Una genealogía femenina del conocimiento medieval a través de la traducción: una nueva propuesta ejemplificada por la transmisión de los ...
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Una genealogía femenina del conocimiento
medieval a través de la traducción: una
nueva propuesta ejemplificada por la
transmisión de los manuscritos de Trotula 1
Elena Castellano Ortolá *
Resumen: Partiendo de la praxis traductológica médi- ical approaches to the study of the discursive portrayal
ca en la Inglaterra tardomedieval, el presente artículo of female subjects in late medieval gynaecology trea-
discute las premisas en que debe asentarse una histo- tises in translation. Crucially, the prevailing academic
ria de la traducción atenta a los constructos de género. discourses surrounding this portrayal are problematised
Conocimiento esencial para la perpetuación humana, as failing to sufficiently acknowledge the male-centred
la ginecología ha mantenido, no obstante, una relación structures that continue to dominate in contemporary
compleja con el avance del conocimiento médico, es- epistemology. For illustration purposes, the currently
pecialmente por la privacidad y el pudor exigidos en el available Late Middle English versions of the so-called
tratamiento del cuerpo femenino. Dada la importancia Trotula ensemble (Green, 1997), as well academic stud-
histórica de la traducción para la transmisión de dicho ies of these manuscripts, will be used as a case study.
conocimiento, en las siguientes páginas se examinan
posibles cauces metodológicos para estudiar la repre- Key words: archaeology of knowledge, feminism, gy-
sentación discursiva de la feminidad en la traducción naecological treatises, medieval mediators, translation
de tratados medievales. Esto implica necesariamente history.
una crítica del discurso académico contemporáneo en
este campo, quizás no lo suficientemente consciente del Panace@ 2021; xxii (53): 47-57
androcentrismo que aún domina en la epistemología Recibido: 31.i.2021. Aceptado: 10.v.2021.
actual. Con fines ilustrativos, se emplearán constantes
referencias a las traducciones conservadas actualmente
de los llamados Trotula al inglés tardomedieval (Green,
1997), así como de los discursos académicos relaciona- 1. Introduction
dos con su estudio.
As I draft this paper, I in no way intend to conceal the fact
Palabras clave: arqueología del conocimiento, feminis- that I am not a specialist in Middle English. However, I certainly
mo, historia de la traducción, mediadores medievales, am a translation scholar doing my best to act in a gender-con-
tratados de ginecología. scious manner and attempting to reflect on my stance as I enact
it, as difficult as that may be on some occasions.
A Woman-Centred Genealogy of Medieval Knowl- Some time ago, I began to take an interest in translation his-
edge through Translation: A Novel Proposal Exempli- tory, joining a complex and largely inconclusive debate on sev-
fied by the Transmission of the Trotula Manuscripts eral crucial issues: when did the history of translation originate?
Should we instead focus on the role of translation in history?
Abstract: Exploring the transmission of gynaecological How long have we been discussing a historical periodisation of
treatises in late medieval England, this paper aims to re- translation, sometimes under other, apparently distinct con-
flect on the premises underpinning a gender-informed, ceptualisations? (see Bastin & Bandia, 2006: 1). Unlike most
discourse-driven history of translation. Gynaecology scholars engaged in this task, however, the allegedly new field
provides essential knowledge for the perpetuation of of Translation Studies did not catch my attention in and of it-
humankind yet has traditionally had a complex relation- self; rather, it was a necessary step in my quest for something
ship with the advancement of medical knowledge due to substantially more elusive: the multiple political, social, eco-
considerations of female pudicity and privacy. Given the nomic, and intimate identities of the translator. It appeared to
importance of translation in the transmission of medical me that gender, a primary source of identity, intersected with
knowledge, this article surveys potential methodolog- the aforementioned categories and was therefore inevitably
sensitive to contextual and historical shifts, just like the concept
* Universidad de Valencia (España). Dirección para correspondencia: Elena.Castellano@uv.es.
Panace@ | vol. XXII, n.º 53. Primer semestre, 2021 47Tribuna
of translation itself, as descriptivists in our field have sought to 2. Theoretical and methodological background
demonstrate. In fact, the commonalities between the tradition-
al dichotomies of translation/original and feminine/masculine The theoretical and methodological basis for my work on
have been extensively discussed from a historical, or at least a a gender-focused translation history is rather atypical in its
historically-intended, perspective (see, for instance, Chamber- selection and composition. As hinted at in the introduction,
lain’s seminal work, 1988). this is not due to a lack of previous attempts at building a his-
In short, as soon as we accept that gender, just like trans- tory of translation from a gender perspective. Indeed, scholars
lation, is an epistemological and social construct, history, and from multiple disciplines have produced contributions that
more precisely translation history, must be studied in order to would enrich the field of Feminist Translation History and its
explain its evolution. Since intellectual progress requires so- many potential sub-fields. In my view, a comprehensive sum-
cialisation, translation, broadly understood as dialogue in dif- mary of such contributions to date should focus on three di-
ference, is essential to the study of the epistemological history mensions in particular: epistemology; feminist linguistics and
of humankind. Women have seldom been present(ed) in his- feminist critical discourse analysis (Lazar, 2005); and Transla-
torical discourse. At best, they have been displaced/misplaced tion Studies (Toury, 2012). Providing essential knowledge for
from their rightful positions. Nevertheless, I do not consider it the perpetuation of humankind yet shaped by considerations
futile to address such discourses critically, nor do I believe we of female pudicity and privacy, gynaecology has traditionally
can content ourselves with the fact that increasing numbers of had a complex relationship with the advancement of medical
women have recently been acknowledged or noticed by patriar- knowledge, a task that is hugely indebted to translation. In the
chal thought. On the contrary: at the present time, I very much following sub-sections, the intersections between the three di-
doubt that our focus should remain on making feminine ar- mensions identified and the transmission of medieval gynae-
chaeological discoveries (in Foucauldian terms) as in previous cological knowledge are discussed. A subsequent analysis of
decades. At this point, we are well aware that many past wom- potential points of interest in this regard will follow the same
en’s thoughts, words, and actions can be rescued from oblivion threefold approach.
