THE PARMALIM MOVEMENT AND ITS RELATIONS TO SI SINGA MANGARAJA XII
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Jurnal Antropologi Sosial Budaya ETNOVISI•Vol. 1•No.3•Desember 2005
THE PARMALIM MOVEMENT AND ITS
RELATIONS TO SI SINGA MANGARAJA XII:
A Reexamination of the Development of Religious
Movements in Colonial Indonesia
Masashi Hirosue
Rikkyo University, Tokyo, Japan
Abstrak
Tulisan ini membahas dinamika gerakan Parmalim sebagai salah satu gerakan keagamaan yang muncul di
Sumatera pada era kolonial Belanda, khususnya di Batak Toba sejak 1878. Kedatangan kolonialisme
Belanda dan Misionaris Jerman dianggap sebagai sebuah ancaman bagi kejayaan kekuatan lokal lama
dalam bidang politik dan keagamaan. Gerakan Parmalim dilihat sebagai upaya untuk menghidupkan
kembali simbol-simbol kekuatan tradisional demi memperoleh akses sumber kekuatan baru di tengah
masyarakat dengan membangkitkan sentimen anti-kolonial. Gerakan ini mengklaim diri sebagai
transformasi dari masyarakat Batak dan ‘top leader’ mereka dipandang sebagai reinkarnasi Si Singa
Mangaraja.
Kata kunci: Parmalim movement, colonial government, religious movements, revivalistic
Introduction Parmalim movement which anxiously awaited
During the later part of the nineteenth the revival of the harajaon (kingdom) of Si
century when the Dutch began to expand Singa Mangaraja is one such movement.
colonial rule in Indonesia, the local power Scholars have paid much attention to such
symbols who had been mediators between local religious movements that occasionally induced
people and outside powers began to undergo the masses into forms of protest against the
drastic changes. Against the intensification of colonial authorities. The research to date has
colonial rule, protest movements arose in explained that those participants, whose daily
various parts of Indonesia including north lives were rooted in their magico-religious belief
Sumatra. Especially among the people whose systems, had no other choice than to resort to
power symbols were abolished by the Dutch, the such millenarian expectations in order to change
religious movements in which followers their plight. 2 Furthermore, the literature is
expected the revival of their holy king often inclined to argue that those movements which
gave rise to. Such movements occasionally arose in the earlier stages of colonial rule were
developed into the millenarian-like protests, in highly revivalistic because participants were still
which participants passionately called for a total deeply in touch with their traditional religious
transformation of the existing order by the beliefs, while those which appeared in the later
reappearance of their power symbol. 1 The
Dharmono Hardjowidjono and Djoko Suryo, (Yogyakarta,
1987), Jang Aisjah Muttalib, “Jambi 1900-1916: From War
This article is a paper originally delivered to the seminar, to Rebellion”, (Ph.D. dissertation submitted to Columbia
“Parmalim Batak Toba: Kekuasaan, Negara, dan Ekspresi University, 1995), and M. Hirosue, “Prophets and
Keberagamaan di Indonesia”, (Medan, 24 November Followers in Batak Millenarian Responses to the Colonial
2005). I am very grateful to Prof. Irwansyah Harahap for Order: Parmalim, Na Siak Bagi and Parhudamdam, 1890-
inviting me to the seminar, and also to Mr. Monang 1930”, (Ph.D. dissertation submitted to the Australian
Naipospos, Mr. Bisri Effendi and Mr. Nelson National University, 1988).
2
Lumbantoruan for their comments and advice. Sartono Kartodirdjo, “Agrarian Radicalism in Java: Its
1
Sartono Kartodirdjo, Protest Movements in Rural Java: A Setting and Development”, in Culture and Politics in
Study of Agrarian Unrest in the Nineteenth and Early Indonesia, edited by C. Holt with assistance of B. R. O’G.
Twentieth Centuries, (Singapore, 1973), Mukhlis, “Batara Anderson and J. Siegel, (Ithaca and London, 1972), pp. 78-
Gowa: Mesianisme dalam gerakan sosial di tanah 82, and J. C. Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant:
Makassar”, in Dari babad dan hikayat sampai sejarah Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia, (New Haven
kritis, edited by T. Ibrahim Alfian, H. J. Koesoemanto, and London, 1976), p. 187 and 192.
113Masashi Hirosue The Parmalim Movement and Its Relations to Sisingamangaraja XII: …
stages often became syncretic or “import- During the era when Somalaing had been
oriented”. 3 by Si Singa Mangaraja, Toba Batak society
However, such opinions seem to become experienced drastic changes in both its political
highly problematic when we consider the actual and religious spheres. In the Batak area which
circumstances of the participants in such had generally maintained its independence
movements. In the early stages of colonial rule, except for the Mandailing region that had been
the colonized people tended to be generally placed under Dutch rule since the 1840s, the
impressed by the superiority of the colonial German Rhenish Missionary Society
rulers who had defeated their traditional power (Rheinischen Missions-Gesellschaft) began
symbols. In order to cope with such a situation, missionary activities from 1861 in order to make
they often formed doctrines mixing new a Christian zone between the two Islamic areas
elements of foreign power with their traditional of Aceh and Minangkabau. Then the Dutch
beliefs. On the other hand, the people who had government extended its influence into the Toba
been put under the colonial regime for long Batak region from the 1870s.
