Voices from the Arctic: Diverse Views on Canadian Arctic Security - DALEE SAMBO DOROUGH BRIDGET LAROCQUE KAVIQ KALURAQ DANIEL TAUKIE - NAADSN
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Voices from the Arctic:
Diverse Views on Canadian
Arctic Security
DALEE SAMBO DOROUGH
BRIDGET LAROCQUE
KAVIQ KALURAQ
DANIEL TAUKIE
WITH DAVID SPROULE AND WHITNEY LACKENBAUER
Voices from the Arctic: Diverse Views on Canadian Arctic Security Dalee Sambo Dorough Bridget Larocque Kaviq Kaluraq Daniel Taukie Foreword by David Sproule Moderated by P. Whitney Lackenbauer
Contents FOREWORD 5 INTRODUCTION 7 DALEE SAMBO DOROUGH 12 BRIDGET LAROCQUE 17 KAVIQ KALURAQ 21 DANIEL TAUKIE 26 FINAL REFLECTIONS 36
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FOREWORD Canada works
closely on con-
tinental secu-
DAVID SPROULE rity and defence
with our Ameri-
can neighbours
through NORAD
The Arctic is experiencing a period of profound
and internation-
change. Climate change is warming the Canadian
ally, with our
North three times faster than the rest of the planet,
NATO allies, to
affecting the land, biodiversity, and cultures and
ensure regional
traditions of our Northern peoples. Additionally,
security is main-
rapidly advancing technology is making the region
tained. It is nec-
more accessible, driving international interests in
essary that we
the region for its potential natural resources, ship-
continue this
ping routes, tourism, and scientific research. While
effort. From natu-
these activities represent economic opportunities
ral disasters to marine incidents, and even (how-
for Canadians, they also bring unwelcome side
ever unlikely) military threats, Canada must be
effects, in the form of threats to the environment
prepared to defend our Arctic peoples, protect the
and human security. And while Canada does
fragile environment, support local economies, and
not see an imminent military threat to the Arctic,
safeguard Northern cultures so that our vision of
we must remain clear eyed regarding the
a thriving, secure, and strong community in the
threats we face today and anticipate these
North can be realized.
should they arrive in the future.
As the Government of Canada’s Canada’s Arctic
We live in an uncertain time. Russia has been re-es-
and Northern Policy Framework makes clear, our
tablishing its Cold War military footprint in the
Northern peoples are the heart of our security pol-
Arctic and its actions in other regions and domains
icy in the region and they continue to be the best
raise serious concerns. Other global powers,
guarantors of our sovereignty in the Arctic. There-
including China and India, have expressed interest
fore, we have an obligation to integrate the views
in increasing their Arctic presence and may seek to
of Indigenous peoples, Northern partners, and
influence regional rules and norms in ways that do
territorial governments when we consider how
not align with our own. It is Canada’s vital interest,
best to develop and implement our Arctic policies.
as the second largest Arctic state, that the Arctic
Events like this are a step towards meeting that
remains a region characterized by low tension and
obligation.
peaceful relations. The work of the Arctic Council
is critical in this part, facilitating dialogue and col- Today’s list of speakers is an impressive one. I know
laboration between Arctic states, Indigenous peo- those who have joined online will ask questions,
ples, and Northern inhabitants. offer comments, and provide valuable insights into
The session was introduced by David Sproule, Canada’s Senior Arctic Official and Director General, Polar, Eurasian and
European Affairs at Global Affairs Canada which is responsible for policy development for Polar affairs, as well as bilat-
eral and regional relations with Russia and the five Nordic countries (amongst others). He has been a Foreign Service
officer with External Affairs Canada since 1981, and his foreign postings have included the United States, Bangladesh,
Afghanistan, Thailand, Norway, Libya, and Mongolia. In Ottawa, he has served in senior positions with the Economic
Policy and Summits Division; Intelligence Assessments Secretariat of the Privy Council Office; Oceans and Environmen-
tal Law Division; Human Rights, UN, and Economic Law Division; and the Legal Bureau. He has led numerous Canadian
delegations in negotiation of bilateral and multilateral treaties and other international legal instruments.
5
our discussion. Our collective efforts to address the important issues that will be discussed today will better inform our policies. We will greatly ben- efit from your participation. Thank you very much. 6
INTRODUCTION framework
places “people
first,” and places
P. WHITNEY LACKENBAUER a clear empha-
sis on “the
vision and inter-
ests of Inuit,
First Nations
In December 2016, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Métis peo-
announced his plan to “co-develop a new Arctic ples.” It also
Policy Framework, with Northerners, Territorial emphasizes the
and Provincial governments, and First Nations, impacts of cli-
Inuit, and Métis People” that would replace Cana- mate change
da’s 2009 Northern Strategy. He promised a collab- and how envi-
orative approach that would ensure that the views ronmental
and priorities of Arctic residents and governments changes affect
would be at the “forefront of policy decisions social and cultural norms, ways of knowing, and
affecting the future of the Canadian Arctic and on-the-land activities. It also highlights the broad
Canada’s role in the circumpolar Arctic.” Through spectrum of socio-economic challenges facing
the framework’s co-development process, Ottawa Canada’s North, ranging from lack of economic
promised that it would “reorganize and reprioritize opportunity, to mental health challenges, to food
federal activities in the Arctic” and “link existing insecurity, and gaps in infrastructure, health care,
federal government initiatives.” The prime minster education, skills development, and income equal-
also announced that this new framework would ity across the region. In its effort to link existing
include an “Inuit-specific component, created in federal initiatives to the ANPF, examples of how
partnership with Inuit, as Inuit Nunangat com- the government is already addressing some of
prises over a third of Canada’s land mass and over these issues in collaboration with its Indigenous
half of Canada’s coast line, and as Inuit modern and territorial partners are scattered throughout
treaties govern the entirety of this jurisdictional the document.
space.”
