To educate and educate ourselves in time, pedagogically and socially* Educar y educarnos a tiempo, pedagógica y socialmente
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To educate and educate ourselves in time,
pedagogically and socially*
Educar y educarnos a tiempo,
pedagógica y socialmente
José Antonio CARIDE, PhD. Professor. Universidade de Santiago de Compostela (joseantonio.caride@usc.es).
Abstract: integrate a wide set of epistemological, theo-
This article emphasises the characterisation retical-conceptual, methodological, and empir-
of time as a human social and cultural construct, ical viewpoints used in studies of time; and b)
while not neglecting other perceptions and rep- to affirm and assert the importance of time in
resentations of it. Reflections on the nature educational and social research, educational
year 78, n. 277, September-December 2020, 395-413
and scope of time have always interested the policies, and people’s everyday lives, projecting
sciences, as a time of times, fostering an inter- their achievements into conceptions and prac-
disciplinary dialogue which calls to all branches tices that extend learning to the entire life cycle.
of knowledge including the educational sciences
and, in particular pedagogy, as they accept the Time educates and we educate ourselves in it,
challenge of educating us about time as a civic and so it is necessary to rethink — pedagogical-
task in which all of civil society must participate. ly and socially — its meanings in a society that
revista española de pedagogía
is open 24 hours a day and is symbolically and
This piece, which takes the form of an essay materially globalised. The complexity inherent
bringing together different documentary sources, in processes of social, cultural, technological, eco-
proposes two main objectives: a) to identify and nomic, etc. change and transformation presents
* This article is part of the “Education and conciliation for equity: analysis of their impact on school and social times”
(CON_TIEMPOs) research project, of which the PIs are Dr María Belén Caballo Villar and Dr Rita Gradaílle Pernas from
the Social Pedagogy and Environmental Education research group (SEPA-interea) at the Universidad de Santiago de
Compostela. The Project is funded by the Spanish government’s Ministry of Science, Innovation, and Universities (Retos
state R&D plan) and the European Union’s ERDF funds (code RTI2018-094764-I00).
Revision accepted: 2020-06-14.
This is the English version of an article originally printed in Spanish in issue 277 of the revista española de pedagogía.
For this reason, the abbreviation EV has been added to the page numbers. Please, cite this article as follows: Caride, J. A.
(2020). Educar y educarnos a tiempo, pedagógica y socialmente | To educate and educate ourselves in time, pedagogically
and socially. Revista Española de Pedagogía, 78 (277), 395-413. doi: https://doi.org/10.22550/REP78-3-2020-03
https://revistadepedagogia.org/ ISSN: 0034-9461 (Print), 2174-0909 (Online)
395 EVJosé Antonio CARIDE
us with the challenge of imagining an education a) identificar e integrar un amplio conjunto de
without spatial or temporal limits. It also forces miradas epistemológicas, teórico-conceptuales,
us to broaden its horizons as a right in the ser- metodológicas y empíricas a las que se remiten
vice of the people and the planet. This is stated in los estudios sobre el tiempo; b) afirmar y reivindi-
the Sustainable Development Goals and in their car la importancia del tiempo en la investigación
framework of action, in an attempt to guarantee educativa y social, en las políticas educativas y
quality inclusive, and equitable education that en la vida cotidiana de la gente, proyectando sus
promotes lifelong learning opportunities for all. logros en concepciones y prácticas que extiendan
Paradoxically, in their goals, strategic approaches, los aprendizajes a todo el ciclo vital.
means of implementation, and indicators, time is
absent, unlike space and communication. El tiempo educa y nos educamos en él, por
lo que es preciso repensar —pedagógica y social-
Keywords: social times, school times, social mente— sus significados en una sociedad abierta
education, lifelong learning, quality educa- las 24 horas, simbólica y materialmente globali-
tion, education system, education policy. zada. La complejidad inherente a los procesos de
cambio y transformación social, cultural, tecnoló-
gica, económica… nos sitúa ante el reto que supo-
Resumen: ne imaginar una educación sin límites, espaciales
Sin obviar otras percepciones y representacio- y temporales. También obliga a ampliar sus hori-
year 78, n. 277, September-December 2020, 395-413
nes acerca del tiempo, pondremos énfasis en su zontes como un derecho al servicio de los pueblos
caracterización como una construcción social y y del planeta. Así se declara en los Objetivos de
cultural, humana. Las reflexiones sobre su natu- Desarrollo Sostenible y su marco de acción, tra-
raleza y alcance han ocupado a las ciencias desde tando de garantizar una educación inclusiva y
siempre, como un tiempo de tiempos, alentando equitativa de calidad, promoviendo oportunida-
un diálogo interdisciplinar al que están convoca- des de aprendizaje permanente para todos. Para-
dos todos los saberes. También las ciencias de la dójicamente, en sus metas, enfoques estratégicos,
revista española de pedagogía
educación y, en particular, la pedagogía, asumien- medios de aplicación e indicadores, el tiempo —a
do el desafío que supone educar y educarnos a diferencia de lo que sucede con el espacio y la co-
tiempo como un quehacer cívico en el que debe municación— continúa ausente.
participar toda la sociedad.