with hard work and patience. What is truly difficult to change in
terms of women’s history and knowledge is the highly powerful 2.1. Epistemology
discursive tissue interweaving facts in intentionally misleading From an interlinguistic, intralinguistic, and intersemiotic
ways (genealogy), as well as the moral conclusions extracted perspective (Jakobson, 1959), translation has always been an
from such discourse practices (ethics). excellent medium for the transmission and mediation of knowl-
Drawing on Foucault’s three phases in the organisation of edge between social groups and cultures, and has been con-
human knowledge, namely archaeology, genealogy, and ethics sistently used by patriarchal institutions for political gain and
(1969), I would like to present some relevant methodological the exertion of authority (for an overview, see Simon 1996 and
and analytical reflections on translation history in the specific Flotow 2016, among others). Preserving the exclusive use of
context of medical translation into English in the Late Middle translation as a means of power throughout history has nev-
Ages. Given the ambitious nature of this task, I will narrow my ertheless required the deployment of a vehement discourse on
scope to the transmission of medical treatises relating to wom- fidelity by the patriarchy (see again Chamberlain, 1988); this
en in English society during the period in question and to one is treacherously exemplified by Bible translations (Tymoczko,
example in particular: the Trotula manuscripts, five Middle 2009; 2014), probably the most powerful and therefore the least
English versions of which have survived: Oxford ms Douce faithful translation projects ever completed, with subjugated
37; Oxford ms Bodley 483; Cambridge University Library ms groups denied access to this potential source of empowerment.
Ii. 6. 33; British Library ms Sloane 421A; and British Library This is the same discourse that has articulated history as we
ms Additional 12195 (Barratt, 2001: 1). know it and misleadingly preceptive uses of language, both of
One may argue that there is little left to say about Trota of which are responsible for women’s subjugation 2. In 1969, Fou-
Salerno (c. 12th century) and her alleged contributions to gy- cault proposed a revolutionary approach to historical episte-
naecology and obstetrics. However, her exact dates of birth and mology: an agent-sensitive reconstruction of history, which is
death, the total number of works she influenced, and the extent perfectly compatible with his later deconstruction of textual
of her contribution to her alleged treatises remain unknown. authority and linguistic univocality. His method is composed
Admittedly, a considerable number of papers and books have of three phases: archaeology, genealogy, and ethics.
been written about her, especially by Monica Green (1997; As I aim to argue in the next section, archaeology is a pre-
2000a; 2000b; 2002; 2008a; 2008b, etc.). However, like the cop- liminary step in any research seeking to reconstruct lost identi-
ies and translations of the treatises attributed to her, these works ties and social contexts. It refers to the (as) neutral (as possible)
seem to reveal more about the mediators (translators, doctors, process of gathering information stemming from the object
chroniclers, historians, and scholars) and their prejudices than of study, as well as compiling supplementary data accounting
about Trota herself or her valuable contribution to human for its features. It is my opinion that most scholars, including
knowledge. As it is my intention to prove throughout this paper, feminist ones, have seldom gone further than this in their oth-
this is precisely the reason why such well-known case studies erwise praiseworthy pursuit of a more democratic history of
should be chosen for illustrative purposes. knowledge. Sometimes, there is little to be obtained from the
Panace@ | vol. XXII, n.º 53. Primer semestre, 2021 48Tribuna
sources currently at our disposal for reconstructing erased fe- methodology (2001). In Walsh’s contribution, a context-specif-
male identities, so the main goal of this phase should perhaps be ic interpretation of textual products by an empowered, overt-
to expose an intentionally oblivious, treacherous historical dis- ly ideological reader constitutes the so-called macro-level of
course on female achievement 3. Only once that has been done fcda, while the micro-textual dimension encompasses both
can we undertake the more complicated task of joining the dots the interpersonal and the ideational metafunctions, which I
and re-establishing lost connections, most of them private, be- believe to be very useful for the sort of practices that allow
tween women with a view to building a more realistic and fairer women’s knowledge to be structured. While the interpersonal
genealogy of knowledge free from an omnipresent gender bias. metafunction focuses on both the identities present in the text
The very final phase in this process is the consolidation of an and the relationships established between them, the ideational
ethical code taking women’s plurality, transnationality, and sol- metafunction comprises the ideas, knowledge and beliefs con-
idarity into consideration, with notable attempts made by fem- tained in textual products, as well as their evaluation by both
inist scholars like Olga Castro and Emek Ergun (see Castro and producer(s) and reader(s).