periods of time and had subsequently become The Toba Batak chiefs who accepted
dubious of legitimacy of colonial rule, often German missionaries in their village were
endeavored to revive their dissolving tradition as successfully in enlarging their influence among
a symbol of their anti-colonialism. The history their rivals by establishing connections with the
of the Parmalim movement presents to us a very colonial government, while those who had not
interesting example in order to clarify the accepted missionaries became highly afraid of
transformation of a doctrine fashioned by a the transformation of the local balance of power.
religious movement which at first manifested a Consequently, they entreated the holy king of Si
syncretic character by adopting new religious Singa Mangaraja who had been revered as an
elements into Batak traditions, and later a highly incarnation of Batara Guru among the Toba
revivalistic one, in which their dissolving Batak, to rise up against the Dutch colonizers
tradition was given renewed meanings under the and German missionaries. 5 Somalaing played an
colonial regime. In this paper, I would like to important role in leading military campaigns
take up the dynamism of the Parmalim against the Dutch in 1878 and 1883. However,
movement which revived among the Toba Batak they lost the battles mainly due to the inferiority
reverence for the last Si Singa Mangaraja of of their weapons and Si Singa Mangaraja XII
Ompu Pulo Batu in the later stages of colonial himself was wounded at the battle of 1883.
rule. After defeat in 1883, Si Singa Mangaraja
did not rely on opinions of the datu. Ompu Pulo
1. The Rise of the Parmalim Movement Batu then started to negotiate peace with the
The Parmalim movement was organized by colonial government through the Sultan of
Guru Somalaing, a Toba Batak datu in 1890. Asahan. 6 Somalaing in due course parted
Datu was a healer, augur and magician and had company with Si Singa Mangaraja.
much knowledge about the Batak holy books. 4 Somalaing now fell into the dilemma. He
Guru Somalaing had been a well-known datu was obliged to acknowledge the superiority of
among the Toba Batak and he had been an European colonial power. He came to see the
adviser of Si Singa Mangaraja XII, Ompu Pulo rule of the Dutch and the Christianization of
Batu. Toba as having been destined by some mightier
source of power. On the other hand, it was not
easy for him to accept the new order brought
3
M. Adas, Prophets of Rebellion: Millenarian Protest about by the Dutch. After the Dutch established
Movements against the European Colonial Order, (Chapel
Hill, 1979), pp. 114-119, and A. F. C. Wallace,
5
“Revitalization Movements”, American Anthropologist, W. B. Sidjabat, Ahu Si Singamangaraja: Arti Historis,
vol. 58, (1956), p. 276. Politis, Ekonomis dan Religius Si Singamangaraja XII,
4
J. Winkler, Die Toba=Batak auf Sumatra in gesunden und (Jakarta, 1982), pp. 151-318.
6
in kranken Tagen: Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Resident of Oostkust van Sumatra to Gouverneur
animistischen Heidentums, (Stuttgart, 1925), p. 75, and J. Generaal of Nederlandsch Indië, (Bengkalis, 28 Aug.
Warneck, Die Religion der Batak: Ein Paradigma für die 1885), mailrapport 648/1885. The negotiations continued
animistischen religionen des Indischen Archipels, until 1886, but were not successful because Si Singa
(Göttingen, 1909), pp. 109-113. Mangaraja did not appear before Dutch officials.
114Jurnal Antropologi Sosial Budaya ETNOVISI • Vol. 1• No.3 • Desember 2005
colonial rule in Toba, the local chieftains who The point of Somalaing’s new religion was
had showed a cooperative attitude toward the that the Christian God ordered him to preach
Dutch and the Christian missionaries were Toba indigenous values. Through the traditional
appointed colonial chiefs, while many of the means of a dream and by retaining the essence
former datu became Christians and were of the Toba Batak virtues, he found a way to
appointed church elders. However, those local gain access to the new source of power, Jehova,
leaders who had not been given such which appeared to be transforming Batak
appointments began to encounter more society. This was the initial step in establishing a
difficulties than before in winning legal suits, new religious movement.
opening new villages and maintaining such For Somalaing, the next step was to
Toba Batak customs as taking the widow of demonstrate ways in which to fight against
one’s brother as a second wife. colonial power. People who became impressed
After reflecting on this contradiction, one by European colonial power often showed
night he had a revelation from Jehova. particular interest to Europeans who were
According to his testimony, in a dream his soul willing to share their assets with local people.
was brought by Jesus Christ before God, who An Italian traveler, E. Modigliani, who met
ordered him to preach a new doctrine. 7 The Somalaing just after his revelation from Jehova
belief which Jehova ordered him to preach was, and the German missionaries who were working
according to his own account: pay respect to the in Toba appeared to Somalaing highly important
elders, never tell a lie, do not take either dog’s figures to help him. Those Europeans had aims
meat or pork, or the meat or the blood of different from the Dutch, aims that occasionally
animals that died of illness, purify both soul and were at odds.