Descriptores: tiempos sociales, tiempos esco-
Adoptando el formato de un ensayo en cuya lares, educación social, aprendizaje permanen-
elaboración convergen distintas fuentes docu- te, calidad de la educación, sistema educativo,
mentales, planteamos dos objetivos principales: política educativa.
1. Introduction Wittgenstein — time is a concept, object,
For the artist Joseph Kosuth — whose and image. As one of the principal pre-
work was noticeably influenced by Ludwig cursors of “conceptual art”, he depicted
396 EVTo educate and educate ourselves in time, pedagogically and socially
this triple perception in his Clock (One struct. Or, perhaps, a human construct:
and Five), English/Latin Version (1965), in its excesses and in nothingness. The
combining on a 610 × 2902 mm panel, a words that describe it — before, during,
working clock, a photograph of the same after, present, past, future, instant, suc-
clock showing a different time, and the cession, eternity, change, etc. — are loaded
entries for “time”, “machination”, and with hidden or visible questions that are
“object” from an English/Latin dictionary open to many answers; few of them are
with a brief explanation of what each of definitive or exclusive, with most being
them means. Clocks softening and melting provisional and complementary (Toulmin
with the passage of time were also used by & Goodfield, 1990; Reis, 1994). According
Salvador Dalí to illustrate the relativity to Ángela Molina (2019), the responsibili-
of time, paying tribute in one of his cele- ty for defining and interpreting time has
brated works — The persistence of memory moved from physicists to artists, creat-
(1931) — to physics and the theories of Al- ing suspicion of the logic on which these
bert Einstein. definitions and interpretations are based.
Nonetheless, physicists have not stopped
These two representations of time are doing it, turning to time as one of their
very different from the one presented by principal interests and objects of study.
the avant-garde composer John Cage when This has also been done by those in the
year 78, n. 277, September-December 2020, 395-413
his work 4’33” made its debut in 1952. In humanities and the social sciences who
this piece, the musicians remain silent, extend the contributions made by the for-
without playing their instruments, for four mal, natural, or “experimental” sciences,
minutes and thirty-three seconds, imply- insisting — for centuries — on the need to
ing that time is a fragment of everyday life. provide knowledge with new perspectives
They also differ from the works the British on time and its circumstances.
sculptor Andy Goldsworthy has produced
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over three decades. Goldsworthy travels Ways of counting time, conceiving it,
the world creating figures using natu- and perceiving it are cultural and his-
ral materials — leaves, branches, petals, torically situated (Le Goff, 1991; Ramos,
ice, sand, water, stones, snow, etc. — which 1992), as are ways of knowing it and un-
he leaves to their fate once they are com- derstanding it as thinking subjects. When
plete, letting the passage of time finish off recording it, without us being able to avoid
his work; he has only allowed five hundred it when expressing who we are, physical
photographs of these short-lived crea- and social phenomena come into play, in-
tions, in which time is another aesthetic dividually and collectively. These phenom-
resource, to be taken to show what once ena reflect — alongside other civilising
existed, before they self-destruct. processes — the confrontation between
natural cycles and the bookkeeping arti-
We turn to artistic creativity — without fices of calendars, regarded as one of the
ignoring science — to present four “read- most emblematic instruments in the or-
ings” of time as a social and cultural con- ganisation, domestication, and command
397 EVJosé Antonio CARIDE
of time. Anthropocentric, monochronic, Castells’ hypothesis (1997) that in the age
and technical-rational doctrines that make of the internet new information technolo-
human beings the measure and centre of gies will liberate us from capital’s time
all things, have contributed decisively to and the culture of the clock, this does not
this being the case, with more or less his- seem to be the case. Indeed, the corpora-
torical significance. tions that supply these technologies do not
set out to do so, in a society where the val-
The French and Bolshevik revolution- ue of time no longer lies in the hours peo-
aries changed the secular calendars in use ple have available but rather in the hours
in their countries to show that in power they lack to fulfil all of their obligations
one can “formally” modify relationships (Durán, 2007).
between society and time, albeit not for
ever (Clark, 2019). And the Industrial The Covid-19 coronavirus pandem-
Revolution, with its accompanying socio- ic and its cruel pedagogy (Sousa Santos,
economic and cultural upheaval, combined 2020), confining hundreds of millions of
thorough social control of workers’ time — people to their homes, mixing working
and, by extension, the time of families and time with rest time and leisure time, has,
social institutions, such as schools — with sooner than expected, led us into the 24/7
the progressive automation of their pat- model of society (24 hours a day, 7 days a
year 78, n. 277, September-December 2020, 395-413
terns of behaviour, subordinating personal week), making an internet connection an-
decisions to the emerging concepts of cap- other requirement of the job market and
italist production and work: individuals for isolation and social connections (Crary,
would have to learn to synchronise their 2015), for the sake of protection and safe-
activities without intermediaries, disci- ty. Clocks are not disappearing: they are
plining their behaviour through academ- being integrated into or replaced by all
ic instruction, communal mechanisms of types of screens, ceaselessly monitoring
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socialisation, and watches, which became and supervising people who are chained
another part of their clothing. to their networks, creating alerts, setting
reminders and timers, scheduling events,
Since the end of the 20th century, dig- etc. reaching unprecedented levels of so-
ital technology has joined the analogue, phistication and diligence. In her insight-
mechanical, and electronic ones and has ful reflection on the present, analysing the
again revolutionised behaviour in almost relationships between art and fiction, Ga-
all of the world: after thousands of years briela Speranza (2017) warns that we can-
of guiding ourselves by the cycles of the not forget that clocks are the product of a
seasons and the sun or looking at circu- history in which they were and continue to
lar clockfaces, we constantly and even be instruments of power.
