WATER A GLOBAL CHALLENGE - ID4D
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WATER A GLOBAL CHALLENGE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Access to drinking water and sanitation
04 is a fundamental human right
INTERVIEW WITH CATARINA DE ALBUQUERQUE – EXECUTIVE CHAIR, SANITATION AND FOR ALL
09 “Day Zero” is scheduled for July 9th in Cape Town
INTERVIEW WITH XANTHEA LIMBERG – COUNCILLOR, CAPE TOWN CITY
13
Make water and sanitation a central
humanitarian issue WATER
A GLOBAL CHALLENGE
INTERVIEW WITH JEAN LAPÈGUE – SENIOR ADVISOR WASH, NGO ACTION CONTRE LA FAIM
Hydro-diplomacy to prevent the militarization of water-
17 related conflicts Everywhere in the world, water is still a key issue. Source of inequalities
INTERVIEW WITH FADI GEORGES COMAIR – HONORARY PRESIDENT, MEDITERRANEAN NETWORK OF when scarce or difficult to access, of geopolitical conflicts when shared, of
BASIN ORGANISATIONS public health problems when polluted or even of humanitarian disasters
when provoking natural catastrophes: whatever challenges the water
issue raises, the most affected are always the most vulnerable people.
“In most cases, wars are not fought over water”
21 INTERVIEW WITH STEPHEN MCCAFFREY – DISTINGUISHED PROFESSOR OF LAW, MCGEORGE SCHOOL 2.1 billion human beings do not have access to safely managed domestic
OF LAW, UNI. OF THE PACIFIC
drinking water. Population growth increases the pressure on the resource
and extreme climate events are more and more frequent. Today, water
“Women and men have differential roles, rights is more than ever a global challenge: a common good to share, a vital
24 resource to sustainably manage, a human right to uphold.
and responsibilities”
INTERVIEW WITH SARA AHMED – RESEARCHER, BOARD MEMBER OF WATERAID INDIA
With this document, Ideas for Development gives a voice to ten experts
who are mobilized, on a national or a global level, on water issues and
challenges. Fight for a universal access to drinking water and sanitation,
Latin America: Adaptation to climate change
28 anticipation of extreme shortages, reduction in inequalities, adaptation to
and wastewater treatment climate change, technologic innovation, hydro-diplomacy…
TRIBUNE BY MAURICE BERNARD – AFD DIRECTOR FOR THE ANDEAN AREA
Even though the challenges are enormous, works and actions of women
and men featuring in the following pages demonstrate every day that
Why do toilets need to be reinvented?
30 INTERVIEW WITH DOULAYE KONÉ – SENIOR PROGRAM OFFICER, WASH PROGRAM,
solutions do exist. They all unanimously agree on one point: only a strong
commitment of the international community and proactive public policies
GATES FOUNDATION
will improve resource management and conservation, mitigate the
impacts of climate change and make the right to water a reality.
When innovation and private enterprise facilitate
34 access to drinking water
INTERVIEW WITH ASKWAR HILONGA – TANZANIAN ENGINEER, INVENTOR OF THE NANOFILTER
Provide a quality, sustainable and affordable Sharpen you vision of development with the ID4D blog,
38 service to all coordinated by the Agence française de développement:
TRIBUNE BY CÉLINE GILQUIN – HEAD OF AFD’S WATER AND SANITATION DIVISION
ideas4development.org
@iD4D
Publishing director: iD4D. Interviews: Sabine Cessou & Aurélie Darbouret. Editorial and graphic conception: A nimal pensant .
Photo credits: p. 5 © Joseph Moura, p. 9–11-15 © Cyril Le Tourneur d’Ison, p. 17 © Andrea&Mada Photographers, p. 25 © Didier Gentilhomme, p. 26 © Ania Gruca, p. 29
© Jorge Cardoso, p. 30 © Patricia Esteve, p. 33 © James Keogh, p. 35–36 © Georgina Goodwin, portrait of Stephen McCaffrey © McGeorge School of Law, University of the Pacific.