body. These admonitions were not especially Having arrived in Toba in October 1890,
new but were generally traditional Batak morals. Modigliani was eager to travel to the north
Somalaing said that his followers were to eastern part and the upper Asahan River region,
be called Parmalim. The word “parmalim” both of which were not yet under Dutch rule. 9
derived from the word “malim” which means Since the Dutch authorities would not allow him
“pure”or “holy”in Toba. Historically, the word to travel into those regions, Modigliani asked
malim came from the Arabic muallim, meaning Somalaing who was well-known in those
“religious leader”. Presumably, when this word regions to guide him. Under Somalaing’s
was introduced into Toba centuries before, it guidance, Modigliani was able to travel through
had helped to make up the idea of “holiness”in the regions during the end of 1890 and the
the Batak sense. For example, in a prayer to Si beginning of 1891. Although Modigliani left
Singa Mangaraja, he was referred to as “raja na Toba after this travel, this Italian who was
pitu hali malim, na pitu hali solam”(the raja who perceived by Somalaing as Tuan Rum, a deputy
is sevenfold holy, sevenfold sacred). 8 Si Singa of Raja Rum, continued to be highly regarded
Mangaraja and his appointed priests, among Parmalims as a figure helping them in
parbaringin, did not take either dog’s meat or their struggle against the Dutch. 10
pork. This prescription seems to have derived Parmalims also paid particular attention to
from Hinduism rather than Islam. It had become those German missionaries who were strongly
part of Toba religious belief long before. opposed to the Dutch policy of the development
Somalaing preached that this code among of traffic between east coast of Sumatra and the
religious elites should be applied to all his Toba Batak region, due to the fact that such
followers. Thus the Parmalim became “one who intercourse would induce the infiltration of
endeavours to be pure or holy”in the traditional Islam into Toba. One German missionary, P.
sense. Pohlig, was in particular revered. He was an
9
E. Modigliani, Fra i Batacchi indipendenti, (Rome,
1892), pp. 81-85, and J. C, Vergouwen, “Een Italiaan onder
7
Proces-Verbaal of Guru Somalaing, (Tarutung, 30 Jan. de Bataks”, Koloniaal Tijdschrift, vol. 21, (1932), pp. 555.
10
1896), Indischen brief, 22 May 1896, no. 910/2, in Verbaal Proces-Verbaal of Guru Somalaing, and D. W. N. de
25/6/1896/96. Boer, “De Permalimsekten van Oeloean, Toba en
8
Sidjabat, Ahu Si Singamangaraja, p. 442, and A. L. Habinsaran”, Tijdschrift voor het Binnenlansch Bestuur,
Tobing, Si Singamangaradja I-XII, (Medan, 1967), p. 15. vol. 47, (1914), p. 382.
115Masashi Hirosue The Parmalim Movement and Its Relations to Sisingamangaraja XII: …
engineer who occasionally helped the Dutch in 1883 also convinced Parmalims to believe that
repairing their guns and machines. Such this missionary was an incarnation of Si Singa
knowledge which brought about European Mangaraja.
superiority was highly mysterious to the Batak Parmalims believed that someday, when
people. They were eager to be initiated into it. the time came, Tuan Rum and Raja Rum would
According to Pohlig’s report of 1893, Parmalims appear in Toba, at which time Pohlig would
began to regard him as an incarnation of Si reveal himself in the real form and assist them in
Singa Mangaraja. 11 driving the Dutch from the Batak area. The
harajaon Si Singa Mangaraja would then be
These men [Parmalims] reveal really restored. Believing that the time was near, they
crazy ideas. Just now I have become the had to prepare for it.
Singamangaraja. “You are it － they say: The Dutch government put the north
you have only changed your form!”A few eastern part of the Toba Batak region under their
days ago some were still here. I said to control in 1892 and introduced corvée labour
them. “Don’t bother me with your absurd among the local people. However, the
reasonings. I am not the Singamangaraja”. Parmalims refused carrying out the colonial
“We know very accurately that you are it obligation and often were at odds with the
－ they say － Debata [God] has told it to colonial authorities. The Dutch authorities
us”. Moreover, they said in order to arrested Somalaing and banished him from the
convince me that I am he, “Your father, Batak area in 1896. 13 As the Dutch intensified
the former Singamangaraja, was shot by their colonial rule, Parmalims eagerly looked
the Dutch in the arm, then went to heaven. forward to the intervention of Tuan Rum and
He has sent you, but he has given you Pohlig. In spite of their ardent expectations,
another forms, so that the Dutch could not Tuan Rum never reappeared in the Batak area
recognize you”. They believe such and Pohlig never revealed himself in his true
nonsense, and that is their gospel. form.
According to the belief of the Toba Batak, 2. The Intensification of the Dutch Colonial
the sahala (power) of Si Singa Mangaraja could Rule in the Batak Area and Na Siak
be shifted to another person who would then be Bagi’s Parmalim Movement
the next Si Singa Mangaraja. After Si Singa At the end of the nineteenth century, the
Mangaraja XII (Ompu Pulo Batu) was wounded Dutch colonial policy on Sumatra became more
in the battle of 1883, the people who believed active one. The colonial authorities began to
that Si Singa Mangaraja was invulnerable began extend more and more effort in suppressing the
to doubt whether the sahala of Si Singa protest movements waged against the Dutch by
Mangaraja was still within him. Since Ompu Acehnese guerrillas and Si Singa Mangaraja. Si
Pulo Batu was then away in the Dairi region Singa Mangaraja XII who had been in the
endeavouring to negotiate with the Dutch to find mountainous region of the north western part of
his new place under the colonial regime, 12 the Batak was shot to death by the colonial army in
Parmalims began to believe that Si Singa 1907. 14 The Aceh War which had broken out in
Mangaraja XII, having lost his sahala, had gone 1873 was brought to an end in 1912. By 1913
to heaven and that the sahala was now in Pohlig the whole island of Sumatra was put under
who appeared in the form of a Westerner. The Dutch colonial rule. The Toba, Dairi, Angkola
fact that Pohlig had a scar on his hand similar to and Mandailing regions were annexed into the
that of Ompu Pulo Batu received at the battle of residency of Tapanuli, while other Karo and
Simalungun regions and east coastal
principalities were annexed into that of East
11
“Aus der Battamission”, Berichite der Rheinischen Coast of Sumatra.