compulsively find we need computers and
mobile telephones to set the time with Norbert Elias (1989) also did this, not-
pinpoint accuracy (Garfield, 2017). In this ing that the bargain between clocks and
scenario, although it is tempting to believe humankind is a discouraging one. Both are
398 EVTo educate and educate ourselves in time, pedagogically and socially
constantly changing as time passes: clocks ficient exhaustiveness and rigour, how and
change cyclically with the movement of to what extent the sciences have taken an
their hands — and now increasingly their interest in studying time, it continues to be
digits — while living beings change in an endless source of knowledge that with-
a linear way, on their route to aging and out it would lose much of its interest and,
death. Furthermore, when incorporating even, its raison d’être for humankind (Al-
new technological devices, making visi- fonseca, 2008) and the disconcerting world
ble and audible “realities” that are not we inhabit. For Hawking (1989), time —
touched, seen or heard, they create a new and space — make it possible to go from
notion of time, psychologically and social- the most everyday facts to the most funda-
ly strewn with paradoxes and metaphors mental and yet not least complex concepts
(Boscolo & Bertrando, 1996; Zimbardo & in theoretical physics and the laws govern-
Boyd, 2010). Hence the insistence on an ing the universe, which do not stop ques-
appropriate distribution of time, which for tioning what we see around us. Nothing is
some authors means choosing slowness entirely predicted in its coordinates. With
over acceleration, as something intrinsic the theories of general relativity and Ed-
to quality of life and happiness (Poelmans, win Hubble’s findings, what was thought
2005; Novo, 2000; Safransky, 2017). to be “a unique absolute time” turned
into “a more personal concept, relative to
year 78, n. 277, September-December 2020, 395-413
One way or another, these authors the observer who measured it” (Hawking,
show how our own temporal condition and 1989, p. 221).
the need to have time to be able to be in
time (Heidegger, 2012; Cruz, 2016) com-
plicate what we say about it. According to 2. Grammars of time and scien-
Boscolo and Bertrando (1996, p. 39), “this tific knowledge
is probably due to the self-reflexive char- Although it is through words that time
revista española de pedagogía
acter of time (when we speak of time, we makes visible many of the consensuses
are still living in time) or the presence of about its meanings, even the aspects of
a multitude of ‘times’ related to different it that are supposedly most objective are
levels of reality.” Furthermore, human not the same for everyone. While each day
experience is inseparable from the impor- lasts 24 hours, each hour 60 minutes, and
tance attributed to time as a symbolic and each minute 60 seconds, the experience of
material category that affects very varied what takes place in them gives them oth-
aspects of social thought and action (Elias, er private and non-transferable durations:
1989). measuring time is one thing; the subjec-
tive experience of it is another. While it is
We allude to a time of times that encom- a physical phenomenon in the former case,
passes everything and everyone (Mataix, in the latter various structures interact,
1999), the understanding of which no such as memory, attention, motivation,
branch of knowledge has eschewed. And context, and the liberty inherent in situ-
although it is not easy to ponder, with suf- ations.
399 EVJosé Antonio CARIDE
This is highlighted in the commentary adverbs, conjugations, and prepositions
on the sensation of time that Thomas are expected to do.
Mann builds in The Magic Mountain when
he narrates the young Hans Castorp’s sin- In the most recent version of the Dic-
gular experience of adapting to the habits cionario de la Lengua Española, the dic-
of a sanatorium in the Swiss Alps where he tionary of the Spanish language published
went as a visitor and ended up staying as a by the Spanish Royal Academy, which was
patient. Speaking with his cousin Joachim updated in 2019, the word tiempo (time)
Ziemssen, who has recovered from tuber- has eighteen definitions. These include
culosis, Castorp says: ones that relate to the weather (“hace
buen tiempo” means “the weather is
time isn’t “actual.” … when it seems
good” in Spanish), ones that relate to a
short, why then it is short. But how long,
grammatical category or to verb conju-
or how short, it actually is, that nobody
knows. … Space we perceive with our or- gations, to age, or to each of the parts of
gans, with our senses of sight and touch. the same duration into which the rhythm
Good. But which is our organ of time. is divided in a musical composition and
(Mann, 2005, p. 112-113). performance. Neither the Gran Enciclo-
pedia del Mundo Durvan, nor the New
This work, which its author described Hutchinson 20th Century Encyclopedia,
year 78, n. 277, September-December 2020, 395-413
as a “novel about time”, is a clear exam- the Encyclopaedia Britannica, the Grand
ple of the emotional weight of time in the Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Larousse,
world of letters and in narratives about nor Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia
everyday life, masterfully captured in the have managed to perfect the definitions
work of authors such as Proust, Kafka, they provide in their successive editions
Joyce, and Kundera. Their pedagogical and revisions. Turning to Saint Augus-
value, which we will not linger on here, is tine (1990) by citing Book XI, chapter
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one of the issues pedagogy has not resolved 14, of his Confessions often avoids going
with literature (Larrosa & Skliar, 2005). into denser explanations. That references
to time are among the most familiar and
Giving a convincing answer to any commonly used in all languages does not
question that tries to establish what time stop them from being amongst the most
is remains a challenge at the start of the elusive and mysterious.