The first and primary goal in the Framework is to
After extensive consultations, the Minister of create conditions so that “Canadian Arctic and
Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs northern Indigenous peoples are resilient and
released the Arctic and Northern Policy Frame- healthy.” This priority animates the entire docu-
work (ANPF) in September 2019, which reiterates ment. To achieve this, the ANPF pledges to end
many of the opportunities, issues, and challenges poverty, eradicate hunger, reduce suicides, close
facing Canada’s Arctic and northern regions. The the gap on education outcomes, provide greater
access to skills developments, adopt culturally
appropriate approaches to justice issues, and elim-
inate the housing crisis in the North. This broad
vision resonates with the Government of Canada’s
Dr. Whitney Lackenbauer is Canada
strong commitment to reconciliation with Indige-
Research Chair (Tier 1) in the Study of the
nous peoples, captured in the ANPF’s eighth goal:
Canadian North and a Professor in the School
the promise of a future that “supports self-determi-
for the Study of Canada at Trent University. He
nation and nurtures mutually respectful relation-
also serves as Honorary Lieutenant Colonel of
ships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous
1st Canadian Ranger Patrol Group and is net-
peoples.” The second and third goals emphasize
work lead of the North American and Arctic
the importance of improved infrastructure and
Defence and Security Network (NAADSN).
“strong, sustainable, diversified, and inclusive local
7
and regional economies.” The fourth goal is to and northern peoples thrive economically, socially
ensure that both Indigenous and scientific knowl- and environmentally.” In the international chap-
edge and understanding guide decision-making, ter, Canada commits to “enhance the reputation
and that Arctic and Northern peoples are included and participation of Arctic and northern Canadi-
in the knowledge-creation process. The fifth goal ans, especially Indigenous peoples, in relevant
focuses on ensuring healthy, resilient Arctic and international forums and negotiations,” and to
northern ecosystems and promises action on a promote the “full inclusion of Indigenous knowl-
wide array of major objectives, ranging from mit- edge” in polar science and decision making. Other
igation and adaptation mea- innovative elements include
sures to climate change, to promises to “champion the
sustainable use of the eco- integration of diversity and
The ANPF Vision:
systems and species, and safe gender considerations into
and environmentally-respon- Strong, self-reliant people projects and initiatives,
sible shipping. and communities working guided by Canada’s feminist
together for a vibrant, pros- foreign policy,” and increasing
The ANPF’s sixth and seventh
perous and sustainable Arctic youth engagement in the cir-
goals highlight measures to
and northern region at home cumpolar dialogue.
strengthen the rules-based
and abroad, while express-
international order in the Arc- The chapter dedicated to
ing Canada’s enduring Arctic
tic and ensure regional peace safety, security, and defence
sovereignty.
and stability, particularly in begins with an acknowledg-
light of increased interna- ment that “in the Arctic and
tional interest in the region. in the North, as in the rest of
Emphasizing that the Cir-
cumpolar North is “well
known for its high level
of international coopera-
tion on a broad range of
issues,” the ANPF commits
to continued multilateral
and bilateral cooperation
in the Arctic. It confirms
the Arctic Council as the
“pre-eminent forum for
Arctic cooperation” com-
plemented by the “exten-
sive international legal
framework [that] applies to
the Arctic Ocean.” There is
strong language proclaim-
ing how Canada “is firmly
asserting its presence in
the North” and pledges to
“more clearly define Can-
ada’s Arctic boundaries.”
The overall tenor is opti-
mistic, emphasizing the
desire for regional peace
and stability so that “Arctic
8
Canada, safety, security and defence are essen-
tial prerequisites for healthy communities, strong
economies, and a sustainable environment.” Par-
ticipants in the Northern roundtables that led to A Shared Vision
the ANPF frequently emphasized this point. Cli-
Today, there is a shared vision of the future
mate change heightens unpredictability and com-
where northern and Arctic people are thriving,
plexity, and amplifies challenges facing remote
strong and safe. The Arctic and Northern Policy
communities in terms of critical infrastructure and
Framework gives us a roadmap to achieve this
emergency management. With heightened activ-
vision. There are clear priorities and actions set
ity in the region comes greater risk, and “a natu-
out by the federal government and its partners
rally-occurring or human-induced disaster in the
to:
Arctic Archipelago would place tremendous strain
on the capacities of all levels of government, as ~ nurture healthy families and
well as on local communities, to support affected communities
people and minimize the damage to affected wild- ~ invest in the energy, transporta-
life, infrastructure, and ecosystems.” tion and communications infra-
structure that northern and
While the security chapter confirms that “Can- Arctic governments, economies
ada sees no immediate threat in the Arctic and and communities need
the North,” growing interest and competition in ~ create jobs, foster innovation
a region of “strategic international importance” and grow Arctic and northern
requires “effective safety and security frameworks, economies
national defence, and deterrence.” The Frame- ~ support science, knowledge
work promises that the Canadians will continue and research that is meaning-
to demonstrate their sovereignty throughout the ful for communities and for
Canadian Arctic. To ensure that “the Canadian Arc- decision-making
tic and North and its people are safe, secure, and ~ face the effects of climate change
well-defended,” the Framework sets the following and support healthy ecosystems
government objectives: in the Arctic and North
• Strengthen Canada’s cooperation and col- ~ ensure that Canada and our
laboration with domestic and international northern and Arctic residents are
partners on safety, security and defence safe, secure and well-defended
issues ~ restore Canada’s place as an inter-
• Enhance Canada’s military presence as well national Arctic leader
as prevent and respond to safety and secu- ~ advance reconciliation and
rity incidents in the Arctic and the North improve relationships between
• Strengthen Canada’s domain awareness, Indigenous and non-Indigenous
surveillance, and control capabilities in the peoples
Arctic and the North “Foreword from the minister,” Canada’s Arctic and
• Enforce Canada’s legislative and regulatory Northern Policy Framework (2019)
frameworks that govern transportation,
border integrity, and environmental protec-
tion in the Arctic and the North
• Increase the whole-of-society emergency
management capabilities in Arctic and
Northern communities
• Support community safety through effec-
tive and culturally-appropriate crime pre-
vention initiatives and policing services
9
10
Much of the discussion reiterates policy elements Our special thanks to Chris Conway, Peter
in Canada’s 2017 defence policy, Strong, Secure, Kucherepa, and Anita Pan of the ISROP program
Engaged, as well as Oceans Protection Plan initia- at Global Affairs Canada for proposing, helping
tives to bolster marine safety. In highlighting the to organize, and funding this discussion, as well
importance of search and rescue, surveillance, as Vivien Carli, program director at the Gordon
and the “need for collaboration amongst all areas Foundation, for her suggestions during the plan-
of society to enhance community safety and resil- ning process. The NAADSN managing director, Dr.