Ergun, 2017), or Luise von Flotow (see Flotow, 2016).
2.3. (Feminist) Translation studies and their
2.2. Feminist linguistics and feminist relationship with translation history
critical discourse analysis From a chiefly historical perspective, several incursions have
Between the late 1970s and the 1990s, classic feminist transla- been made into translation (Gillman, 2017), knowledge (Fou-
tion studies underscored women’s discrimination through lan- cault, 1969) and gender politics (Scott, 1999), illustrating the
guage as a major source for challenging gender inequalities multidisciplinary approach to translation advocated by some
(for an overview, see Andone, 2002; Castro, 2012). As far as I translation scholars, as well as, in the particular case of transla-
am concerned, this is a compulsory starting point for feminist tion history, the need to find a balance between the historian’s
translatologists: although not dealing explicitly with transla- methodological principles and the research interests character-
tion, the wide variety of feminist positions, identities and pro- ising Translation Studies (see Rundle, 2012: 232).
posals converging in the linguistic arena (Cameron, 1995: 1), In the 1990s, a branch of Canadian Translation Studies led
severely conditioned by cultural, political, and ethnic factors by Jean Delisle made the first attempts to periodise transla-
as well as personal experiences, requires the establishment of tion, coinciding approximately with the institutionalisation of
a transnational dialogue with a multilateral reception of dif- the discipline. More specifically, alongside Judith Woodsworth,
ferent perspectives. This is the main point of departure for Delisle edited Translators through History in 1995. Initially a
the brand-new Transnational Feminist Translation Studies (see francophone initiative, this new historiographical genre was
Castro and Ergun, 2017, or Castro, Ergun, Flotow, and Spottur- soon emulated by English-speaking Canadian scholars such as
no, 2020). Agnes Whitfield, who edited Writing between the Lines: Por-
The classic positioning of mainstream linguistic feminism traits of Canadian Anglophone Translators (2006), and femi-
between the 1970s and 80s evolved from an original under- nist scholar Sherry Simon, who compiled the more intimate,
standing of linguistic relations as gender-differentiated (Lakoff, almost biographic In Translation: Honouring Sheila Fischman
1975) to one of male dominance (see Spender, 1985), where con- (2013). Indeed, Simon’s interest in female translators’ biogra-
siderable emphasis was placed on the etymological and met- phies may also be observed in her well-known book Gender in
aphorical aspects of women’s subjugation through semantics. Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission
For instance, Schulz’s work (1995) offers an overview of the “se- (1996: 39-82), which explains several female translators’ work
mantic derogation” suffered by originally-neutral, women-ap- throughout history in terms of its links to their political, pro-
plied nouns and adjectives. Daly (1978), on her part, goes as far fessional and emotional milieu. This trend was soon mediated
as to embrace such degrading terminology as a liberating act for by the same gender perspective that was crucial to the con-
women. Especially relevant to this paper are studies focusing on solidation of Translation Studies (Karpinski, 2015: 23) taking
the naming practices and metaphorical strategies applied to the place in Canada at that time. Thus, Delisle and Woodsworth’s
female body and its processes (see Martin, 2020; Swann, 2014; general positioning on history and translation gradually gave
Keller, 2006), a number of which draw on ancient and modern way to gendered perspectives in works such as Portraits de tra-
medical literature to survey context-specific, lexicon-embodied ducteurs (Delisle, 1999) and Portraits de traductrices (Delisle,
beliefs regarding female inferiority. 2002). Albeit less ambitious, Delisle’s earlier article “Traduc-
Finally, another key contribution of feminist linguistics lies teurs médiévaux, traductrices féministes: une même éthique de
in textuality, and particularly in critical discourse analysis (gen- la traduction?” (1993) is of particular interest to this paper given
erally known as cda, see Fairclough 2013 for an overview). its pioneering role in comparing empowered medieval transla-
Feminist approaches to this field (fcda; Lazar, 2005) aim tion strategies and feminist ones. Five common traits between
to underscore the surprisingly neglected importance of gen- both sets of principles were identified:
der as a crucial dimension of social identity, without which
the context-sensitive textual analysis encouraged by classical 1. The appropriation of the source text
cda remains incomplete. Here I follow Clare Walsh’s fcda 2. The search for legitimation through translation
Panace@ | vol. XXII, n.º 53. Primer semestre, 2021 49Tribuna
3. Explanatory, didactic prefaces of anecdotalism aimed at feminist translation, with the struggle
4. Linguistic interventionism to establish periodisations based primarily on case studies and
5. The translator’s visibility impressionist accounts of translation experiences (Robinson,
1999). It also accounts for the limited choice of periods in the
In medieval times, both the physical production of manu- historicisation of feminist translation practice. Inexplicably, our
script copies and the mediation and reception of the original discipline has thus far disregarded the Late Middle Ages as a pe-
contents were dependent upon the hegemonic institution of riod of interest, despite it witnessing the invention of printing,
the Church, and given the lack of opposition from a vastly illit- the consolidation of European vernaculars, and the emergence
erate population, knowledge filtering was monopolised by pa- of nationalisms, which were fundamental to individual identi-
triarchal/religious interests. Although Delisle does not discuss ties and transnational exchanges.