third millennium, which neither lexicons
nor dictionaries have been able to resolve If the best words, as Daniel Gamper
satisfactorily. As María Ángeles Durán (2019) suggests, are those that enable us
noted (2007, p. 20), speech “is rich in mod- to name the world, using them to main-
ulation of time, and where grammar does tain and reproduce it, statements about
not reach, it turns to metaphors or inter- time — and times — have resulted in con-
jections for help as well as the added effect troversial approaches, focuses, decisions,
of body language and tone.” What verbs actions, etc. that directly impact people’s
cannot express with their tools, temporal lives:
400 EVTo educate and educate ourselves in time, pedagogically and socially
reflection on time and attempts to mea- will not be the time of Aristotle, Saint
sure it are as old as humankind; the trace
Augustine, or Newton, and even less the
of these attempts is found in mythical tales,
times that Bergson, Heidegger, Sartre,
calendars, and the grammatical structure
of languages. Many of the concepts that or Einstein conceived. And although the
currently seem natural in reality conceal metaphors and paradoxes of time “are
centuries of ideological debate and political born from and live in language” (Boscolo
conflict. (Durán & Rogero, 2010, p. 9). & Bertrando, 1996, p. 16), its realities em-
brace the life of each organism and living
And, inevitably, scientific, academic, being, because
and literary confrontation; but, if we focus
time is deeply embedded in our genes.
on its most positive part, it also contains
The cells of the body, bacteria, plants, and
the opportunity to encourage interdiscipli-
other animals are capable of measuring
nary dialogue and shared knowledge. time: in this sense, biological clocks are
perfect adaptations to our environment
It can do this on condition that it ac- that manage to synchronise astronomical
cepts the challenge of transcending the time with the internal time of the organ-
most reductionist and conventional read- ism. (Punset, 2011, p. 180).
ings, amplifying and diversifying the
possibilities that understanding it offers In humanistic and/or social studies,
year 78, n. 277, September-December 2020, 395-413
(Gómez et al., 1981) in the field of the nat- interest in time in people’s lives is appar-
ural, experimental, and life sciences and ent in the work of numerous classical and
in the social sciences and humanities. If, modern authors: from Plato to Heidegger
looking back, it has been this way, there and Ricoeur, and including Aristotle, Hus-
is all the more reason for it to be so in fu- serl, Durkheim, Bergson, Merleau-Ponty,
ture, following the lead of the multi- and Sorokin, Veblen, Eliade, Bauman, and Gid-
interdisciplinary work that is being done dens. In their works we can see that this
revista española de pedagogía
in fields like chronobiology, chronopsy- is a scientific concern that, like so many
chology, neuroscience, and artificial intel- others, was marked by gender until well
ligence among many others. We should into the 20th century, even though a con-
recall, with Asimov (1984), that time has siderable part of the uses of time and their
always played a key role in the peaks of impact on our day-to-day lives are found
science, its “variables” being associated in the activities of women. This is shown
with discoveries that revolutionised the in the reflections and/or research on per-
world of technology and thought, helping sonal and social times that are led and/or
transform the social, economic, political, dominated by women from different disci-
cultural etc. structures of its era. plinary perspectives: philosophy, anthro-
pology, history, sociology, psycho-sociolo-
For Ilya Prigogine (1997, p. 213), “the gy, law, politics, etc. (Adam, 1990; Balbo,
renewal of science is largely the history of 1991; Husti, 1992; Lasén, 2000; Romero,
the rediscovery of time.” Then and now. 2000; Valencia & Olivera, 2005; Tabboni,
Indeed, the time of Parmenides or Zeno, 2006; Durán, 2007).