2 3
WATE R, A GLOBA L CHA LLE NGE
HUMAN RIGHT
“Access to drinking
water and sanitation is
a fundamental human right”
C
TERVIEW W atarina de Albuquerque developed countries, where the lack
IN I was the first UN Special of access to water was not really
AN
TH
Rapporteur on the apparent. At the time, the water crisis
Human Right to Water was especially blatant in the poorest
and Sanitation from 2008 to 2014. She countries, which were colonies and
is now Executive Chair of the global therefore did not have a seat around
partnership Sanitation and Water for the table. Furthermore, civil society
CATARINA All. After having contributed to the organizations, which today influence
DE ALBUQ UERQUE recognition of access to water and the debates at the United Nations,
sanitation as a fundamental human were virtually absent from the UDHR
F irs t UN Spe c ia l R a p -
po rte ur o n th e H u ma n right, she is today concerned about negotiations.
Right to Wa t e r a n d seeing that the most disadvantaged It was only in 2005 that Germany
Sanitatio n f r o m 2 0 0 8 populations are still left behind and that and Spain pushed for the opening
to 20 1 4 public policies take up this right far of discussions on a right to water,
too little. For Catarina de Albuquerque even before the creation of the United
there is no doubt: it is impossible Nations Human Rights Council. The
to regulate access to water without two countries subsequently proposed
binding public policies. the creation of a mandate of Special
Rapporteur to analyze the possibility
Why did access to drinking water only of recognizing this right. So, I was
become a human right in 2010? appointed and I worked to have this
If the Universal Declaration of Human right recognized. Bolivia, which was
Rights (UDHR) of 10 December 1948 very interested in the recognition of a
mentions all rights except the right right to water at the time, took up the
to water, it is because access to issue. I persuaded the Ambassador
water was taken for granted by the of Bolivia to the United Nations in
negotiators of the text, who were New York to include not only the
diplomats from wealthy families in right to water, but also the right to
sanitation. On 28 July 2010, the United
Nations General Assembly adopted the
“Making access to water resolution making access to drinking
water and sanitation a fundamental
a right means it must be human right. This was an essential Kinshasa, DRC.
Pipe operators are
affordable, accessible, step and one of the happiest days of my
experience as a Rapporteur!
recruited among
inhabitants by water
of good quality” users associations,
responsible for the
Is this recognition mainly symbolic or good managing of
can it bring about a real change? water fountains.
4 5
WATE R, A GL OBAL CHAL L EN G E WATE R, A GLOBA L CHA LLE NGE
D I ST R I B U T I O N O F WAT ER C O N SU M P T I O N
AR O U N D T H E W O R L D
70%
It is first and foremost symbolic, but
A g ri c u l tu re “We need laws, public flushing. In Singapore and Australia,
I do, of course, hope that it will have water recycling is also being developed:
more far-reaching effects. It has policies and regulations recycled water goes back into the
already influenced the Sustainable to encourage agriculture, drinking water system and is safely
Development Goals (SDGs) and drunk by people.
has even led to the adoption of an tourism and industry We need laws, public policies and
independent goal on water and to make efforts to save, regulations to encourage agriculture,
sanitation set out in the 2030 Agenda. tourism and industry to make efforts to
I fought to make sure that it was recycle and reuse water” save, recycle and reuse water. People
not limited to a simple declaration have a responsibility, but it is especially
of good intentions. It was absolutely governments which have the duty to
19%
essential that the normative content adopt appropriate legislation.
11% I n d u s tr ies
was included in the SDGs. Making
Mu n i c i p a l i ti e s
access to water a right means that it Why do you talk about poor water How do you account for the
must be affordable, accessible, of good management? deficiencies in public policies?
quality, etc. Furthermore, did you know Firstly, there is a huge lack of The lack of good public policies is
that the only human right explicitly investments in the maintenance sometimes due to a lack of knowledge
recognized and mentioned in the 2030 of water systems. For example, in or competence by governments.