ience,” the framework also gestures towards prior- Shannon Nash, liaised with speakers and partici-
ities raised by Northern territorial and Indigenous pants, coordinated registrations, and quietly ran
partners in their contributions to policy frame- the Zoom meeting with her usual professionalism
work – and to themes and initiatives highlighted and enthusiasm. Jill Barclay, a recent graduate of
in the discussions shared in the pages that follow. the M.A. program in Global Governance at the Bal-
sillie School for International Affairs and a research
This short publication provides an edited tran-
associate with NAADSN, completed an initial
script of the proceedings of a panel on Voices
transcription of the proceedings, and NAADSN
from the Arctic: Diverse Views on Canadian Arctic
research associate Corah Hodgson conducted
Security organized by the Global Affairs Canada’s
the final copy edits. Thanks as well to the Depart-
International Security Research & Outreach Pro-
ment of National Defence Mobilizing Insights in
gram (ISROP) in partnership with the North Amer-
National Defence and Security (MINDS) program
ican and Arctic Defence and Security Network
for supporting NAADSN’s ongoing activities.
(NAADSN) on 5 November 2020.
It was a tremendous honour to moderate this
session, featuring four distinguished Northern-
ers who generously agreed to share their insights The Arctic and Northern security
into the meanings of Arctic security from North- environment
ern perspectives. We left the concept of “security”
broad and undefined, so that each panelist would There is growing international interest
bring their own perspective, consider how Arctic and competition in the Canadian Arc-
defence and security issues affect Northern peo- tic from state and non-state actors who
ples and homelands, and suggest or discuss prior- seek to share in the region’s rich natu-
ities for future action. ral resources and strategic position. This
comes at a time where climate change,
combined with advancements in technol-
ogy, has made access to the region easier.
While the Canadian Arctic has historically
been — and continues to be — a region of
stability and peace, growing competition
and increased access brings safety and
security challenges to which Canada must
be ready to respond.
“Arctic and Northern Policy Framework:
Safety, security, and defence chapter” (2019)
11DALEE SAMBO
DOROUGH
Thank you, Whitney and I also just wanted to note
that I appreciate the slight slip by David when he
said Native Allies. So, you have both Native Allies
and NATO allies.
I greatly appreciate the opportunity to present.
The PowerPoint presentation allows me to stay on
time, and also to point out some of the important relations on the Russian side, to join us at the orga-
work that the Inuit Circumpolar Council has done nizing conference of the ICC.
in relation to security.
At that organizing conference, Eben Hopson stated
I think that it is important to acknowledge that the in his welcoming
Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC) was actually orga- remarks that we Iñu-
nized in the context of the Cold War. Eben Hop- piat live under four
son, who is recognized as the founder of the Inuit of the five flags of the
“WE INUPIAT LIVE UNDER FOUR
Circumpolar Council, brought together Inuit from Arctic Coast and “one
OF THE FIVE FLAGS OF THE ARC-
across the circumpolar Arctic to unite our peoples of those four flags is
TIC COAST. ONE OF THOSE FOUR
in June of 1977 in Utqiagvik, or formerly known as badly missed here
FLAGS IS BADLY MISSED HERE
Barrow, Alaska. And at that conference, of course, today.” Of course, he
TODAY...IT IS GENERALLY AGREED
he extended an invitation to our blood relations in was speaking about
THAT WE ENJOY CERTAIN ABORIG-
Chukotka, the easternmost autonomous okrug in the Siberian Yupik
INAL LEGAL RIGHTS AS INDIGE-
Russia. But of course, because of the political cli- people and the then
NOUS PEOPLE OF THE ARCTIC. IT IS
mate of the day and the fact that we were in the Soviet Union, “but it
IMPORTANT THAT OUR GOVERN-
midst of the Cold War, the then Soviet Union did is generally agreed
MENTS AGREE ABOUT THE STATUS
not allow the Siberian Yupik people, again, our that we enjoy cer-
OF THESE RIGHTS IF THEY ARE
tain Aboriginal legal
TO BE UNIFORMLY RESPECTED.”
rights as Indigenous
Eben Hopson, 1977
peoples of the Arctic,
Dr. Dalee Sambo Dorough is the chair of the and it is important
Inuit Circumpolar Council, and has a long his- that our governments
tory of advocating for human rights includ- agree about the status of these rights if they are
ing as the Chairperson of the United Nations to be uniformly respected.” These were import-
Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, and ant words in terms of the welcoming address that
was actively involved in the process that pro- Hopson delivered that day.
duced the UN Declaration on the Rights of
Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP). Dr. Dorough At the time, we were not only concerned about our
was a professor of political science at the Uni- own environmental security in the face of offshore
versity of Alaska Fairbanks prior to assuming oil and gas development and a host of other issues
the chairpersonship of ICC, and has graduate that were facing the Arctic; we were also cognisant
degrees from Tufts University and the Univer- of the military activity taking place around us. So,
sity of British Columbia. at the 1977 gathering, the ICC adopted resolution
number 11 concerning peaceful and safe uses of
12the Arctic Circumpolar Zone. I think that, in light
of the present conditions, this is still an important
resolution. Of course, we have built on that, but
the main point is that this resolution called for the
peaceful and safe use of our homelands, our tra- RESOLUTION 77-11
ditional territory. If you look at a map offering a
circumpolar view of the world, our traditional ter- Concerning peaceful and safe uses of
ritory—especially the coastal communities and the Arctic Circumpolar Zone
coastal villages—we occupy just over 40% of the
RECOGNIZING that it is in the inter-
region. The military bases, fortifications, Distant
est of all circumpolar people that
Early Warning (DEW) Line sites, and a host of other
the Arctic shall continue forever to
hardware, were present in our homelands at that
be used exclusively for peaceful and
time.