401 EVJosé Antonio CARIDE
In his analysis of the grammars of of markets and commercial centres, bi-
time and the problems of the globalised ological rhythms and their impact on
world, Sousa Santos (2006) underlined health, the harmonisation of face-to-face
how the options available to us in the ecol- and virtual learning, or dedication to car-
ogy of temporalities, must make all of the ing for others, confronting or mitigating
multiple times that come together in the dependencies in order to favour person-
past, present, and future visible. In them al autonomy or emancipation, etc. This
there are different scenarios (domestic- variety reaches the methodologies and
family, productive, environmental, etc.) procedures through which information
and potentials, with those that appeal to is obtained and processed, quantitatively
citizens and their rights in liberty, equal- and qualitatively, in research design and
ity, justice, or peace standing out. Com- in their empirical expressions.
prehending time, learning in and of time,
requires reasons and emotions that episte- With less coordination than is desira-
mologically, methodologically, and moral- ble for a systematic, complete, and holis-
ly deny neither our humanity nor the tic study of time and times, they are as-
values that most and best represent it in pects that motivate areas of knowledge,
all of its diversity. Because talking about research groups and institutes, scientific
time is talking about ourselves and shared societies, etc., whose headquarters —
year 78, n. 277, September-December 2020, 395-413
life (Tabboni, 2006), with its blessings physical and virtual — are located all
and conflicts, between the public and the over the world: from the Research In-
private, the sacred and the profane, work stitute for Time Studies (RITS) to the
and leisure, social exclusion and inclusion, Grupo de Investigación Tiempo y Socie-
and so on, with everything they entail for dad (Time and Society Research Group),
the fullest exercise of the rights and duties which is affiliated to Spain’s Consejo
that underpin coexistence. Superior de Investigaciones Científicas
revista española de pedagogía
(CSIC - Higher Council for Scientific
Research), as well as the International
3. Time and times in social re- Association for Time Use Research (IA-
search TUR), the International Society for the
That chronological indications are in- Study of Time (ISST), the Deustsches
telligible and expressible for us (Savater, Institut fur Internationale Padagogische
1999) explains why social studies of and Forschung (DIIPF), or the World Leisure
about time —from the end of the 19th Organization (WLO). In the case of Eu-
century to the present day— have tak- rope, the work done by the EUROSTAT
en an interest in topics, processes, situ- observatory since 2008 through the Har-
ations, etc. that reflect the heterogene- monised European Time Use Surveys
ity of their priorities in aspects such as (HETUS), in which participants from
the conciliation of family life and gender 18 countries record their daily activities
equality, movement and transport, work- in 10-minute intervals stands out for its
ing schedules and hours, the regulation scope and comparative nature.
402 EVTo educate and educate ourselves in time, pedagogically and socially
By their own initiative or joining forces International Survey (TALIS). In the Eu-
with other bodies linked to public admin- ropean Union, the EURYDICE network
istrations, universities, publishers, etc., maintains a database of school calendars
these groups have for decades organised from Europe and periodically complies in-
academic conferences and meetings com- formation on teaching time (Egido, 2011,
plemented by the publication of their work p. 259).
in journals with a high relative quality in-
dex (JCR, WoS, Scopus, ESCI, etc.) such as This network and its reports are part
Times & Society, Journal of Leisure Re- of the Education and Youth Policy Analy-
search, Leisure Sciences, Leisure, Leisure sis Unit in the Education, Audiovisual and
Studies, Electronic International Journal Culture Executive Agency (EACEA), pro-
of Time Use Research, etc. In addition to viding sectoral, longitudinal, etc. studies
these, there are documentary resources of educational systems and policies in 38
— books, reports, doctoral theses, supple- countries, and since 1980, it has been rec-
ments, audiovisual materials, etc. — ded- ognised as one of the principal sources of
icated solely to content relating to time information about education in Europe.
and/or particular aspects of it. The annual series (by academic years)
since the early 1990s on the structure of
In this context, without overlooking teaching periods and the organisation of
year 78, n. 277, September-December 2020, 395-413
their interdependencies with other so- school periods, with data about their du-
cial times (family, work, leisure, etc.), the ration, start and end dates, holidays, and
presence of school and educational times the school days they comprise are espe-
— especially since the early 1980s — has cially noteworthy. Furthermore, it reports
increased significantly in social debates, on the state of the question in compulso-
educational research, and the media. ry education/training in 43 European ed-
Their presence has also increased in re- ucational systems. The works by Pereyra
revista española de pedagogía
ports compiled and/or spread by different (1992), Egido (2011), as well as the work
national and international organisations coordinated by Gabaldón and Obiol (2017)
in the European Union, the OECD, and are good examples of the interest in ex-
UNESCO, facilitating access to compar- ploiting and interpreting the documen-
ative analyses that were until recently tation on school periods that EURYDICE
non-existent or not viable. provides.
UNESCO includes teaching time in its In education, as in other social prac-
World Education Indicators Programme. tices, time is a flourishing “variable”,
The OECD also does this, contemplating whose proposals and initiatives move
this variable within the international edu- among the realities and utopias of ed-
cation indicators and analysing questions ucating and being educated (Gadamer,
relating to it both in the Programme for 2000). A time which is valuable because
International Student Evaluation (PISA) of everything it activates and provides for
reports and in the Teaching and Learning communal life. A “civilising instrument”
403 EVJosé Antonio CARIDE
(Compère, 2002, p. 11) of the first order and sequencing of activities, etc. are
when constructing our identifying fea- strongly expressed through temporal ex-
tures, educational institutions, and ed- pressions: early-years, primary, second-
ucation in general, whose stages, cycles, ary, lifelong, adult, academic year, school
levels, forms of teaching, organisation, day, etc. (Graph 1).