Agenda is precisely the right to water the USA, the situation is tragic. The However, the main reason is that it is
and sanitation? This is the result of the equipment is dilapidated, never difficult to win elections by promising
battle I waged with hundreds of civil repaired, and there are huge losses to adopt this type of measure for water
society actors. These rights have now recorded. management. It is a subject which
been taken into account in constitutions Secondly, certain tariff or subsidy can be difficult to sell electorally. This
and national plans. People make claims systems have adverse effects. The
Source: United Nations World Water Development Report 2017,
about them in national courts. The UN Water example of Jordan clearly illustrates
world is changing. Some headway is this: the Government maintains
being made. The situation is, however, substantial subsidies for water for
far from being perfect. falling. I also do not deny the impact of agriculture, as it is a major source of
climate change. But we know that there foreign currency for the country. But
How can we account for the current is enough water on the planet to ensure the adverse effect of these subsidies
water crisis? access to it for all. The problem lies in is that they have encouraged farmers
The quantity of available water today poor public policies and the significant to consume a lot of water in one of the
is the same as the quantity available lack of regulations, which are, however, countries in the world where there is
at the time of the dinosaurs. The first essential in order to prioritize the the least water. The Government is now 2. 1 bi l l i on peopl e, i . e. 30% o f t h e w o rl d ’s
difference is that there were fewer various water uses. For example, in the making efforts to promote water-saving popul at i on, still do not have access to safely managed
domestic drinking water supply services
dinosaurs than there are humans. The event of a crisis, will priority be given to crops, but priorities are changing very,
second is that in their time, there was human consumption or to watering golf or even too, slowly.
no tourism, agriculture or industry. courses? Or to the irrigation of huge In the tourism sector, we see that it is
Yet agriculture consumes 70% of the agricultural crops intended for export? only when the price of water increases
fresh water available and industry that hotels invest in water-saving
19%. It is essential to educate the taps or water recycling systems. For
population by explaining that water is “There is enough water on example, in Las Vegas, which is located
a scarce and valuable resource, but in one of the most arid regions in the
it does get on my nerves when some
the planet to ensure access USA, very binding tax policies have
try to lay all the blame for the water to it for all. The problem lies forced hotels to drastically reduce their
crisis on individuals! Households consumption, while ensuring that the
have more swimming pools, showers,
in poor public policies and the city’s tourism revenues are maintained.
4. 4 bi l l i on peopl e, i . e. 60% o f t h e w o rl d ’s
popul at i on, do not have saf ely manage d s anit at io n
washing machines, dishwashers, etc., significant lack of regulations” In Japan, certain buildings have been ser vices
but the major problem is not related equipped with dual pipe systems: the
to domestic use. The quantity of water water used for the shower does not go
available per capita is admittedly down the drain, but is reused for toilet Source : Unicef
6 7
WATE R, A GL OBAL CHAL L EN G E
F R E S H WAT E R AVAILABILITY IN THE WORLD CLIM ATE
c u b ic me t er s per per son and per year, i n 2007
“Day Zero”
is scheduled for
July 9 th in Cape Town
C
0
S ho rtage
TERVIEW W ape Town, the second largest Mayoral Committee overseeing Informal
1 ,0 0 0 IN I
city of South Africa and very Settlements, Water & Waste Services,
AN
TH
Hydric s tre s s
popular with tourists, is and Energy in February 2017.
1 ,7 0 0
Vulner ability struck by a severe drought
2 ,5 0 0 since 2016. Led by Mayor Patricia de Why was the decision taken to set limits
Lille from the Democratic Alliance, for water consumption per household in
6 ,0 0 0 municipality took strong measures to Cape Town?
XANTHEA restrict water consumption. The city is For more than a decade, the City
1 5 ,0 0 0 is especially because in the water more in periods of scarcity. There will LIMBERG also preparing for a “Day Zero” scenario, demands water restrictions as part of
sector, most of the infrastructure is be an extremely marked increase in Cape To w n Co unc i l -
the day when the taps run dry and some water conservation policies because
7 0 ,0 0 0 underground. Yet what cannot be seen inequalities. 200 water collection sites provide water of the drought affecting the region and
l o r i n c harge o f the
does not gain votes. May o ral Co mmi tte e for 4 million inhabitants. Yet, the City of the increasing urbanization due to
6 8 4 ,0 00 Water is too cheap in many countries. Are you pessimistic? o v e rs e e i ng I nfo rmal is not waiting for the catastrophe to a constant influx of new dwellers from
The price of water should be increased I am very concerned about inequalities. Se ttl e me nts , happen: several projects will produce
Wate r & Was te
Data n o t for those who can pay, slums should I have fought relentlessly in this Se rv i c e s , and Ene rgy.