the dubious ethical stances held by most medieval translators,
endangering the legitimacy of similar ideological strategies, his
survey of the principles underpinning an empowered transla- 3. Key questions informing the historical
tion practice seem to point to a grey area between translation (re-)construction of women’s knowledge:
and editing practices, transediting (see Schäffner, 2012), and preliminary proposals for analysis based
clearly reinforce the need for a gender-orientated history of on the transmission and translation
translation to revisit our common assumptions about medieval of the Trotula ensemble
women, medieval texts, and, of course, medieval knowledge
transmission. If we consider the contingency, historicity, and multiplicity
As this overview has shown, Canadian translatologists act- of gender more deeply, there is a clear need to revisit textual
ed as pioneers of feminist translation and were precocious in conventions through a translational lens. Translation has been
developing translation history, persisting in their inquiry with defined by feminists as a fruitful trope for the type of critical,
frequent updates such as Bastin and Bandia’s 2006 Charting intertextual discourse that brings consolidated voices and tradi-
the Future of Translation History, which played a crucial role tions under debate (Godard, 1989: 42). As an illustrative meta-
in consolidating this area of study as a potential discipline. phor of feminist discourse, translation may create a revolution-
However, Anthony Pym’s 2014 work Method in Translation ary space for “new insights and subjects in process” (Godard,
History may be viewed as equally essential to this consolida- op. cit. 1989: 42), two key elements of this paper. Knowledge and
tion. An expert in medieval translation who has consistently (female) subjects, continuously reinventing themselves, may
refuted the existence of the so-called School of Toledo, one of converge through language and textuality with several aspects
the main translation myths of medieval times, Pym draws again relevant to my research: education and professional training in
on Foucault’s archaeology (1969) to meticulously dissect previ- the Middle Ages, as well as medieval notions of corporal iden-
ous contributions by Delisle, as well the foundational works of tity, maternity, and health. For the sake of clarity, I will narrow
Descriptive Translation Studies (for instance, Toury, 2012) on down these very complex topics to the following two questions
the basis of their methodological limitations. Pym also lays the and their related aspects:
groundwork for the concept of translation regime, a notion tak-
en from Political Studies (Ruggie, 1975) which transcends rigid 1. The role of women in medieval times as voices of author-
systemic notions to reflect the fluidity of translational relations. ity: female authors, translators, and editors. A fair recov-
I would contend that Feminist Translation Studies (Castro ery of these voices, as well as a proper dose of self-critique
and Ergun, 2017), a recently-coined term referring to contribu- regarding existing attempts, requires comprehensive im-
tions that accord the intersection between feminism and trans- plementation of the frequently praised (but seldom ap-
lation its rightful place in Translatology, has functioned as a plied) Foucauldian method in order to strive for a legiti-
critical branch of Translation History, albeit implicitly. Indeed, mising translation history.
as Rundle argues, much of the progress made from broader 2. Communication, gender, and sanitary professionals in
perspectives on Translation Studies may equally be understood late medieval England. There are serious limitations to
as a series of attempts to historicise translation (2012) and legit- an accurate, gender-centred discursive analysis of medi-
imise it as a science, as James Holmes, the founder of Descrip- eval textuality given the impossibility of fully recovering
tive Translation Studies, put it in a seminal article (see Holmes, the linguistic habits, customs, and social constructs pre-
1975). I would even go as far as to state that, since the need to vailing in past times, which are blurred to this day by the
justify the term ‘science’ lies in the apparent lack of historical dominant, patriarchal discourses on history and knowl-
discourse on this practice, some scholars systematically mistake edge (see, for instance, Gruwell, 2015; Ahl, 2004). Besides
Translation History for Translation Studies. Others, as is unfor- this, the fact that late-medieval originals were usually
tunately the case of some feminist translatologists, believe that drafted/copied/compiled in Latin, often by multiple au-
they can re-write textual tradition through vague applications thors/editors, makes textual identities even more elusive
of Foucault’s archaeology, devoid of methodology and clear due to a certain stiffness of language, used as a private
objectives beyond the mere circulation of anti-canonic authors code for the clergy. However, I consider it pertinent to
and texts. This certainly serves to explain the frequent critique apply the aforementioned fcda metafunctions to struc-
Panace@ | vol. XXII, n.º 53. Primer semestre, 2021 50Tribuna
ture a coherent study of voices, identities, and insights names, but their work, as in most professions, remained in
into gynaecological treatises. visible.