Graph 1. School, educational and social times.
year 78, n. 277, September-December 2020, 395-413
Source: Own elaboration.
revista española de pedagogía
With the complexity that charac- overloaded syllabuses, forgetting what has
terises it as a constituent, structural, and been learnt, uniformity in pace of learning,
structuring variable of the institutional repeating years or continuous progress,
culture of schools and their relationships etc. These often derive from mismatch-
with communities and with society, time is es between previously determined times,
the cause or origin of many of the prob- the objectives formulated, and the results
lems that hold back educational reforms, achieved. Meanwhile, for Hargreaves
the school environment, or the transition (1996), time is an enemy of freedom and
from education to active life. Unemploy- of teachers, preventing them from fulfill-
ment is also a time. ing their desires. It goes against their will,
makes innovation difficult, and confounds
According to Vázquez (1981), some of the implementation of changes. Joseph
the most significant setbacks affecting Leif went further with an argument that
education and pedagogy relate to time: thirty years later remains valid:
404 EVTo educate and educate ourselves in time, pedagogically and socially
the problem of time and of the rhythms instrument that regulates the social time
of school nowadays concerns all of the of the pupils and their family environ-
nation. Not just pupils, teachers, and pa- ments. (Gimeno, 2008, p. 92).
rents, but also, as a result of holidays and
time off, workers from all branches, inclu- Hence the importance of differentiat-
ding people in the hotel trade and employ- ing between the pedagogical or didactic
ers. (Leif, 1992, p. 31). structures of educational time (of and for
Furthermore, schooling in itself is in- education) and those that simply order or
sufficient: articulate different timing units (Gairín,
1993), both in the educational system
school as an institution fills or occupies and in other social contexts, not always
its own physical time (that of the school
with the best organisational, curriculum,
timetable), but its presence and impact
on the life of individuals goes beyond the educational-psychology, etc. criteria (Graph
boundaries of the physical time of timeta- 2). That this is all related does not mean it
bles and calendars, becoming a powerful is harmonised.
Graph 2. Contextualisation and articulation of educational, school and social times.
year 78, n. 277, September-December 2020, 395-413
revista española de pedagogía
Source: Own elaboration.
The decisions adopted in both micro- and of teaching weeks and days, the division of
macro-policy (relating to the duration and the educational system into levels, stages,
distribution of the school year, the typology and cycles, etc.) are essential for any inter-
405 EVJosé Antonio CARIDE
vention aimed at improving the quality of We are blind as to whether the right mo-
ment and the time invested for a pedagogical
education, the transition from education to
intervention are at reasonable intervals, …
employment, respect for human rights, and
most educational failure occurs because peda-
achieving the minimum levels of dignity gogical interventions do not occur at the right
inherent to personal and social well-being. time. (García Carrasco, 1984, p. LXXIII).
However obvious it might seem, we should
underline the fact that educational times go In fact, like then and at least in Spain,
far beyond schooling (Gimeno, 2008). it cannot be said that time is given posi-
tion in the curriculum (for example, in the
teaching and learning from applied or spe-
4. Rethinking times in and from cific didactics) that is in line with its im-
education: a pedagogical and so- portance as an essential milestone in evo-
cial task lutionary development in early childhood
Scientific, academic, and profession- and all through life (Piaget, 1978; Trepat
al concerns with educational times have & Comes, 1998).
tried to take this distinction into account,
although their achievements are far from Nonetheless, time in and of schools edu-
matching this premise and all that re- cates, even if it does so silently, by accepting
thinking education as a common good im- and imposing the temporal concepts that
year 78, n. 277, September-December 2020, 395-413
plies (UNESCO, 2015, p. 64), inspired by underpin economic interests and the organi-
the “recognition and validation of knowl- sational rationality of each era, merging into
edge and competencies acquired through the pedagogical order of instruction in its
multiple learning pathways … [as] part of social and cultural values (Escolano, 2000).
a lifelong learning framework.” In truth, School institutions and their teaching, de-
neither existing lines of research nor the spite overlooking teaching about time, have
results associated with them match up been and continue to be instruments for in-
revista española de pedagogía
with the advances in studies of time in stilling particular notions about time, at the
general and social times in particular. service of industrialisation and urbanisation
from the 19th century onwards:
Even so, it should not be inferred, as
a notion of time based on ‘precision of
Paciano Fermoso already noted (1993, p.
encounters’, ‘sequencing of activities’, ‘fo-
164), “that pedagogy has not taken an in-
recasting’, the ‘sense of progress’, and the
terest in the time variable, unless what is idea of time as ‘a value in itself’… [althou-
meant is that it has not been investigat- gh] its genesis occurred much earlier. It is
ed rigorously.” A remark that starts from linked to the very birth of the school as an
García Carrasco’s reflections from years institution in ancient Egypt or Sumeria.
earlier (1984) after considering how the (Viñao, 1994, p. 35).
technological perspective had been intro-
duced into educational theory and prac- Today we might be present at its disap-
tice, transforming the pedagogical varia- pearance as we have known it for over two
bles of time and space: hundred years.