environmentally safe purposes and
In 1983, because of the continuing issues faced shall not become the scene or object
by our communities in the context of security— of human conflict or discord; and
and, in this case, certainly hard security—we
ACKNOWLEDGING the emphatic
became a little bit more specific about the need
contributions to scientific knowledge
for the Arctic to be regarded as a peaceful zone
resulting from a cooperative spirit in
and also the need to protect the Arctic environ-
scientific investigations of the Arctic:
ment. Of course, the emphasis was nuclear test-
ing and nuclear devices, but we got much more NOW, THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED:
specific because of the exercises and activities that
(a) that the Arctic shall be used for
were taking place in our homelands. For example,
peaceful and environmentally safe
cruise missile testing and the low-level flying exer-
purposes only, and that there shall
cises were taking place between Canada and the
be prohibited any measure of a mili-
United States, MX missiles were placed in Alaska,
tary nature such as the establishment
and there was continuing interest in and desire
of military bases and fortifications,
for rare earth elements like uranium, thorium, lith-
the carrying out of military maneu-
ium, and other materials. It was also interesting to
vers, and the testing of any type of
note that, in our efforts to outreach to our Sibe-
weapon, and/or the disposition of
rian Yupik relations, dialogue began to take place
any type of chemical, biological or
between our leadership and others across the Arc-
nuclear waste, and/or other waste.
tic. It is my understanding that some of our lead-
Further, present wastes be removed
ership of the day had an opportunity to outreach
from the Arctic;
specifically to Mikhail Gorbachev. Later in 1987, he
made an important speech in Murmansk. Many of (b) that a moratorium be called on
you are familiar with his Murmansk speech, but emplacement of nuclear weapons;
the reference that he made in that speech is quite and
significant, not only to Inuit, but I think to other
Arctic Indigenous Peoples as well as to all peoples (c) that all steps be taken to pro-
globally. mote the objectives in the above
mentioned.
Gorbachev’s interest was to highlight the need for
Arctic strategy, as well as indicating that the Arctic
is an integral part of the globe and that it ought to
become a zone of peace.
In the background, and a continuing effort of
the Inuit Circumpolar Council, were significant
13developments in the context of human rights
standard- setting. From 1982 until its final adop-
1983 Resolution
tion by the UN General Assembly in 2007, a twen-
THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that the Inuit ty-five-year span of history, Indigenous Peoples,
Circumpolar Conference emphatically including Inuit, were influencing the content of
restates its nuclear position: the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples (UNDRIP).
1. that the arctic and sub-arctic be used for
purposes that are peaceful and environmen- The UN Declaration is recognized as a universal
tally safe; consensus. It is a comprehensive document that
touches upon every element of the day-to-day
2. that there shall be no nuclear testing or lives of Inuit: the right of self-determination; the
nuclear devices in the arctic or sub-arctic; affirmation of our rights to lands, territories and
3. that there shall be no nuclear dump-sites resources; the right to free prior and informed con-
in the arctic or subarctic; sent; the right to participate in decision making;
4. that exploration and exploitation of ura-
nium, thorium, lithium or other materials
related to the nuclear industry in our home-
land be prohibited.
The community and interrelationship of
FURTHERMORE BE IT RESOLVED that the the interests of our entire world is felt in
Canadian government be notified of our the northern part of the globe, in the Arctic,
opposition to the testing of the Cruise mis- perhaps more than anywhere else. For the
sile in our Canadian homeland and that they Arctic and the North Atlantic are not just the
be requested to refrain from such tests; “weather kitchen”, the point where cyclones
FURTHERMORE BE IT RESOLVED that the and anticyclones are born to influence the
United States government be notified of our climate in Europe, the USA and Canada, and
opposition to the placement of the MX mis- even in South Asia and Africa…
sile in our Alaskan homeland and that they One can feel here freezing breath of the
be requested to cease with any such plans; “Arctic strategy” of the Pentagon. An
FURTHERMORE BE IT RESOLVED that the Inuit immense potential of nuclear destruction
Circumpolar Conference study and research concentrated aboard submarines and sur-
current international treaties to determine face ships affects the political climate of the
whether or not they comply with the Inuit entire world and can be detonated by an
Circumpolar Conference Arctic Policy; accidental political-military conflict in any
other region of the world…
FURTHERMORE BE IT RESOLVED that the
Executive Council of the Inuit Circumpo- The Soviet Union is in favour of a radical
lar Conference lobby the United Nations lowering of the level of military confron-
and various international organizations to tation in the region. Let the North of the
encourage members of the United Nations globe, the Arctic, become a zone of peace.
to adopt a policy for a nuclear free zone in Let the North Pole be a pole of peace. We
the Arctic. suggest that all interested states start talks
on the limitation and scaling down of mili-
tary activity in the North as a whole, in both
the Eastern and Western Hemispheres….
Mikhail Gorbachev, 1987
14and, of course, protection from destruction of our
culture and the right to security, including food UN Declaration on the Rights of Indige-
security, cultural security, and environmental
nous Peoples
security.
--affirming the right to self-determination
The UN Declaration is complemented by a couple
of other international human rights instruments, --affirming rights to lands, territories and
namely the International Labour Organization resources
(ILO) Convention No. 169 on Indigenous and Tribal
--affirming the right to free, prior and
Peoples, as well as the recently adopted American
informed consent
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.
It is my contention that the international instru- --affirming the right to participation in
ments themselves do, in fact, respond to the cul- decision-making
tural integrity of Inuit and the cultural integrity of
Indigenous Peoples. --protection from destruction of their
culture
These matters must be understood in the context
of the nature of human rights, which is founded --right to security, including food security,
upon the fact that human rights are interrelated, cultural security
interdependent, indivisible, and interconnected— September 13, 2007 -- United
meaning that if you alter one element in relation Nations General Assembly
to human rights, then every other element is then
impacted in some way. So, if you think about the
rights of Indigenous Peoples against the backdrop
of hard security or soft security issues, the rights of
Inuit mean that we must be a part of the dialogue,
the discussion—significantly and consistent with
our right to participate directly in matters that
affect us. We should have a seat at the table in
terms of any of these discussions concerning secu-
rity in the Arctic and in particular, our perspective
of security in the Arctic.