Much of what we believe to know about ancient texts is
In the following section, the methodological framework pre- based on the intuitions of the first (mostly male) editors and
sented above will be interwoven with these three dimensions commentators in early modern times (see Long, 2010: 63), who
of the selected textual typologies, exemplified by five Middle engaged in the onerous task of organising medieval knowledge,
English translations of the Trotula ensemble and their contem- which was often the only source available for recovering Gre-
porary analysis. However, as I have stated from the outset, the co-Roman epistemologies. In this regard, González-Gutiérrez
goal of this paper is not to provide an exhaustive analysis of (2018) identifies two distinct sources of gender prejudice in her
the manuscripts but rather to underscore the potential of my analysis of the androcentric bias of the Trotula commentators,
methodological proposal in developing an effective, gender-in- which, surprisingly, remain active even in recent works. The
formed history of translation. first is the “fallacy of exception” (2018: 58), implying that the
archaeological obsession with seeking out the very first wom-
an to operate in male-dominated fields has actually prevented
4. Preliminary steps toward a feminist textual researchers from documenting the existence of female geneal-
archaeology of the Trotula ensemble ogies of knowledge in ancient times. There must have been a
considerable number of women professionals devoted to pres-
4.1. The role of women in medieval times as voices tigious activities in the Late Middle Ages, who, nevertheless, op-
of authority: female authors, translators, editors erated on the margins of their fields. In the case of female med-
Gathering evidence on women’s intellectual and profession- ical practitioners, they even acquired a degree of vertebration,
al practices has been identified by several feminist translator as epistemological networks like the one Trota de Ruggiero be-
scholars as an important exercise in their revision of Foucault’s longed to suggest. Her community of praxis was often referred
method of the archaeology of knowledge (Godayol, 2011; Vidal to as the mulieres salernitane, based at the prestigious Medical
Claramonte, 1998). It involves challenging the belief that wom- School of Salerno, and despite Green’s assertion that theirs was
en have failed to achieve cultural prominence in their societies a merely practical, nursing-profile skill (1997: 58), there is rea-
because they have traditionally been expected to stay away from son to believe they were reasonably prepared practitioners, oc-
knowledge and books. Indeed, much of the damage to Trota’s casionally encountering challenging medical cases.
legacy was unconsciously inflicted by the very same works at- The second source of androcentric bias mentioned by Gon
tempting to unveil it, conditioned by the still-prevailing, con- zález-Gutiérrez is the “Matilda Complex” (2018: 60, a term
descending tone of all scientific discourse aimed at constructing coined by Rossiter 1993), which mirrors the male-centred “Mat-
so-called feminist epistemologies (for the original concept, see thew Effect” (Merton 1968). While the latter has been defined
Alcoff and Potter, 1993). as the tendency to attribute relevant scientific contributions to
During the Late Middle Ages and the early Renaissance, each generation’s most celebrated scientists, the former refers
misleading acts of tolerance toward affluent women’s intellec- not only to this same perception of female-authored advance-
tuality were exerted precisely through translation. At the time, ments (the obsession with the “first woman” in every discipline
the slow but steady consolidation of vernacular languages and causes others to be overlooked), but also to the attribution of
the emergence of the first national identities encouraged trans- women’s work to men in their entourage. In Trota of Salerno’s
lational activity. However, given a predominant, Bible-inspired case, absurd as it may seem, it was common for commentators
fidelity to the source text as the basis for interlinguistic equiva- to deny her historical existence until quite recently. The win-
lence (Tymoczko, 2009: 34) and the preference for pious works ning strategy used by patriarchal historiographers has been
as a harmless source of personal growth, women’s translational to constantly question the authorship of her treatises on the
activity was intended to reinforce the gender constructs prevail- grounds that, in a profoundly misogynistic society like hers,
ing at the time (Simon, 1996: 47). women’s access to knowledge and its transmission was diffi-
Editing was a slightly different practice. Like translation, it cult. Surprisingly, the evidence for certain statements provided
was a theoretically reproductive activity initially conceived by scholars today is often not much more solid. For instance,
of as devoid of corruption until crucial differences between in what she calls a “search for the ‘authentic’ Women’s medi-
the two activities were identified. Unlike women’s translating, cine” (2008a), Green presents a reasonable hypothesis on the
which was mostly a hobby, editing was a financially beneficial potentially distinct authorship observed in the three manu-
operation requiring means of production, a respectable, and scripts composing the Trotula ensemble, namely Conditions
therefore visible name, and a solid reputation (see Hurley and of Women (Liber de Sinthomatibus Mulierum); Treatments for
Goodblatt, 2014: xi). It also conferred a certain power over the Women (De Curis Mulierum); and Women’s Cosmetics (De Or-
author, which was obviously missing in women’s translation natu Mulierum). However, a radical statement follows without
practice. This triggered second thoughts among the patriarchal further clarification: according to the scholar, only De curis
elites about tolerating women-run printing houses and pe mulieribus can be considered Trota’s work, although she is ex-
riodicals (see Convoy, 2004: 118). Women continued to work tremely cautious in her affirmation: “According to my analy-
under their fathers’, husbands’, brothers’, or sons’ publishing ses, one of the three Trotula texts (pace Benton) does [original
Panace@ | vol. XXII, n.º 53. Primer semestre, 2021 51Tribuna
italics] derive from the work of the historic Trota” (1999: 50, in a rather sparse, a necdotal introduction to the status of female
González-Gutiérrez, 2018: 62). practitioners in late medieval France is provided, which leaves
Like other female names captured by textual history, such as patriarchal claims against them mostly undisputed. Thus, the
those of Hildegard von Bingen (1098-1179) and Perreta Peronne “evidence” of female surgeon Perretta Petone’s illiteracy and
(dates unknown) 4, Trota’s creative identity and direct author- medical ignorance, for which she stood trial against the Parisian
ship were deliberately condemned to oblivion. It is believed corporation of surgeons, is simply accepted without challenge.
that the original material composing what is known as the Tro- Secondly, given the consideration of infertility and reproduc-
tula ensemble was produced by the end of the 12th century and tion as “women’s subjects” (see Green, 2008) of dubious scien-
compiled around the beginning of the 13th century. According tific importance, the implications of the king’s personal interest
to Green (1998), the first ensemble was composed of three dif- in this book should have been further explored. Although his
ferent works of apparently separate origin. The main work, offspring were a state matter, serious doubts arise as to whether
also known as Trotula Maior, was Conditions of Women (De the translation of this treatise was for personal consumption.