406 EVTo educate and educate ourselves in time, pedagogically and socially
However, owing to the debates that its effects on academic performance in
cross the world, in contrast with other France, and the compilations on differ-
subjects-problems that concern educa- ent perspectives and realities of school
tional sciences and particularly pedago- times done by authors like Charles Fisher
gy, it could be said that we are still in an and David Berliner in the USA or Michel
early phase, with some exceptions con- Ben-Peretz and Rainer Bromme with
centrated on studying the effect of the data from various countries (Germany,
time variable in academic performance, Canada, China, USA, and Israel).
cognitive styles and the optimisation of
teaching-learning processes, school or- Other contributions have been added
ganisation and the performance of the to these since the 1990s that have shared
teaching profession, educational policies, their results with society through na-
and the public administrations’ man- tional and international academic con-
agement of school calendars and times, ferences and meetings (symposia, semi-
as well as the transitions between study nars, etc.), as well as in a growing body
times and complementary, extracurricu- of monographic publications in books and
lar, or out of school activities (recreation- journals; including in: Revue Française
al, leisure and free time, homework, etc.), de Pédagogie; Le Monde de l’Éducation;
or — more recently — in balancing family Loisir et Société/Society and Leisure; Ri-
year 78, n. 277, September-December 2020, 395-413
life with school activity. forma della Scuola; Cuadernos de Peda-
gogía; Arbor. Ciencia, Pensamiento y Cul-
Social media and political debates tura; Pedagogía Social. Revista Interu-
play a role in this interest, essential- niversitaria; Educació Social. Revista
ly on the basis of the preparation and d’intervenció socioeducativa; Educar em
publication of the report Prisoners of Revista, etc. Hundreds of collaborations
time, by a commission formed especial- have found a place in these publications,
revista española de pedagogía
ly by the United States Department of as well as in other periodicals, works in
Education (National Commission on which the increasing academic and so-
Time and Learning, 1994). This line of cial relevance of the “invention of school
work, which, as Pereyra (1992) has sum- time” (Escolano, 2008, p. 33) has made
marised and analysed in detail, featured apparent.
among other antecedents the works on
school time done — under the direction In Spain, as well as the interest the
of Wolfang Mitter — by the Deutsches topic has inspired in the boards of vari-
Institut für International Pädagogis- ous publishing houses and in some of the
che Forschung in Frankfurt, and by the most recognised journals, since the final
National Association of Head Teachers, decades of the 20th century, there have
in the United Kingdom, led by Brian been a large number of works linked to
Knight, research by Francois Testu and research projects or contracts funded by
others on the chronopsychological per- competitive calls or through cooperation
spective of the organisation of time and agreements with public administrations,
407 EVJosé Antonio CARIDE
as well as doctoral theses and final degree 5. Conclusion: there is no future
and master’s projects. Looking at the without a present to build it
teaching day — and not what happens Education is a journey through time,
outside it — the principal contributions towards the interior of each person and
revolve around its format (continuous vs the world. It is so in school times and
split), free time and leisure education, in times that precede and/or prolong its
and the convergence between school teaching-learning processes in other in-
and family life, etc. Both in the context stitutional and social settings: families,
of Spain and in nearby countries, many media, civic and cultural facilities, work-
studies and publications have emphasised places, or the technological resources
some of the concerns that have motivated that underpin online training.
educational and social agents (mothers
and fathers, teachers, students, teaching As has been noted with some frequen-
unions, pedagogical reform movements, cy, alluding to elements of a physical-
etc.), calling for new times for school and biological, psycho-social, socio-political,
the rhythms that shape its calendars and or strictly pedagogical nature, time is a
timetables. key part of socialisation processes, plan-
ning and reform of educational systems,
A list showing them with their authors and innovation and quality in education:
year 78, n. 277, September-December 2020, 395-413
and source documents, doing justice to the it is a central point in the functioning of
volume and value of their contributions, any educational establishment, in fami-
would require hundreds of pages. We will ly life, and in the life of society (Husti,
not do this, but will insist that education, 1992). As a subject-problem that affects
as a social practice with broad civic hori- almost all forms of teaching, learning,
zons, needs time to establish itself as a hu- and, in general, any formative or educa-
man right that is also responsible for rais- tional practice, “it comes with the ter-
revista española de pedagogía
ing awareness of all that the full exercise ritory in which we move” (Hargreaves,
of human rights implies, about citizenship, 2003, p. 109). Education, we could say
about well-being and quality of life with using the words of Eduardo Galeano
the values that invoke liberty, justice, or (2004), is woven with the threads of time.