I also want to mention the impacts of climate
change and the impacts of Arctic shipping, which
were raised in the introduction to this session. Not
only are our communities being impacted by secu-
rity, defence and militarization in the Arctic, but
the compounding nature of impacts from climate
change does not make these matters any easier
for us, and I just quickly list in this slide a number
of different impacts that we’re facing because of
climate change. hese include:
• Changing ice conditions and disappearanc
of sea ice
• Coastal erosion
• Dramatic weather changes
• Greater risk in unknown and fast changing
conditions
• Reduced biodiversity and invasive species
15And the impacts of Arctic shipping among others, So in 2018 at the ICC General Assembly, where
include: I was fortunate to be elected as the Chair of the
• changing ice conditions due to fracturing of Inuit Circumpolar Council, within the Utqiaġvik
sea ice Declaration, under the theme, “Inuit— The Arctic,
• coastal erosion generated by increased We Want,” one of the references is to lay the diplo-
waves matic foundation or the groundwork for negotiat-
• vessel noise and disruption ing a formal declaration of the Arctic as a peaceful
• disruption of marine mammal habitat and zone, and so this is an echo of our 1977 objective
migration routes as far as the Arctic being declared a peaceful zone.
• increased potential for contamination due We have maintained a consistent position in this
to waste, ballast water, POLs regard, and I think that there are numerous oppor-
• increased potential for major oil spills and tunities for us to raise this issue within the context
similar disasters of the United Nations, but also at events like this
• invasion of species and within the Arctic Council.
• increased marine traffic So, to sum up, and if we recall the important nature
• increased militarization of human rights as being interrelated, interdepen-
• construction of ports and breakwaters dent and indivisible, what’s at stake is our cultural
• vessel collisions and accidents that commu- security, our environmental security, our eco-
nities are unprepared for nomic security, whether it is our traditional econ-
Of course, climate change has triggered the inter- omy of hunting, harvesting and fishing, or if it’s in
est of the global community. In fact, now the Arc- relation to newer forms of economic development
tic is central in terms of the geopolitical issues that and activity, there are a host of different impacts.
the whole of the world is facing. And the potential Our food security and ultimately our overall cul-
for the deleterious impacts upon our communities tural security as distinct Indigenous Peoples across
is intensified because of these changes. Not only our homelands – Inuit Nunaat are at risk. So, quy-
are we having to respond to the rapid and dramatic anaq, I’ll yield here, and I look forward to a fruitful
impacts of climate change, but we are now thrown discussion.
into a political arena that has tendrils across the
globe and not solely within our homelands.
“Inuit – The Arctic We Want”
Mandate ICC to initiate diplomatic
talks for the purpose of laying the
groundwork for negotiations to
declare the Arctic as a Peaceful
Zone
Utqiaġvik Declaration 2018
16BRIDGET are boreal forest,
tundra, snow,
and ice. To the
LAROCQUE state, security
is about power
(hard power)
My presentation today will be on Arctic Voices and and yet in Indig-
whose voices and laws matter. enous world-
Arctic Security is complex to say the least for the views security
average Indigenous person. We look upon the Arc- is about soft
tic as our homeland: a place of peace and quiet. power: coop-
How can we talk about Arctic Security when we do eration, peace,
not know what we are asked to do if ever under and responsibil-
military threat? As Indigenous peoples our worl- ity. Taking Up
dview is about “wholism” and that everything is Responsibility is
interconnected. #AllMyRelations must be consid- about commitment to protection of our environ-
ered as varying worldviews have to be reconciled. ment. Therefore, we are responsible for human
health, environmental protection, and water qual-
The Arctic is not like the hustle and bustle of out- ity. From a soft power way of thinking we need
side … the South and its big cities, all concrete and to talk about social wellbeing, co-management
glass buildings, super malls and paved roads. We regimes, and governance. How will military secu-
rity fit into this conversation?
Scholar Marc Lanteigne indicated in his 18 Sep-
tember 2020 blog “Whose Arctic Security is it Any-
Bridget Larocque is an Indigenous resident of way?” that:
the Northwest Territories, has extensive knowl-
The problem, however, is whether
edge of the Northwest Territories and the broader
this talk (militarization of the Arc-
circumpolar world, brings a distinct worldview
tic) will result in more obscurity
from that region, and also shares a comprehen-
around many other pressing areas
sive knowledge of research methods and Indig-
of Arctic security, especially those
enous and gender issues. She serves as a policy
on the individual level and related
advisor and researcher with the Arctic Athabas-
to so-called ‘non-traditional’ secu-
kan Council (ACC) and was executive director of
rity concerns such as develop-
Gwich’in Council International (GCI) from 2007-
ment, education, the environment,
12, so she has tremendous expertise on the Arctic
gender, and health, (including the
Council and Arctic governance issues. Her other
effects of COVID-19), which are also
recent work includes managing self-government
affecting the region in the here and
negotiations for the Gwich’in Tribal Council,
now.”
serving as land claim implementation coordina-
tor and project analyst with Crown-Indigenous The most significant pacts that Indigenous Peo-
Relations and Northern Affairs Canada and as ples have with Canada on security and sover-
assistant negotiator with Executive and Indige- eignty are their historical treaties and, since 1973,
nous Affairs in the Government of the Northwest modern-day treaties. From the written words of
Territories, and as Executive Director of the Fort Jean-Pierre Morin, a historian with the Treaty Pol-
Norman Community in the Northwest Territories. icy Directorate of the then Indian and North Affairs
Canada:
17The treaties negotiated and con- Canada’s Indigenous Peoples have several national
cluded between the Crown and and international organizations and groups that
many of Canada’s First nations (now aim to increase their voice and participation on
Métis and Inuit) are foundational issues of Arctic security. But how effective are they?
documents in the history of Canada. Who is measuring effectiveness and success?