Missions-Gesellschaft, (1893), pp. 325-326.
12
After Somalaing established the new religious
movement, he visited Si Singa Mangaraja XII to ask for
13
support for the movement. However, he refused that and The decision of Gouverneur Generaal of Nederlandsch
Somalaing was driven away (de Boer, “De Indië, 22 May 1896, no. 2.
14
Permalimsekten”, pp. 379-380). Sidjabat, Ahu Si Singamangaraja, pp. 286-296.
116Jurnal Antropologi Sosial Budaya ETNOVISI • Vol. 1• No.3 • Desember 2005
The Dutch introduced a new district system administration of churches, especially in the area
into Sumatra in order to improve the efficiency of church funds.
of colonial administration. In Toba from 1886 On the other hand, there arose a new
on, the Dutch appointed about 170 raja ihutan generation who had been born and raised under
(district chiefs) under whom raja padua (sub- the colonial regime, which was endeavouring to
chief of raja ihutan) and kepala kampong develop commercial and transportation systems,
(village chiefs) were appointed. 15 It was through while supporting the activities of plantation and
these local colonial chiefs that the Dutch mining companies. Those who had been
introduced corvée labour into Tapanuli and, educated in missionary school found jobs in
from 1908 on, a poll-tax. However, the number plantation companies, public works projects,
of raja ihutan became too many for the Dutch commercial enterprises, trade business of forest
colonial officials to handle, so after raja ihutan products, etc. Those people who were able to
on active service died, their districts were travel out of the Batak area occasionally were
merged instead of appointing successors. given the opportunity to come into contact with
Furthermore, in 1916, the Dutch government the cultures, religions and political ideas of the
appointed 12 new district chiefs (demang) and modern world. Such experiences induced them
25 assistant district chiefs (assistent demang) to reconsider the colonial regime and became
above raja ihutan. 16 Those new chiefs were not more conscious of the differences that existed
appointed from among Toba chiefs but from among the European, the Batak people, other
Batak colonial officials who had been working Indonesians and the Asian migrants who worked
under Dutch officials. The new assistant district for plantation companies in East Coast of
chiefs were allowed to come into direct contacts Sumatra. Under such circumstances, the
with local residents in the course of their duties. Parmalim movement also began to reconsider
In turn, raja ihutan, raja padua, and kepala the place of the Batak people in the new
kampong, who had played an important role as situation.
mediators between local people and the Dutch, Despite the fact that the Parmalim
were placed under the assistant district chief and movement continued after Somalaing’s arrest,
became mere functionaries of the colonial either German missionaries or Modigliani would
government. not come to Parmalims’ aid, and people began to
The intensification of colonial rule caused harbour doubts about what Somalaing preached.
various distortions in Tapanuli. Up to the end of Then around 1898, another man appeared who
the nineteenth century at least, the Dutch began to attract people by claiming that the
authorities had attracted the Batak chiefs and colonization of the Batak people by the Dutch
datu by appointing them as colonial chiefs or was a punishment in retribution for sins the
church elders. However, the more the traditional Batak had against their high god, Debata
patronage networks became disrupted by the Mulajadi Na Bolon. 17 This man, by the name of
new district administration, the more colonial Si Jaga Simatupang, was a goldsmith. His home
obligations became a real burden on the people village, Untemungkur, had been under Dutch
who could not understand the justification for influence since 1878 after the first unsuccessful
those obligations. Also the Christian offensive waged by Si Sinaga Mangaraja against
missionaries who had recommended to the the Dutch and where Christian missionaries had
colonial authorities the appointment of the Batak been active since the beginning of the 1880s.
chiefs they had converted to Christianity as Since gold was one of the main media of
colonial chiefs found difficulties in keeping the exchange, goldsmiths often became small-scale
people religiously interested because of the bankers and providers of credit. However, this
changing policy of the colonial government. The type of credit business declined dramatically due
Batak Christians began to feel inequities arising to the development of church funds which were
between them and German missionaries in the
17
W. N. Hoetagaloeng, Testimony of Gayus Hutahaean,
(Pangururan, 2 Feb. 1922), in V. E. Korn Collection, no.