Pasionibus mulierum curandorum), while the other two, Treat- Given that the king of France was surely capable of reading
ments for Women (De Curis Mulierum), and Women’s Cosmetics the original in Latin, the translation of the Trotula ensemble
(De Ornato Mulierum), are usually referred to as Trotula Minor. could have been requested for his wife, to whom reproductive
While the other two manuscripts were considered anonymous, difficulties may have been attributed to avoid casting doubt on
relying on ancient sources from well-known male physicians royal masculinity.
and consolidated medical traditions from ancient times, only In conclusion, as several studies across different histori-
Treatments for Women was presented by earlier mediators as cal periods demonstrate (see Wei, 2010; Dagbovie, 2004; and
Trota’s work. It is believed to have stemmed from Practica se- Maidment, 1990), “neutral” academic discourse and method-
cundum Trotam, which Benton (1985) identified as a third-per- ology have been systematically defined and controlled by the
son account by someone in Trota’s entourage. The author of this patriarchy, due in particular to the major role played by male
Practica is generally assumed to be a male physician (Green, editors and translators in crucial periods of language formation
1998), although none of the evidence presented in the available and knowledge consolidation such as the one addressed here.
sources backs this assumption. Besides the inevitable limitations put in place by patriarchal
What remains clear is that both medieval editors and trans- transmission channels, which appear to grant many the perfect
lators held considerable responsibility for the huge task of an- excuse for inaction, a fundamental step toward the revision
onymising female authorship in the dominant discourse. In- of textual archaeology, genealogy, and ethics where women
deed, they were the main articulators of this discourse through are concerned requires a parallel reconsideration of scholar-
their prefaces, footnotes, and sets of glosses, where much of ly principles and research standards, as I have argued in this
the linguistic evolution perpetuating gender inequality took subsection.
place. Treatments for Women explicitly presents Trota of Saler-
no as the source of the knowledge gathered by this unknown 4.2. Communication, gender, and sanitary
hand. It even makes reference to Trota’s expertise by deeming professionals in late medieval England
her “quasi magistra” and praising her ability to solve cases for This section presents some potential lines of inquiry for the
which her male peers had found no remedy (Green, 2008b: 58). application of a more contemporary, gender-focused method,
However, an effective process of derogation operating on fe- enabling the study of medieval textuality from a more enriching
male intellectual identities, deliberately mixing truth with leg- perspective: fcda (see subsection 2.2.). Given the difficulties
end, was launched by medieval and modern mediators, and experienced by discourse analysis experts in drawing solid con-
closely followed by contemporary scholars, whose archaeo- clusions on contemporary textual matter, the problems are all
logical, genealogical, and therefore ethical considerations have the more severe when reconstructing the distant communica-
been contaminated by patriarchal notions of (authorial) iden- tive context of the medieval treatises, when writing, editing,
tity, disguised, nevertheless, as methodological neutrality. One and translating were a privilege of patriarchal institutions and
example thereof can be found in Making Women’s Medicine texts were subjected to constant reworking, granting little or no
Masculine: The Rise of Male Authority in Pre-Modern Gynae- credit to previous sources. Further complexities lie in the fact
cology (Green, 2008b), which pursues the most respectable goal that, at least in Trota of Salerno’s times, culture was still exclu-
of establishing lost genealogical connections between female sively transmitted in Latin, with the exception of anonymous
professionals. According to this work, in late medieval France, explanatory/translational glosses. Understandably, it is an even
Charles V, who possessed a Latin original of the Trotula en- more difficult task to identify the identities, voices and profiles
semble, requested a French translation to be produced and operating a consolidation of knowledge (and linguistic use) in
added to the royal collection of medical treatises, perhaps due the original treatises through late medieval translations.
to the monarch’s infertility, a topic dealt with in detail in the Given these issues, why is a methodology like feminist crit-
manuscripts. At best, this constitutes a preliminary line of re- ical discourse analysis appropriate? In my view, the key to the
search towards an archaeological approach to translation his- applicability of fcda in this context is its conception of an
tory. However, it is my belief that several crucial aspects have empowered reader/exegete, explicitly stating his/her identity
been overlooked in the account of this archival addition. Firstly, and reflecting on the repercussions of this identity for the pur-
Panace@ | vol. XXII, n.º 53. Primer semestre, 2021 52Tribuna
pose of textual analysis. In the particular case of late medieval substantial evidence for or against them, some statements are
translations of gynaecological treatises, a Foucauldian decon- presented as self-sufficient truths on the nature of gender re-
struction of textual meaning makes particular sense, as the lations and their relationship with the healthcare professions.
limitations to full understanding of the agents operating in the In the public network of medical knowledge in Trota’s time,
treatises are already too high. Therefore, an ideologically explic- gynaecological matters were generally considered to be of little
it reconstruction of the object of study appears to be more ap- relevance to medieval experts given the low number of treatis-
propriate for the archaeological phase than claiming an impos- es devoted to them in full. As a result, the unique nature of the
sible neutrality when describing the object of study. Similarly, Trotula ensemble as a monothematic handbook on reproduc-
the contemporary scholar’s ideological attitudes and research tive health has been frequently underscored (see Green, 2002).