These treaties established peaceful
In the Northwest Territories, the Arctic Security
relations during times of colonial
Working Group (ASWG) is a forum for information
war, established a prosperous eco-
exchange that primarily focuses on increasing
nomic and commercial trade, and
awareness of northern issues, strengthening rela-
allowed for the organized expan-
tionships, and enhancing collaboration largely on
sion of Canada. Without these trea-
issues of “soft,” or human, security and safety. The
ties, Canada would likely not be as
aim of the ASWG is to enhance the security and the
we know it today. Historic Treaties
exercise of sovereignty of Canada’s North through
are not only solemn documents
information sharing and cooperation among fed-
binding the parties to ongoing obli-
eral and territorial government departments and
gations, they are also documents
agencies, as well as non-governmental organi-
enshrined in, and protected by, our
zations, academics, the private sector, and other
constitution. As the Treaties will last
stakeholders with an interest in northern issues.
“so long as the sun shines, the grass
grows, and the rivers flow”, they will The GNWT states under its work in the Arctic Secu-
continue to be a central element of rity Working Group that, “the issue of Arctic sover-
the relationship between Canada eignty and security is of significant importance to
and First Nation peoples, [Métis and the Northwest Territories. The GNWT participates
Inuit].” in the Arctic Security Interdepartmental Working
Group, which provides a biannual forum where
This means that Indigenous peoples are not to be representatives share information on sovereignty
harassed on their lands. and security matters.” Yet, where is Indigenous
peoples’ inclusion? Are there consultations or ade-
quate resources provided for meaningful partici-
pation? Where are the “gender” voices?
Canada’s Arctic and Northern Policy Framework
states that:
Canada’s sovereignty over the [Arc-
tic] region is long-standing, well-es-
tablished and based on historic title,
and founded in part on the pres-
ence of Inuit and First Nations since
time immemorial. (And the Métis
are not mentioned here). Canada’s
Arctic and Northern governments
and communities are at the heart of
security in the region. Partnership,
cooperation and shared leadership
are essential to promoting security
in this diverse, complex and expan-
sive area. Working in partnership
with trusted international allies and
all levels of government, including
18Indigenous communities,
organizations and govern-
ments, Canada will con-
tinue to protect the safety
and security of the people
in the Arctic and the North,
now and into the future.
As stated in the June 2019 report
of the Special Senate Committee
on the Arctic titled Northern Lights
- A Wake-Up Call For The Future of
Canada:
Government policies must
align with the various pri-
orities of northerners, both economic, personal and political security, with the
Indigenous and non-Indigenous, intention to, in part, address some of the glaring
empowering northerners to create weaknesses of security theory and practice. The
their own programs and initiatives. strongest argument for protecting the environ-
The ultimate goal, in our commit- ment is the ethical need to guarantee to future
tee’s view, should be the eventual generations opportunities similar to the ones pre-
devolution of decision-making vious generations have enjoyed. This guarantee is
powers about northern issues to the foundation of “sustainable development.”
northern institutions - decisions How can we talk about Arctic Security when we do
about the North must be made in not know what we are asked to do if ever under mil-
the North, for the North and by the itary threat? As I stated earlier, Indigenous peoples
North. our worldview is about “wholism” and that every-
Again, quoting from the Senate Report: thing is interconnected. Varying worldviews must
be reconciled when it comes to military security.
Arctic residents keenly observed Policies developed without the knowledge and
other countries’ interest in the wisdom of Indigenous expertise, which we bring
region’s natural resources and the as life-long Northerners, is nothing more than the
Northwest Passage. The committee continuation of the colonial methodology that
recommends that the Government perpetuates antagonism. There are conversations
of Canada ensure the Canadian Arc- held without Indigenous meaningful participation.
tic security and safety and assert What do protections offered through hard power
and protect Canada’s sovereignty in (military security) and soft power (such as ASWG,
the Arctic. In the committee’s view, the Arctic Council, and the United Nations) look
actions ensuring prosperous, sus- like for Arctic Indigenous Peoples? Participation of
tainable, and safe Arctic communi- Indigenous Peoples as experts and real partners in
ties are vital to enhance Canada’s Canada’s security organizations must be genuine.
ability to project its Arctic foreign Tokenism is ineffective and unacceptable.
policy, including sovereignty in the
The book Braiding Legal Orders: Implementing
region.
the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of
Human security was popularized in the 1994 Indigenous Peoples states that implementation is
United Nations Human Development Report, key to giving effect to UNDRIP and moving past
expanding the notion of security to include dimen- the current colonial relationship. To implement
sions of food, health, community, environmental, UNDRIP, Canadian constitutional law must shift
19in its approach to defining Indigenous peoples’
rights toward ensuring that the rights are defined
according to Indigenous Peoples’ legal traditions.
Ensuring that rights protected under section 35(1)
of the Canada Act align with UNDRIP will mean
that Indigenous peoples’ rights will continue to
be recognized in the highest law of the land. This
leaves us with the question: how do we connect
the highest law of the lands with our own Indig-
enous laws, which speak to peace, security, and
responsibility?
colonial methodology that perpetuates antag- the current colonial relationship. To implement
onism. There are conversations held without UNDRIP, Canadian constitutional law must shift
Indigenous meaningful participation. What do in its approach to defining Indigenous peoples’
protections offered through hard power (military rights toward ensuring that the rights are defined
security) and soft power (such as ASWG, the Arctic according to Indigenous Peoples’ legal traditions.
Council, and the United Nations) look like for Arctic Ensuring that rights protected under section 35(1)
Indigenous Peoples? Participation of Indigenous of the Canada Act align with UNDRIP will mean
Peoples as experts and real partners in Canada’s that Indigenous peoples’ rights will continue to
security organizations must be genuine. Tokenism be recognized in the highest law of the land. This
is ineffective and unacceptable. leaves us with the question: how do we connect
the highest law of the lands with our own Indig-
The book Braiding Legal Orders: Implementing
enous laws, which speak to peace, security, and
the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of
responsibility?