200 million more litres of water in the
av aila b le o r n o t
s ignif ic a n t
be connected to the official networks field. When I was a Rapporteur at the current year, explains Xanthea Limberg, The City is not
and social tariffs should be introduced United Nations, my objective was to Cape Town Councillor and Chair of the
for the most vulnerable. This would include this theme in the SDGs. We waiting for the catastrophe
Sources: FAO, United Nations,
World Resources Institute (WRI)
establish a fair system accessible to succeeded. For this recognition to to happen
all, while avoiding wastage. But the serve a purpose, it has to be taken into
increase in water tariffs can bring account and we have to change the
about revolutions and few politicians way we work. Unfortunately, I do not
are willing to take this risk. However, if see any changes. We cannot simply
the Minister of Water is smart, he can say: “Almost everyone has access
have a lot of success and maybe even to water.” This “almost” is not good
become Prime Minister! enough for me. This “almost” means
that we are continuing to ignore the
What are the future challenges? poorest, people who belong to an
Today, over two billion people lack ethnic, linguistic minority, etc. If we
drinking water. Every year, millions do not identify the most marginalized
of people die from diseases related (the homeless, migrants, refugees)
to unsafe water. With the ongoing and if we do not implement special
climate change, there will be less and public policies to reach them, we will
less fresh water available. The real never achieve a rate of access to water
tragedy is that the aggravation of the of 100%. Yet 100% of human beings
water crisis will first and foremost with access to water and sanitation Cape Town, South
affect those who are already the most is what all the Heads of State and Africa. The 4 million
Capetonians could
disadvantaged. Those who suffer in Government pledged to the world in soon be deprived
times of abundance will suffer even September 2015. • of water.
8 9
WATE R, A GL OBAL CHAL L EN G E WATE R, A GLOBA L CHA LLE NGE
P O P U L AT I O N Cape Town, South Africa.
Inhabitants of the rehabilitated
I N T H E C AP E T O W N informal settlement of
Flamingo Crescent now have
AR EA access to water and toilets.
4
millions
rural areas of the neighbouring instance, you can tell the city. and the majority less than 47 rands (€3,2)
poorer province of Eastern Our inspectors will come and per month.
Cape. Many white households issue a fine going from 5,000
also leave Johannesburg and up to 10,000 rands (340 to 680 If the current drought persists and the
the richest and industrialized euros). The fines are set by the current restrictions are not respected,
Gauteng Province because of the Municipal Court, depending on how seriously are you preparing the
perception of levels of crime. 2.4 the severity of the offence or if it “Day Zero” as a catastrophe scenario?
Cape Town is internationally mi ll i o n s has happened more than once. If our consumption of water remains at
recognized for its efforts in water On the last quarter of 2017, the current level of 6 million litres per
management. The “Mother City”, 400 fines were issued. As the day, “Day Zero” is scheduled for July 9th!
as people call the second largest numbers escalate, we will have All the municipalities around Cape Town
city after Johannesburg, has to increase the capacity of our and the agricultural sector draw water
the lowest water use per capita water inspectors’ team. from the same set of dams. Hence, we,
amongst big cities in South The situation demands as an entire province, need to reduce
Africa. This policy is ensuring we further restrictions. As our consumption. That is why the city is
can still reduce our demand in Mayor Patricia de Lille said focused on massively doing so.
order to save the water resource in December, 200,000 out of “Day Zero” is not when Cape Town
still within our six dams. 707,800 households are not runs out of water, but when our dams
We have implemented level 5 respecting the city restrictions. reach a level of 13,5% – meaning nearly
water restrictions in September, Devices controlling water empty – with no possibility to normally
restricting the water use to management are being provide water to the city. The level as
87 litres per person per day. 19 9 5 2017 installed on some properties. of January was 29,7% with only about “If “Day Zero” happens […],
Level 6 was implemented In January, our municipal 19,7% of useable water left. If “Day Zero”
in January and level 6B on
Source: Western Cape Province.