15
M. Joustra, Batakspiegel, 2nd ed., (Leiden, 1926), pp. 454, and Bonifacius (de mantripolitie) to Controleur of
259-263. Toba, (Balige, 10 May 1929), in V. E. Korn Collection,
16
M. Joustra, Kroniek 1913-1917, (Leiden, 1918), p. 14. no.454.
117Masashi Hirosue The Parmalim Movement and Its Relations to Sisingamangaraja XII: …
loaned at lower interest. Si Jaga’s situation was relationship with God is the main theme of the
quite similar to that of Somalaing, who was Old Testament.
dissatisfied with the new regime while realizing His interpretation continued: Ham, who
that European power had become dominant. had not helped his drunken father, Noah, had
He had become a follower of Somalaing, been the most sinful, so that his descendents has
but like others, he found the movement unable been destined to be subordinate to the
to fulfil his expectations. Then one day, by his descendents of Shem and Japheth. The
own account, Debata Mulajadi Na Bolon descendents of Japheth and Shem both must
appeared to him in a dream and revealed a new have been blessed by God, but Si Jaga reasoned,
belief called ugamo malim (pure religion). 18 Japheth’s descendents must have been less
Despite using Somalaing’s term, malim, Si sinful throughout history because Westerners
Jaga’s revelation came not from Jehova but from had the most prestige now, while the Batak who
the Toba indigenous god, who, according to the were supposed to be descendents of Shem were
traditional belief, had created and continues to under their rule.
create the world, as well as ruling over the In order that the Batak expiate their sins,
destiny of human beings. 19 and by that means become independent from the
In order to revive the belief in Debata rule of the Sibontarmata, Si Jaga was given the
Mulajadi Na Bolon, Si Jaga introduced the order from Debata Mulajadi Na Bolon to preach
concept of sin, dosa, a term frequently used a new set of commandments. They were: 21
among Indonesian Christians. He perceived that Praise God (Debata Mulajadi Na Bolon). Pay
Christians thought of “sins”committed against respect to Raja. Love all human beings. Work
God as a key to explain human history, and diligently. Do not commit adultery, do not steal
adopted this notion in his attempt to clarify the and do not kill people. Never mock the humble.
present situation involving not only of the Batak Never mislead the blind. Establish funds (uang
but also of other peoples. He began by ayuran) for the life of the poor. Do not charge
developing the Toba tradition that a flag interest in money or rice. Do not eat pork, dog
symbolized the whole world, arguing that the meat or drink blood.
Dutch tricolour (red, white, dark-blue) Although some prescriptions, such as those
represented the three groups of the world’s against adultery, stealing, and partaking of pork,
people. In order to explain each of these groups, dog meat or blood, were traditional virtues and
he turned to the Old Testament in an attempt to were shared by Somalaing and his followers,
discover a key to explaining the place of the others appeared to owe more to the Ten
Batak in the modern world. According to his Commandments and the Christian gospel of
own interpretation, the red was the colour of the love, since Toba Batak moral principles had up
descendents of Shem (the eldest son of Noah), until that time never included such injunctions
including Jews, Chinese, Japanese, Malays, as to love all human beings, never mock the
Javanese and Batak. The white was the colour of humble, and never mislead the blind. Traditional
descendents of Ham – the Indians. The dark- ideas placed little emphasis on benevolence
blue (black, according to Si Jaga) was the colour towards the weaker members of society. 22
of the descendents of the youngest son, Japheth However, according to Si Jaga, the less endowed
– Westerners (Sibontarmata). 20 This suffering from their destiny were more likely to
arrangement made the Batak people fellow realize that they had sinned against Debata
descendents of Shem with the Jews whose Mulajadi Na Bolon. He stated, “sins of ten years
will be forgiven to anyone who had confessed
all sins”, and “even if someone is a raja and
18
holy, his soul would surely go to hell if he
Hoetagaloeng, Testimony of Gayus Hutahaean, and D.
W. N. de Boer, “De Permalimsekten van Oeloean, Toba en
commits a sin. But even if he is humble in this
Habinsaran”, Tijdschrift voor het Binnenlansch Bestuur, world, he would surely gain welfare and later his
vol. 48, (1915), p. 184.
19
Ph. O. L. Tobing, The Structure of the Toba-Batak Belief
21
in the High God, (Amsterdam, 1963), and A. B. Sinaga, Hoetagaloeng, Testimony of Gayus Hutahaean.
22
The Toba-Batak High God: Transcendence and J. C. Vergouwen, The Social Organisation and
Immanence, (St. Augustin, 1981). Customary Law of the Toba-Batak of Northern Sumatra,
20
Ibid., pp. 192-193. (The Hague, 1964), p. 132.
118Jurnal Antropologi Sosial Budaya ETNOVISI • Vol. 1• No.3 • Desember 2005
soul would gain a new shape if he observes the persons were being regarded as candidates for a
commandment and the law of God”. 23 Si Jaga new Si Singa Mangaraja. After the Dutch found
adopted the name Na Siak Bagi, (He Who that Si Jaga was one of them, the colonial
Suffers Misfortune), the one who was most authorities arrested him in 1910. 27
likely to realize sins against Debat Mulajadi Na However, the arrest of Na Siak Bagi
Bolon. merely worked to intensify followers’ doubt
By clarifying the place of the Batak people about the Dutch activities. Na Siak Bagi who
in the larger scale context of the modern world preached to expiate sins against God, did not
and preaching the establishment of funds for the promote protest against the Dutch. The Dutch
poor, Na Siak Bagi found followers in Toba and interference with the movement caused his
Simalungun. Those followers ranged from followers to consider that the Dutch was highly
former followers of Somalaing to Batak worried about Si Jaga’s movement because he in
Chiristians who became dissatisfied with due course might have a proper access to the
German missionaries and Batak chiefs who were will of God. 28 Consequently followers rather
willing to establish funds. The Dutch reconfirmed their belief and began to be more
government at first did not pay much attention dubious of the legitimacy of the Dutch rule.