equality. There are many works that insist
on this from very different fields: gender Time educates and we are educated in
conciliation and equality (Cardús et al., it, and so it is necessary to rethink —ped-
2003; Prieto, 2007; Caride, 2018), personal agogically and socially— its meanings in
self-esteem and social interactions (Han, a society that is symbolically and materi-
2014; Safranski, 2017), or the construc- ally open 24 hours a day. It does this in
tion of a more relational, inclusive, and a globalised society with the complexity
cohesive society (Bauman, 2007; Mück- intrinsic to processes of social, cultural,
enberger, 2007; Cuenca & Aguilar, 2009; technological, economic, etc. change and
Concheiro, 2016; Muntadas, 2016; Rosa, transformation that place us before the
2016; Wajcman, 2017). challenge of imagining and activating an
408 EVTo educate and educate ourselves in time, pedagogically and socially
education that does not have spatial or (UNESCO, 2015), the only mentions of
temporal limits. But one that also makes time relate to its circular, non-linear con-
it necessary to expand the horizons of ception, in many rural societies, and it is
education as a right that serves people in only mentioned when the report postu-
a planet with almost eight billion inhab- lates how expanding access to knowledge
itants. This is stated in the Sustainable requires moving towards new networks
Development Goals and in their frame- in which
work for action, in an attempt to guar-
changes in the spaces, times and rela-
antee quality inclusive and equitable
tions in which learning takes place favour
education with lifelong learning oppor-
a network of learning spaces where non-
tunities for all. Sadly, with goals, strate- formal and informal spaces of learning
gic focuses, means of application, and in- will interact with and complement formal
dicators where time —unlike space and educational institutions. (UNESCO, 2015,
communication— remains absent. p. 48).
Consequently, it is striking how in Finally, in the Incheon Declaration
the most important reports and/or state- and its Action Framework for the imple-
ments sponsored by UNESCO from the mentation of the Sustainable Development
1970s to the present day, time is not Objective 4, Education 2030, approved
year 78, n. 277, September-December 2020, 395-413
mentioned or is mentioned only in pass- at the World Education Forum in this
ing. In the report coordinated by Edgar South-Korean city, the only reference to
Faure (1973), the only references to time is in the implementation methods
(school) time are associated with individ- for its strategies and initiatives (no. 73),
ualised teaching and its requirements for stating that
a break with the uniform rhythms of the
there is strong evidence that teachers
dominant time distribution in schools. In
are open to change, and keen to learn and
revista española de pedagogía
the report led by Jacques Delors (1996, p.
develop throughout their careers. At the
14), time is only named when linked with same time, they need the time and space
“the concept of lifelong learning with its to take more initiative to work with collea-
advantages of flexibility, diversity, and gues and school leaders and to take advan-
accessibility in time and space” and the tage of opportunities for professional deve-
recommendation to “debate and study lopment. (UNESCO, 2016, p. 54).
in-depth the proposal for a time-credit
for education which is succinctly formu- A minor contribution when, as the ti-
lated in the report” (Ibid., p. 38); which, tle of the document states, the aim is to
according to the report, should result in “ensure inclusive and equitable quality
the right to a certain number of years of education and promote lifelong learning
teaching. opportunities for all.”
In the report that suggests reformu- If this is the aim, everything indicates
lating education as a global public good that educational and social times can no
409 EVJosé Antonio CARIDE
Cardús, S., Pérez i Sánchez, C., & Morral i Gime-
longer be conceptualised and/or articulat-
no, S. (2003). Propostes d’intervenció per a la
ed by following the monochronic and uni- conciliació d’horaris familiars, escolars i la-
form conventional principles, that have borals. Barcelona: Generalitat de Catalunya.
supported them until the present day. Caride, J. A. (2012). Lo que el tiempo educa: el ocio
Information and communication technol- como construcción pedagógica y social. Arbor.
ogy make it possible to bring education to Ciencia, pensamiento y Cultura, 188 (754),
301-313. doi: 10.3989/arbor.2012.754n2004
more people than conventional classrooms
Caride, J. A. (2018). Lo que el tiempo esconde,
ever managed: especially when it offers o cuando lo social necesita de la Pedagogía.
the possibility to transcend the barriers Pedagogía Social. Revista Interuniversita-
of time, simultaneously or on a delayed ria, 32, 17-29. doi: https://doi.org/10.7179/
basis, reaching any corner of the world. PSRI_2018.32.02
Education, which is always a project and a Caride, J. A., & Gradaílle, R. (2019). Social time,
gender and education. In V. Pérez de Guz-
journey towards a better future, must an-
mán, E. Bas, & M. Machado (Orgs.), Gender
ticipate and not subordinate itself. It must issues in Latin America and Spain: multi-
critically and reflexively predict its cir- disciplinary perspectives (pp. 15-38). Nueva
cumstances, and not just do this in a meek York: Peter Lang.
and adaptative way. Doing so requires a Castells, M. (1997). La era de la información:
change of course in how its times are con- economía, sociedad y cultura, vol. I. Madrid:
ceived and implemented, in schools and Alianza.
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412 EVYou can also read