goals prove crucial in the genealogical and ethical stages. Yet, if this subject was only of interest to old, ignorant midwives
A falsely optimistic search for historical truth is typical of unable to read or write, why would contemporary and subse-
patriarchal epistemology (see Canning 1994). As we have con- quent commentators try to anonymise it or even disguise its
tended, traditional academic discourse and methodology have authorship as male? Why would Hans Caspar Wolf (16th cen-
been based on the misleading, prescriptive standards promot- tury) change the explicit feminine identity of the name Trotula
ed by the patriarchy to guarantee its survival, presenting their for the masculine Eros (the name of a very peculiar male god
biased outcome as universal and true beyond any reasonable devoted to love), entitling it The book of women’s matters of
doubt. By contrast, when patriarchal authorities operate on Eros, physician and freedman of Julia, whom some have absurdly
knowledge, interventionism and manipulation are clearly ob- named ‘Trotula’? Why would medical students in 15th-century
served to have predominated (see 4.2.). As a result, according England and Central Europe use it as a reference in their ed-
to Delisle (1993), the empowering principles espoused by fem- ucation (Green, 2008b: 279)? Why would Charles V of France,
inist translation scholars have echoed many of the operating as explained above, care to hold two copies in his archive, one
premises of patriarchal epistemological reconstruction. One Latin original and one translation, and trust old witches’ tales
example may be found in Flotow’s classification of feminist to improve his chances of reproduction? Although it was es-
translation strategies (1991: 74-80). Like late medieval authors, sentially women’s business, was reproduction not a matter over
feminists shall mediate knowledge through supplementations which the patriarchy had to exercise control to ensure its per-
(and omissions). Similarly to patriarchal interventions on fe- petuation?
male-related discourse, they shall overtly interfere in discourse If we examine the source texts and the late medieval English
and terminology, this time in favour of feminist interests. In versions, the co-textual dimension is also crucial in order to
the case of medieval female medical treatises, special attention appreciate the positioning of different societies on the matter
shall be paid to the female body and its processes. Just as any during different periods. It is also illustrative of how editing
scientific progress potentially threatening patriarchal suprema- procedures mediate in ideologies, supplementing empowered
cy was obscured through pedagogical/indoctrinating prefacing translation practices. On the one hand, the Latin originals,
and footnoting (glosses), the opposite shall be true of feminist whose evolution has been surveyed by Green (1997), display
translators, acting as subversive commentators of patriarchal several gender-relevant anomalies. As explained above (see
epistemological beliefs. Finally, as the patriarchy has appropri- subsection 4.1.), an unknown editor was responsible for com-
ated women authors’ work, feminists may consider a full re-ap- piling three apparently autonomous texts, only one of which
propriation of gathered sources through hijacking. had previously been attributed to Trota of Salerno, under the
In the following lines, I will apply the aforementioned titles of Trotula Maior and Trotula Minor. Throughout the evo-
f cda methodology (Walsh 2001) to my survey of potentially lution of the manuscript, the notion that the title related to its
research-relevant aspects of the intersections between gender/ alleged author’s name was progressively blurred, to the extent
professional realities and gender/communication at the macro- that the prologue to one variant of the ensemble portrayed Tro-
(co-/con-text) and micro-textual level (interpersonal/ ideation- tula Maior and Trotula Minor as a mother and a daughter, both
al meta-functions) respectively. This will be exemplified by a prostitutes, whose knowledge of female reproductive health
number of dimensions of the Trotula ensemble and compared had been obtained through dishonourable practices during
with existing studies addressing them. As the paper observes, trips around the world. Co-text as the result of active media-
the intersections mentioned cannot be analysed without con- tion strategies has also been neglected in the characterisation of
stant reference to the “originals” (if they can be considered so, some of the Middle English translations commissioned by phy-
since the degree of intertextuality hampers such consideration) sicians. A relevant example is that of John Twyne, a physician
and their progressive consolidation. born in Canterbury, who ordered a new translation of the man-
Regarding the macro-textual level, the contextual dimension uscripts to be combined with other documents of a less scien-
must be considered for one very powerful reason: our knowl- tific nature regarding astrology, among other pseudo-sciences.
edge of late medieval society stems from the historical percep- The doctor’s request makes co-text indispensable to interpret
tions of patriarchal commentators, most of whom have pieced the nature of his disregard for the scientificity of the Trotula,
together non-contemporary, biased accounts, re-establishing which he probably believed useful in predicting the gender of
the connections between gender and knowledge, gender and unborn children (Barratt, 2001: 12). As stated above, reproduc-
education, and gender and reproduction. Despite the lack of tion is indispensable for the perpetuation of the patriarchy and
Panace@ | vol. XXII, n.º 53. Primer semestre, 2021 53Tribuna
its interest in male-gendered offspring might account for much Apunte. Carboncillo, 15 cm × 18 cm
of the curiosity around conception.