to his movement because it did not manifest any Those who took over the leadership of the
anti-colonial idea. 24 However, although Na Siak Parmalim movement after the arrest of Na Siak
Bagi did not explicitly preach anti-colonialism, Bagi included Mulia Naipospos, an ex-church
Batak people would gradually begin to hope that elder, and Gayus Hutahaean, an ex-school
he would deliver them from colonial rule. teaching assistant. Mulia Naipospos who had
been parbaringin (sacrificial priest) appointed
3. The Death of Si Singa Mangaraja XII by Si Singa Mangaraja, converted himself to
and the Development of Na Siak Bagi’s Christianity in the 1890s. He was appointed
Parmalim Movement church elder in the parish of Laguboti. 29
At the turn of the century when the Dutch However, after his conversion, he experienced
decided to intensify their colonial rule over the loss of his two children and mother.
north Sumatra, Si Singa Mangaraja XII was Habolonan (having a large family) was one of
killed by the colonial army in 1907. His corpse the most highly valued virtues among the Toba
was displayed in the public at Balige and later at Batak and one of the main reasons why German
Silindung before being buried, in order to missionaries attracted the Batak people was that
impress upon the people the establishment of the the Christian churches had contributed to
Dutch colonial regime. 25 decreasing the death rate among them by
According to the Batak traditional belief, introducing modern medical treatment. Also
the sahala of the dead Si Singa Mangaraja Mulia had been dissatisfied with the
shifted to the next Si Singa Mangaraja. Those administration of church funds by German
who would not accept the idea that the harajaon missionaries. Mulia was therefore attracted by
Si Singa Mangaraja had been destroyed, Na Siak Bagi’s doctrine that Batak people must
believed that the sahala of Ompu Pulo Batu be conscious of sins against Debata Mulajadi Na
moved to the next Si Singa Mangaraja. The Bolon and his preaching of the establishment of
colonial governemnt began to worry about funds for the poor.
rumours of the reappearance of Si Singa Gayus, on the other hand, had been
Mangaraja after the death of Ompu Pulo Batu. working for missionary school at Laguboti. He
The Dutch disinterred the corpse to reconfirm had been dissatisfied with the church hierarchy
the death of Si Singa Mangaraja XII. 26 The in which German missionaries placed
colonial authorities then noticed that other themselves above Batak Christians and also that
23 27
Hoetagaloeng, Testimony of Gayus Hutahaean. Kort-Verslag der residentie Tap. over de maand Nov.
24
Koloniaal Verslag, (1902), p. 65. 1910, mailrapport 110/1911, in Verbaal 29/5/1911/36.
25 28
Sidjabat Ahu Si Singamangaraja, pp. 299-304. The colonial authorities decided to banish Si Jaga from
26
Controleur of Silindung, “Si Singa Mangaradja (S. S. M. the Batak area. However, he escaped from the prison at
) – Belangrijke feiten uit zijn leven in verband gebracht Tarutung and he never made his appearance again. De
met de pacificatie de Bataklanden”, (Tarutung, 2 March Boer, “De Permalimsekten”, vol. 48, (1915), p. 194.
29
1940), ag. no. 7144/1940. Hoetahaloeng, Testimony of Gayus Hutahaean.
119Masashi Hirosue The Parmalim Movement and Its Relations to Sisingamangaraja XII: …
the church funds were being lent with interest, encouraging Toba Batak people to migrate to
although the Bible prohibited such a practice. 30 Simalungun in the residency of East Coast of
When he first heard the doctrine of Parmalim Sumatra in order to develop agricultural
from Mulia Naipospos, he thought that it was activities there in exchange for non-imposition
consistent with the teaching of the Bible. 31 of corvée labour. 34 Going out of the Toba Batak
In order to revive belief in Debata Mulajadi region, they had contact with other Indonesians
Na Bolon, Mulia and Gayus petitioned the of Malay, Minangkabau and other Batak peoples
colonial authorities to allow the performance of of Simalungun and Mandailing. Such inter-
traditional Batak religious ceremonies in which ethnic contact induced these Toba Batak people
buffaloes, hens and cocks were sacrificed to that not only to reassess the place of the Batak
god. The colonial government had prohibited the people under colonial regime but also
Batak people to hold such traditional sacrificial occasionally to give rise to friction with other
ceremonies by the request of the German Indonesian peoples. The plantation companies
missionaries. 32 Gayus, however, did not agree operating in East Coast of Sumatra were under
with such a prohibition, because there were the jurisdiction of the Malay principalities,
many descriptions of sacrificial ceremonies in which had been granted political autonomy over
the Bible. The Dutch then allowed Parmalims to their territory by the Dutch. These Malay
hold their religious ceremonies in the traditional principalities generally offered better treatment
style because the colonial authorities did not for Malay and Minangkabau peoples whom
find any explicit anti-Dutch element in their those Malay rulers had had firm ties with. 35
belief. Also, Simalungun Batak tended to react to the
However, this permission was a shock to rapid Toba Batak immigration by looking down
the Christian missionaries. One of the German them as kasar (coarse). 36 Furthermore, the
missionaries asked Gayus why Parmalims Mandailing migrants in East Coast of Sumatra
revered for Si Singa Mangaraja who had who were mostly Muslims, preferred to call
protested against Christian activities. Gayus themselves “Malay”to avoid the Batak stigma. 37
again referring to the description on Moses in On the other hand, young Toba Batak were
the Old Trestament replied that the Batak given the opportunity to come in contact with
revered for Si Singa Mnagaraja as a Islam and nationalism in colonial urban towns.
