. Our findings can help
activating the stress-mediating autonomic nervous system health practitioners and authorities to identify high-risk
(Gerin et al., 2012). Continuous fear stimuli are likely to individuals and provide them with appropriate intervention and
cause abnormal neurocircuitry patterns, resulting in various timely protection.
physiological damages (Olff et al., 2019). In other words, acute
stress not only affects the short-term QoL but also threatens
long-term health-related outcomes. It is, therefore, imperative DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
to reinforce the awareness of and intervention on the acute
stress of health care workers during the duration of the COVID- The data analyzed in this study is subject to the following
19 pandemic. licenses/restrictions: The dataset presented in this article
Generally speaking, our research may provide some ideas involves 15 hospitals and the participants of this study
toward formulating protective measures for health care workers did not consent to their data being shared. Requests
engaged in the COVID-19 pandemic. We recommend that to access these datasets should be directed to CX,
hospital managers pay close attention to the mental health abc181818123@163.com.
of health care workers, especially front-line medical staff.
Professional psychological counseling services and an adequate
supply of personal protective equipment are needed to ensure the
safety of these health care providers (Banerjee, 2020). ETHICS STATEMENT
The studies involving human participants were reviewed and
Limitations approved by the Local Ethics Committee of Qianfoshan
First, all respondents were asked to consider experiences with Hospital Affiliated with Shandong University (2020S517).
COVID-19 as a specific stressful event and review the extent Written informed consent for participation was not required for
to which the epidemic has interfered with their mental health this study in accordance with the national legislation and the
and daily lives – thereby minimizing the effects of pre- institutional requirements.
existing stress and QoL on the results. Furthermore, due to
the sudden outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in China,
we only conducted a cross-sectional survey and could not
assess the psychological status at a baseline. Further longitudinal
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
studies, with an extended follow up, will be needed to LZ, RJ, YJ, ML, and RW: study design, data collection, and
determine the causality between the acute stress response analysis plan. LZ, RJ, and CX: manuscript writing and revisions
and QoL. Second, an online investigation was conducted as for important intellectual content. All authors: statistical analysis
everyone was required to be quarantined. Hence, our sample and final versions of the manuscript.
was not based on random selection from all hospital staff.
The use of convenience sampling meant that health care
workers who were under extreme stress or an extremely high
workload would be less likely to participate in the survey, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
causing selection bias and an underestimation of acute stress
and QoL. A more representative sample will be needed to Many thanks to all of the health care workers who
generalize our research results. Lastly, our study is limited to participated in this study.
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 8 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 599136Zhang et al. Acute Stress and Quality of Life
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