Indigenous Peoples states that implementation is
key to giving effect to UNDRIP and moving past
20KAVIQ Throughout my
presentation,
I want to talk
KALURAQ about some
of the things
that I think are
important to
remember in
Thank you for the introduction, Whitney. You men- terms of Arctic
tioned part of my background. I guess I should security. First
also mention that I am a newer search and rescue of all, we are
volunteer in Baker Lake. also Canadi-
ans. So, when
I don’t have a security background, so I don’t pro- people ask us,
fess to be an expert in any form of security, but “well, who are
through the Nunavut Impact Review Board’s man- you? We don’t
date we often hear about things when we are think, oh, you’re Canadian,” I explain that I am an
doing consultations that are outside of our man- Inuk—and we also consider ourselves Canadian.
date. Outside of environmental assessment, that We’re part of the same population. We’re part of
can be related to Arctic security. So, as I’m going the same government. We have equal rights. I
through the things that I have observed and some think that it is really important to keep that frame
of the ideas that have come to mind over the years of mind.
of my work throughout Nunavut, I guess I want to
frame it first to reflecting on the relationship. The north is not a new frontier. It is our home. This
is where we live. This is where our roots are. It is
Historically, the relationship has appeared to be not something that is untapped: it is our home.
where there is this land, there is this land that is And we have long standing histories here.
out there and it is the Arctic. And then you have
power, like Canada, that once you acquire land, it It is our knowledge that has made us resilient and
adds to your power. And then Inuit or people who adaptable to be able to live in this environment.
live in the Arctic are almost a secondary thought. Former government policies like relocations and
When we think back to times like the Cold War, residential school policies disrupted that resil-
when government policy interventions were put iency, damaging things like our language and our
in place, we were almost a second thought to the culture. Although those policies have been elimi-
nated and the relationship has really changed, we
are still heavily reliant and dependable on outside
Kaviq Kaluraq is chair of the Nunavut Impact support, and the relationship is still fragmented, in
Review Board and a resident of Baker Lake the current context. It is fragmented in that a lot of
(Qamani’tuaq) where she teaches in the Nun- our reliance is on what we would say is Southern
avut Teacher Education Program for Nunavut support. We are still unable to support ourselves,
Arctic College. She has a Bachelor of Science whether that is economically, socially, and with
degree from Trent University (Yay!), where she things like infrastructure. In many different ways,
is also completing a Master of Educational we’re still highly dependent.
Studies degree. She is also a Jane Glassco Ways that we can start to address those gaps and
Northern Fellow with the Gordon Founda- challenges, and improve that relationship, include
tion and an active volunteer involved in many actively promoting and investing in our language,
projects. in our culture. Because Inuit have diversified roles,
our knowledge is applicable in different ways.
When we think about professional careers, this
21
activities that were going to be undertaken.knowledge is still applicable in different ways. A community member. That in itself can be very chal-
lot of people in positions of power do not under- lenging. If that policy was amended, the amount
stand that knowledge, and this creates barriers. If of time and energy that went into that recovery
people understand our knowledge, they can use it could have been significantly reduced. So there
in a context like security. are real examples where the policies that are cur-
rently in place should be revisited and amended
We need investments in our children and their
to improve the relationship.
future. There are millions of dollars of investments
going to experts in the South and institutions in Programs like the Canadian Coast Guard Auxiliary
the South, when a lot of that financial support are definitely overdue but a step in the right direc-
could be going to the North and to our commu- tion. They are much needed programs. The recent
nity members. Our community members know update that I heard from the team that works on
the Arctic intimately. them suggests that they are doing a lot of good
work. And I am hoping that, as we go forward, we
One of the examples of investing in the North is
see that grow.
support to land-based learning initiatives. We
need to value this learning. We need to understand Community members need to be active par-
that traditional knowledge is not new knowledge, ticipants in planning, building, and operating,
it is experiential, and it is passed down from gen- starting with our kids. We need to be able to set
eration to generation. So we need to be able to short-term, medium-term, and long-term goals,
enable people and our children, and future gen- and they need to be continuous. One of the exam-
erations, to be able to continually use that knowl- ples is with health care professionals. In the cur-
edge, both in language and practice. rent state of the pandemic, the reality is that we
are still heavily dependent on the South because
Policies have to be living and continuously revis-
we do not have the health facilities to be able to
ited and amended to suit changing realities and
provide health services in our communities. We
needs. One of the examples that I would like to
are putting ourselves at risk. And if we look at his-
share is when we did a search and recovery situ-
tory with things like tuberculosis outbreaks and
ation a couple of years ago. Policies that were in
the “Spanish flu,” Inuit have been affected a lot, and
place limited us from accessing sonar technology
we need to be able to have adequate resources in
that would have allowed us to do the recovery
our community so that we can protect ourselves.
efficiently. A government policy meant that our
That is also Arctic security.
community ended up having to come together
and raise our own funds, raised through fundrais- An important source of information is Nunavut
ing and private donations, to be able to recover a Tunngavik Incorporated’s Nunavut Infrastructure
Gap Report that shows how there
is still a significant gap between
what we see with other Canadians
or Canadians in the South and then
Canadians in the North. I think that
this is an important source of infor-
mation, of understanding how can
we promote Arctic security? How
can we improve Arctic security?