representative of Debata Mulajadi Nabolon as The Sarekat Islam (Islamic Association), which
the Jews revered Moses as such. 33 Gayus, who was established in Java in 1912 as a movement
had been a Christian since childhood, had little promoting the spiritual and commercial
knowledge about Batak traditional religious development of indigenous Muslims, started to
ceremonies and Si Singa Mangaraja. He justified establish its branches in north Sumatra from
traditional sacrificial ceremonies and their holy about 1915. Under such circumstances, some
king in Christian terms under the new colonial Toba Batak, who had learned esoteric arts from
situation. Islamic leaders of the Sarekat Islam,
endeavoured to revive beliefs in Debata
4. The Revival of Reverence for Si Singa
Mangaraja XII
34
The Parmalims were not the only Toba J. Tideman, Simeloengoen: Het land der Timoer-Bataks
Batak group that endeavoured to revive beliefs in zijn vroegere isolatie en zijn ontwikkeling tot een deel
van het cultuurgebied van de Oostkust van Sumatra,
in Debata Mulajadi Na Bolon and Si Singa (Leiden, 1922), pp. 185-195.
Mangaraja during the 1910s. 35
A. J. S. Reid, The Blood of the People: Revolution and
During that time colonial public works and the End of Traditional Rule in Northern Sumatra, (Kuala
plantation companies in north Sumatra were Lumpur, Oxford, New York and Melbourne, 1979), pp. 47-
53.
offering job opportunities to Toba Batak young 36
G. L. Tichelman, “Locaal patriotisme in het Timoer-
men, and the colonial government was Bataksch gebied ter Sum. Oostkust”, De Indische Gids,
vol. 59, (1937), p. 508.
37
J. Keuning, “Toba-Bataks en Mandailing-Bataks”,
30
De Boer, “Permalimsekten”, vol. 48, (1915), p. 191. Indonesië, vol. 7, (1953-54), pp. 171-172, and L. Castles,
31
Hoetagaloeng, Testimony of Gayus Hutahaean. “The Political Life of a Sumatran Residency: Tapanuli
32
Vergouwen, Social Organisation, p. 102. 1915-1940”, (Ph. D. dissertation submitted to Yale
33
Hoetagaloeng, Testimony of Gayus Hutahaean. University, 1972), pp. 171-201.
120Jurnal Antropologi Sosial Budaya ETNOVISI • Vol. 1• No.3 • Desember 2005
Mulajadi Na Bolon and Si Singa Mangaraja Adventist. He returned to Toba in 1921 as Si
utilizing Islamic ideas. The movement led by Jaga’s successor. His return stimulated the
those Batak was called Parhudamdam and it movement and intensified its hopes for the
attracted hundreds of young followers in Toba, reappearance of Si Singa Mangaraja. Hermanus
Karo and Simalungun in 1915-17. Its adherents and Gayus preached that the harajaon Si Singa
claimed that through new ways of worshipping Mangaraja would soon be restored, so Parmalim
Debata Mulajadi Na Bolon and Si Singa followers did not need to fulfill the colonial
Mangaraja, one could achieve invulnerability. 38 duties. 41 The Dutch authorities intervened in the
Those who were convinced of being movement and arrested Hermanus and Gayus in
invulnerable occasionally confronted the 1923.
colonial army. Their protests were, however, During various endeavours to revive Si
suppressed by the colonial authorities and the Singa Mangaraja made among the Toba Batak,
movement collapsed by 1920. the figure of Si Singa Mangaraja XII who had
Another example is Hatopan Kristen Batak fought against the Dutch came to be
(Batak Christian Association) established in reappreciated among them. After the death of
1917 in order to promote harmony among Batak Ompu Pulo Batu, people began to look to his
Christians and to advance the Batak people. The sons with similar respect. During the time when
Association in 1918 began to oppose to the entry the Parhudamdam movement was flourishing in
of plantation companies to Tapanuli. The leader Toba, Mulia Naipospos paid visits to Ompu
of the Association, H. Manullang, complained to Pulo Batu’s family who was interned at Pearaja
the Dutch Governor General at Bogor by the colonial government. 42 The Dutch
(Buitenzorg) and the plantation plan was authorities were so worried about the spread of
cancelled. 39 At meetings held by the rumours of the reappearance of Si Singa
Association, traditional Batak music and Mangaraja that they decided to send three sons
dancing were performed, and participants of Ompu Pulo Batu off to Java in 1916 and the
affirmed that the sahala of Si Singa Mangaraja other two sons in 1918. However, these moves
was now restored in H. Manullang. 40 H. did nothing to lessen the reverence held among
Manullang was also a member of Insulinde, the people for the sons of Si Singa Mangaraja
which was reestablished after the Indische Partij XII. Whenever his eldest son, Buntal, returned
(Indies Party) that advocated racial equality, to Toba for temporary visit, thousands of Toba
socio-economic justice and ultimate people came to him to pay their regards. Mulia
independence was dissolved. To the Toba Batak, began to hope that Buntal would become the
Indonesian nationalism became a very important next Si Singa Mangaraja under the colonial
ingredient in coping with the friction they were regime. In 1927, he petitioned the Dutch
experiencing with neighbouring peoples. authorities to return Buntal to Toba to assume
Under such circumstances, Si Singa his rightful place among the Toba Batak as Si
Mangaraja who had been a mediator between Singa Mangaraja. 43 Parmalims ardently
the Toba Batak and Malay rulers and who had expected for the reappearance of Si Singa
been revered among other Simalungun, Karo Mangaraja.