council has decided on a new happens because of the non-respect of
we will then have to manage
February 1st. Currently, the water set of measures hoping these the current restrictions, we will then have carefully and efficiently some
use is set to no more than 50 litres per will change behaviours. The principle to manage carefully and efficiently some
person per day. is simple: if you use more water, you time with a strict use of 25 litres of water
time with a strict use of 25 litres
will pay more for it. We are also looking per day and per capita, until the rains of water per day and per capita”
How difficult is it to implement the at reducing the pressure level of water refill some of our aquifers (rain season
restriction measures? coming out of the taps; less pressure starts with the austral winter in June,
The municipality has a Water means water savings. Finally, a water editor’s note).
Department with an inspectors’ levy is being discussed to enable the As a responsible local government, we
team that goes out and respond City to finance water augmentation are attempting to avoid “Day Zero” but we settlements – where communities
to the water complaints they projects, implying to produce have to prepare for any eventuality. If Day already use communal taps as a water
receive. We have launched T O P 10 water and to increase the Zero happens, the alternative plan is to collection site -, clinics and hospitals,
a campaign to encourage C I T I ES FAC I N G WAT ER capacity of our aquifers. set 200 water collections sites, in order and the Centre Business District (CBD) to
people to report abuse: if D EFI C I T B Y 2050 Our plan is that the to deliver 25 litres per person per day on make sure that key businesses and the
you see your neighbours 464,000 richest households a 24h/24h basis. A large portion of Cape economy still work.
B ecause of aqui f er s af f ect ed
watering their gardens by cl i m at e change and,
pay for it, with the 52,000 Town will depend on water collection We are also looking at expanding water
with a hosepipe connected ur ban and soci oeconom i c wealthiest at a rate above sites, but some sectors will be excluded collection points through partnership
to a municipal line, for devel opm ent 150 rands (€10) per month from that policy, such as informal with the private sector in order to use
Source: Nature Sustainability, vol. 1,
pp. 51–58 (2018)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
LOS ANGELES JAIPUR DAR ES-SALAAM DALI AN SAN DI EGO KARACHI HARBIN P H O EN I X P O R TO A LEG R E M O NT E R R E Y
(US A ) ( In d ia ) ( Tanz ani a) ( C hi na) ( U SA) (Pak i s tan) (Chi na) (USA) (Braz i l ) (M exico)
10 11
WATE R, A GL OBAL CHAL L EN G E
EM ERGENCY
under construction in Strandfontein will
deliver 7 million litres of water per day.
Make water
In a first stage, it will give 2 million litres
per day and as of May 5th more
million litres per day.
and sanitation a central
We are also trying to
maximize our
aquifers, a
humanitarian issue
source of water
that will produce
100 million litres
T
from 2020 onwards,
if well managed. TERVIEW W he humanitarian action development, especially the World
IN I
According to a ground and development agendas Water Forum. It is also essential for
AN
TH
WAT E R S T R E S S water survey conducted in are complementary and the situation of the most vulnerable to
2016, at least 150 million interdependent. Their issues be a strategic and financial priority for
IN AFRICA litres of water per consequently need to be addressed in governments. Indeed, humanitarian
in 2 0 2 5 day can be delivered a coherent manner. According to Jean needs around the world have reached
by the Cape Flats, Lapègue, in addition to woefully lacking an unprecedented level: according to the
Wate r s h o r t a g e in 2 0 2 5 JEAN
Table Mountain Group financing, the water and sanitation sector United Nations, in 2017, over 140 million
(le s s t h a n 1 ,0 0 0 m 3 / h a b ./ y e a r ) LAPÈGUE
and Atlantis aquifers. is not sufficiently taken into account people in 37 countries required
Wate r s t r e s s in 2 0 2 5 ( 1 ,0 0 0 t o The city has moved Se ni o r Wate r- in humanitarian operations and immediate assistance.