We need to be creative and allow
communities to be innovators and
allow for diversity because it is our
diversity amongst ourselves that
gives us resiliency. When we talk
about Inuit, sometimes we are put
22into one group. However, we are very diverse in
the languages that we speak, the culture that we
practice is so diverse across the circumpolar Arctic,
In Nunavut, the Government of Nunavut
even within short distances from community to
and some Institutions of Public Gov-
community. So, we need to find ways to continue
ernment obligate cultural training of
to promote that diversity.
employees, and provide Inuit Qaujima-
We can empower Inuit by allow sharing data, mak- jatuqangit Days whereby employees are
ing data more accessible. Whether that is through encouraged to participate in Inuit cul-
smart data, our own data of our Inuit knowledge, tural activities either on the land or in the
or through statistical data. The information is very community learning about and practic-
important in empowering people to ensure their ing Inuit culture as a means to reinforce
security. the significance of IQ in their practices
and to educate anyone working with
Building strength and resiliency in our communi- Inuit about Inuit language and culture.
ties improves security because our communities Activities on IQ days often include going
should be enabled to protect themselves. This is on land trips to harvest, sewing, mak-
not just about looking at our land and resources, ing traditional tools, and learning about
but also challenging our own mindsets. Some of Inuit history from Inuit. These activities
the possible ways to improve relationships and to demonstrate IQ in everyday life, in Inuit
start to work towards a more positive relationship, history, and provide an opportunity for
as I mentioned earlier, is supporting land-based people to carry lessons from IQ into their
learning programs through education. professional practice and also develop a
Another challenge that we often face across the better understanding of how IQ can be
country—and not just Inuit, but also other Indige- applied in public service in more mean-
nous People both in Canada and globally—is the ingful ways. This process of enculturation
need for academic institutions to reassess their through IQ days allows public servants
requirements for entry. They need to assess what to actively work towards transforming
education they value and how they accept stu- systems of Eurocentric processes to pro-
dents into their institutions because it is not okay cesses grounded in Inuit values, princi-
to just say that we are putting in programs into ples, and ways of being.
communities so that people in the community Killulark Arngna’naaq, Heather Bourassa,
can work. We also need to be the professionals. We Don Couturier, Kaviq Kaluraq, Kelly
need to have equity in terms of things like creden- Panchyshyn, Realizing Indigenous
tials and access to services and resources so that Law in Co-Management (Toronto:
we can be decision makers. We can be the people Gordon Foundation, 2019), 23.
leading the change.
As part of the Jane Glassco Fellowship, we pro-
duced a paper on co-management using Indige-
nous laws, and one of our recommendations was One example that is currently in place is through
around enculturation. The policy recommenda- Operation Nanook, since they carry out those exer-
tion around enculturation was more towards peo- cises in the Arctic and they involve the Canadian
ple who are not from our communities or who Rangers—from the people, from the communi-
come into our communities in order to start to ties. That offers an enculturation process through
begin to understand: what is that and what is that knowledge-sharing activities. But we need to see
indigenous knowledge? How can you use it? What those kinds of things happening across all of gov-
is the connection to the work that we are trying to ernment, and not just in silos and in parts of our
do? We need to have enculturation processes so relationship.
that people can see the world from our worldview.
23how to assault or kill other people”—
because those are the first things
that come to mind when I hear about
combat. Instead, when we’re facing
things like suicide in our communities
it’s kind of a startling thought to think,
“oh, we want to put in programs on
how to train our people on how to kill
other people because we see that as a
means to protect ourselves.” So, there
are important things that we need
to ask ourselves in terms of changes
we’re making.
Some of the Jane Glassco fellows
wrote a paper on Balancing World-
One thing that I read in a news article recently was views which talks about policy recom-
the idea that people should begin to be trained for mendations related to climate change in Canada’s
combat—that it is not okay to just train for things North. I think they had some very good recom-
like what the Canadian Rangers do, but that we mendations around how we can improve relation-
need more hard military training and presence. ships in the North as well as programs related to
Maybe so, but when those kinds of statements climate change.
are made it is really important that we think about We need things like significant and long-term
whose priorities these represent? Is that an Inuit scholarships for our children. The funding pro-
value? If we are looking at changing the system grams in place are not sufficient. If our children are
to reflect more of Indigenous perspective and an already living in poverty, how can we expect them
equitable relationship, we need to think about
whether what is being pro-
posed is actually an Indigenous
value and in Indigenous law.
And I would actually challenge
that, if we go to Inuit Tirigu-
suusiit laws, the work that was
done by the Government of
Nunavut Department of Edu-
cation with Indigenous elders,
they were able to articulate
what Inuit laws are—or natural
laws—that build upon other
types of Inuit laws, and the
four essential underpinning
laws are: working for the com-
mon good, being respectful of
all living things, maintaining
harmony, and continually plan-
ning and preparing for a better
future. And those things are
not—to me, I don’t hear things
like, “we want to train people
24to do things like earn a university education? It is the complex Arctic framework. It requires a lot of
unrealistic. With the amounts of investments that work to be able to allow a lot of those things to
are going to Southern institutions, some of those happen and to manage it. So, when we are at a
funds should be directed towards going back to state where it is not equitable right, as it right now,
our children in the North in one form or another, we are still working our way towards ensuring that
and scholarship programs are one possibility. it is equitable.
We need Northern-operated infrastructure as well When Bridget brought up the concept of power, I
as Inuit-led research. We have to empower us first think a frame of mind that I would like to share is
by meeting our basic needs. One of my fellows, that when we think about power from a Western
Tina DeCouto, talked about how we need to meet perspective, we often think about the privileges
our basic needs before we can be empowered to that come with it. However, from an Indigenous
take on other things like more critical roles. perspective, when I think about power and lead-
ership, I think about responsibility. So, you can
My final points are about the need to share the
almost think about it like the top of a triangle: the
responsibility. It falls upon all of us. We need to
higher position you are in, the more responsibility
value our relationships. The current relationships
you take. So that concept of power is very different
that we have are valued between organizations,
from an Indigenous perspective—and definitely
but we need to continue to build them—and we
from an Inuit perspective—than you would find in
still have a long way to go. We need to build equi-
a Western perspective.
table investments in the North. For example, when
David Sproule talked about some of the interest My last point is that our security is Arctic security
in the North, a lot of those expressions of interest and not just us being protected, but us having the
come through environmental assessment. And as ability to protect ourselves. And I think Dalee men-
it stands, environmental assessment is a signifi- tioned a whole bunch of areas of security that are
cant part of the Nunavut Impact Review Board, important, and I would say that those are all the
which requires equitable investments in terms of areas that would be important.
funds and resources to be able to function within
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