With regard to the micro-textual level, I have mentioned two
relevant sub-functions from Welsh’s methodology in the previ-
ous section: the interpersonal and the ideational. The interper-
sonal sub-function appears relevant to a thorough analysis of
the identities present in the text, whatever their contribution
to the communicative situation created. An important trait of
translators’ intentionality in existing late medieval translations
into English is their portrayal of a multiplicity of female readers
from a professional and socioeconomic perspective. As Barratt
indicates (2001: 4), explicit vocatives addressed to midwives
appear to suggest that this knowledge was specifically intended
to assist them in deliveries, as well as indicating that they were
literate, regardless of the image that the dominant discourse
has endeavoured to convey. Are these then the same ignorant,
dangerous domestic practitioners mocked and sued by surgeon
unions, when translated treatises of this complexity were aimed
at them? A second aspect mentioned by the same author (Bar-
rat, 2001: 16) relates to the translation of Women’s Cosmetics in
the Oxford ms Bodley 483 version. Here, the translator applies
a supplementation strategy in order to provide low-cost alter-
natives to cosmetic recipes originally conceived for high-class toward female secretions and corporal processes considered
women, which, again, suggests that not all 15th-century English impious, any potential deviations from which might be signifi-
women who read or had access to these treatises were aristo- cant of a gender-related positioning over time.
crats. Indeed, with this observation, Barratt appears to confirm
my suspicion that a private, domestic network for the trans-
mission of female knowledge between different social groups 5. Conclusion
of women existed, from the exchange of this type of manu-
scripts as gifts between aristocratic women (whose names are As a scholarly activity, feminist discourse has been defined
frequently listed in the prologues) to reading sessions among by Barbara Godard as “(...) une pratique émancipatoire, un
more and less educated practitioners, who would carry portable discours politique orientée autour de la construction de nou-
versions of the Trotula with them (Barratt, 2001: 12). veaux savoirs et des sujets en procès” (1989: 42). The goal of the
To conclude this survey of potential lines of analysis, I would discussion presented here is deconstructive, aiming to portray
like to briefly reflect on the ideational sub-function, which en- scholarly efforts as a virtually never-ending source of enquiry
compasses the set of beliefs and insights developed by different that can never be fully neutral. In mainstream academia, there
mediators as faithful representatives of their time. Here I must is a tendency to delegitimise explicitly subjective approaches
refer to the differences between the hundreds of Latin versions such as feminism on account of their blatant refusal of scientif-
disseminated throughout Europe. Translation does not only ic neutrality. By virtue of this alleged neutrality, of which only
take place between different languages. Otherwise, given the hegemonic voices are seemingly capable, academic discourses
status of Latin as a language of culture throughout the more are conceived as the transparent frame of truth, disavowing any
than ten centuries of the Middle Ages, one would not be able form of knowledge that contradicts dominant social values. In
to appreciate any shifts in the linguistic, social, political or ide- my personal academic experience, taking a feminist stance on
ological dimensions of the constantly reappropriated material. matters widely discussed in well-established disciplines, such
The ‘original’ Trotula ensemble contained a series of contracep- as the discipline selected for this paper, is still sometimes per-
tive methods that were feasible at that time, which were subject ceived as excessively subjective and personal. On one occasion,
to censorship by some of the mediators of the manuscript, al- my proposal for a volume on medieval history and translation
most certainly for ideological reasons. A second source of cen- was sent to a reviewer who, despite ultimately recommending
sorship, which was applied in the English and other vernacular its publication, saw fit to discuss why he took issue with my
translations of the ensemble, were the metaphorical euphe- agency, drawing conclusions and passing judgement on mat-
misms employed to discuss menstruation (plainly expressed ters of personal rather than academic identity, including, sur-
in the Latin word menses) through feminine images based on prisingly enough, efforts to determine whether or not I was a
nature such as flour/floure/flowere, the late medieval form of woman. While he viewed feminism as a “paranoid tendency”
‘flower’ (see Barratt, 2001: 151). If analysed in depth, this ter- towards knowledge, this very personal understanding of re-
minological dimension of gynaecological knowledge may con- search led him to ultimately rule himself out as an appropriate
siderably clarify the attitudes of medical-trained individuals reviewer for my work, since, as he explained, he was “a man”.
Panace@ | vol. XXII, n.º 53. Primer semestre, 2021 54Tribuna
This anecdote, which could easily be 40 years old, is neverthe- Alcoff, Linda, and Elizabeth Potter (1993): Feminist Epistemol-
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1. I would like to thank the Conselleria d’ Educació, Cultura i i La Medicina Medieval De Tradició Llatina (Doctoral
Esport (Generalitat Valenciana) for enabling this research Thesis). Barcelona: Publicacions Universitat de Barcelona.
to take place through a predoctoral fellowship (acif, Cameron, Deborah (1995): The Feminist Critique of Lan-
Val+id programme) funded by the European Social Fund. guage: A Reader. London; New York: Routledge.
2. Since the late 20th century, feminist historians have adopt- Campbell, Julie (2007): Literary Circles and Gender in Ear-
ed a Foucaldian approach to history. Their revisionism ly Modern Europe: A Cross-Cultural Approach. Farmham:
views official historiographic sources not as a universal Ashgate Publishing Ltd.
truth, but as a politicised set of discourses uttered by differ- Canning, Kathleen (1994): «Feminist history after the
ent patriarchal societies across time and space. For more linguistic turn: Historicizing discourse and experi-
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