1,700 m 3 / h a b ./ y e a r ) drill rigs onto the sites Sani tati o n- Hy gi e ne development projects. His From the development
to get more water, and Adv i s o r o f the NGO objective at the World Water perspective, according to the
3
Ac ti o n c o ntre l a
Source: UNDP allocated more resources Forum: make sure these World Health Organization
fai m (ACF )
to drill underground in a issues are central (WHO), in 2015,
sustainable and environmental-friendly to the discussions 663 million people still
approach. of governments,
development times did not have access
to an improved
Are the tourists prepared for water agencies and more people water source.
their infrastructures. Water collection restrictions? civil society will be af f ect ed by f loods 319 million of them,
could also be done through grocery Everybody needs to comply, even if the organizations. by 2100 i.e. 48%, live in Sub-
stores, where you can collect your key operations in the CBD will still be Source: French Water Partnership
Saharan Africa. In
25 litres per day and pay for them connected to water from taps. This What are you expecting addition, almost a third
at the normal public rate. Finally, a includes foreign visitors, 1.5 million from the 8th World Water of people worldwide do
disaster management plan has also people in 2016, and South African Forum, which is being held not benefit from real access
been coordinated with the province of tourists, 2.1 million people the same in Brasilia in March 2018? to sanitation. The World Water
Western Cape, the police and the army year according to South African Tourism Action contre la faim (ACF) advocates Forum should serve as a reminder that
to minimize any abuse and maintain law statistics. for the humanitarian approach to have dealing with people in crisis situations
and order around the water collection We have launched in October 2017 a its place in symposiums concerning is a priority, because they are the first
sites. “Tourist Saving Water” campaign. Our to be affected by the lack of access to
message is that you can still come to water, sanitation and hygiene. Last
Beyond 2018, how will you manage the Cape Town and explore its wonders year, ACF provided its services to some
situation in the middle and long term? and beauty, but remind you need to
“It is essential for the situation 6 million people. 40% of them were in an
In the long term, many projects are save like a local to what was then of the most vulnerable to be a acute emergency situation. That is a lot,
on the way to maintain and increase our Level 5 restriction plan, 87 litres but, without wishing to play on words, it
our water supply. Such as desalination per day. We have had advertisements
strategic and financial priority remains a drop in the ocean of needs!
plants, possible on our site since Cape at the International Airport and we for governments”
Town stands along two oceans, the communicated with the hotel industry What issues will you be addressing at
Atlantic and the Indian Ocean. The first and tourist agencies so that the message the World Water Forum?
of the three temporary plants currently can be shared. • ACF will be focusing on the link between
12 13
WATE R, A GL OBAL CHAL L EN G E WATE R, A GLOBA L CHA LLE NGE
“Water channels less
than 4% of global Official
Development Assistance
(ODA), i.e. some
water, sanitation, nutrition and public Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) also operational constraints: sanitation,
health. Indeed, public health issues in September 2015, etc.: the sector unlike water, which can be distributed US 8 billion dollars a year”
remain highly dependent on the health is moving fast. But this substantial collectively, must in most cases be
environment of populations. Every health progress requires a greater capacity for individualized at the household level,
centre needs to be equipped with water implementation, in particular for the which makes its installation complex and
and sanitation and to be able to treat SDGs. At the global level, over twenty costly.
waste (particularly medical waste). This UN agencies are involved in the water There is also a significant financial opportunities, despite a few promising
is essential. sector. But three factors are essential constraint. The sanitation budget is examples, such as the recovery of
We also promote young professionals to ensure more effective coordination: often chronically lower than the budget excrement for compost or waste sorting
who are active in the water sector. The a single recognized and strong agency devoted to water (58%), which gives to create income-generating activities.
young generation is the generation in charge of coordinating the sector, an indication of how sanitation comes The water sector generates an economic
which has grown up with the SDGs. In an interministerial platform to allow second in priorities. In 2016, 42% of the interest and attracts financing, while
practical terms, we are going to ensure concerted sectoral discussions, total budget devoted by governments to sanitation remains a financial drain. All
that a sufficient number of young people a multi-stakeholder consultation the water-sanitation-hygiene triptych this contributes to this subsector lagging
can attend the Forum, contribute to platform to assist governments in the was earmarked for sanitation. behind, a lag which is exacerbated in
the various processes (including the implementation of the SDGs. Finally, sanitation does not yet create rural areas, where only 24% of sectoral
ministerial declaration) and express These three recommendations were sufficient strong and replicable economic financing is allocated to sanitation.