and Dairi peoples, became a highly important After severely suppressing the nationalistic
ethnic symbol among the Toba Batak. movements by the Indonesian Communist Party
After Si Jaga’s retirement from the and the Indonesian Nationalist Party, the Dutch
movement, Parmalims began to expect government decided on more leniency
Hermanus, Si Jaga’s son-in-law, to lead their concerning the revival of local traditional
movement. Hermanus had been a follower of Na
Siak Bagi and then moved to Singapore, where 41
Kort-Verslag van de Res. Tap. over de maand Maart
he became an assistant to Seventh Day 1923, mailrapport 1776/1923, in Verbaal 19/11/1923/21.
42
Assistent Resident of Bataklanden, “Nota behoorende by
38
M. Hirosue, “Prophets and Followers”, pp. 292-357, and de hoofdstuk ‘Politieke toestand’ van het Kort-verslag der
G. L. Tichelman, “De Parhoedamdam-Beweging”, afdeeling Bataklanden over de maand September 1917”,
Mededeelingen van de Vereeniging van Gezaghebbers der mailrapport 2317/1917, in Verbaal 12/8/1918/66.
43
Binnenlandsch Bestuur, vol. 45, (1937), pp. 29-33. Raja Manangar to Gouverneur of Oostkust van Sumatra,
39
Castles, “Political Life”, pp.156-161. (Huta Tinggi, Laguboti, 2 Feb. 1927), in V. E. Korn
40
F. C. Vorstman, “Resumé”, mailrapport 2269/1921. Collection, no. 441.
121Masashi Hirosue The Parmalim Movement and Its Relations to Sisingamangaraja XII: …
institutions and power symbols as long as they colonial sentiment developed among the people,
did not disturb the colonial order. The Dutch these dissolving traditions became their symbols
authorities allowed the return of the four sons of of anti-colonial movements.
Ompu Pulo Batu to Toba by the decision of the The research to date which has interpreted
Governor General on 21 July 1930. 44 Buntal the adherents of such religious movements as
then came back to Tapanuli in 1933 and was people who stuck to their traditional beliefs and
appointed as an official attached to the Dutch who had no other choice than to resort to
assistant resident in Tarutung in 1934. millenarian expectations to change their
Howcever, the Dutch government would not circumstances needs to be reconsidered. Such
allow Buntal to become Si Singa Mangaraja messianic movements arose during the colonial
because the restoration of Si Singa Mangaraja era when nationalistic movements were
would give rise to new anti-colonial sentiments organizing around those religious followers and
among the Batak people. also after the independence of Indonesia. 45
The Parmalims, nevertheless, did not When we consider the social circumstances
abandon their belief that the harajaon Si Singa facing the members of the religious movements,
Mangaraja would be restored in due course after what they were advocating suggests us very
the Batak expiated sins against Debata Mulajadi interesting perspectives about how to understand
Na Bolon. The Parmalim movement continued the relationships between religious and other
to the present day. Among them, the figure of political and social movements.
Ompu Pulo Batu, the late Si Singa Mangaraja
XII, was revived as their holy king. Today
Parmalims claim that it was Si Singa Mangaraja
XII who ordered Si Jaga to preach the ugamo
malim to the Batak people.
Conclusion
Studies on the history of Southeast Asia
have spent much energy on the anti-colonial
movements that gave rise to independent nation
states in the region. With regard to anti-colonial
religious movements that looked for the revival
of their traditional power symbols, those studies
have generally referred to them as pre-
nationalistic in character or as movements
whose adherents had no other political channel
in order to change their situations.
In this paper, I have to the contrary
attempted to show the dynamism within such
messianic movements that adopted both new
beliefs and political ideas. At the earlier stages
of the colonial rule, people endeavoured to gain
access to the new source of power through
traditional means. When this new source of
power did not fulfill their expectations and
colonial rule was further intensified, people
began to reconsider the dissolving traditions
giving them renewed meanings. As anti–
44
Politieke politioneel verslag over het derde kwartaal
1930, res. Tap., mailrapport 1240/1930. The remaining son
45
of Si Singa Mangaraja XII, David Pangkilim, was See for instance, Raharjo Suwandi, A Quest for Justice:
considered to be “insane”and was kept in a mental hospital The Millenary Aspirations of a Contemporary Javanese
in Bogor. Wali, (Leiden, 2000).
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