their point of view, which is often made by the United Nations Secretary-
innovative and revolutionary. General’s Advisory Board on Water & Can you give examples of countries
Sanitation in November 2015 and are where water and sanitation
What is the main barrier to action for still relevant and supported by ACF. management are great emergencies?
access to water? The indicators for access to the service
The recognition of the right to water in Does the World Water Forum not are critical in Burkina Faso: in 2015,
July 2010, the definition of a dedicated indeed provide a good opportunity for only 54% of the population had access
interministerial discussions? to water and 2% to sanitation at national
It does, indeed, play this role by default, level and these rates stand at 43% and
S ANITATION but everything depends on the good 12% in rural areas. But the country is
IN THE W ORLD will of the ministers who are present,
because the framework of the Forum
S a fe l y m an a g e d
and its political process leading to
39%
a ministerial declaration of intent
are not binding and are not placed
under the auspices of the United
Nations. The World Water Forum does,
however, provide a major opportunity
I n 20 1 5 , for advocacy for the coordination
39%
of the water sector and also a real
Lim it ed opportunity for discussions between
8% countries and stakeholders, with a view
o f th e w o rl d po p u l ati o n us e d
to a harmonious implementation of the
s a fe l y m an a g e d s an i tati o n
SDGs.
s e rv i c e s .
Ba s i c
29% Why is there less interest in sanitation
U n im p r o v e d
than in water?
12%
Besides the issues of image concerning
waste and excrement, the sanitation
Shohila, Bangladesh.
O p e n de fe c a ti o n sector is affected by various constraints. Six months per
12% Firstly, access to water, which is more year, during floods,
easily perceived as a vital and immediate inhabitants live
almost in autarky
need, is systematically given priority in the inundated
Source: Progress on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene:
2017 update and SDG baselines, JMP Washdata. over access to sanitation. There are village.
14 15
WATE R, A GL OBAL CHAL L EN G E
GEOPOLITICS
showing a real political and strategic access to water than the other way
will to achieve the SDGs, in particular via round.
the implementation of a decentralized Climate change is a major concern.
sectoral policy. In Sahelian zones, it is a pervasive
Senegal is also a good example in terms and real problem. Similarly, in
of policy decisions in the sector. The next the Middle East (Jordan, Iraq) and
World Water Forum will, moreover, be Southern Africa (Madagascar), the
held in this country in 2021. We can also decline of groundwater is tangible
mention India, a country with the record and documented. The inevitable
rate for open defecation (597 million consequences are known: displacement
people in 2014, according to Unicef). of populations and increase in the
However, the problems of sanitation are cost of infrastructure, which must be
so critical in this country that there has adapted to a resource that is increasingly
been growing political awareness and scarce and more complicated to locate.
major commitments have been made at Geophysical surveys are systematically
federal level. conducted and telescopic wells are
Finally, countries affected by chronic becoming more and more common.
crisis situations (Somalia, Afghanistan,
Southern Sudan, etc.) are logically What do you expect from donors?
those which have the most difficulties First and foremost, more financing Palestinian
Territories.
in making progress in access to water is needed. It is easy to observe the Without water or
and sanitation. These issues become low level of financing in the sector in sanitation,
secondary priorities and come after humanitarian situations. We just have to health conditions
are precarious.
security. They also suffer from the typical look at the fact that in 2017, the United
corollaries in conflict situations: lack of Nations Office for the Coordination of
access to territories, corruption, poor
governance, absence or non-application
of the legal framework, drain on human
Humanitarian Affairs launched a global
appeal for funds in order to reach the
101.2 million most vulnerable people.
Hydro-diplomacy
resources and technical capacities,
gradual disappearance of the private
sector, etc.
Out of a total need of US 23.5 billion
dollars in all sectors taken together,
26% was covered, i.e. only 6.2 billion
to prevent the militarization
As of access to water, should we worry
more about climate change or about
were raised. The water sector is
still underfunded, both in terms of
development and emergency situations.
of water-related conflicts
conflict situations? Water channels a total of less than 4% of
Even if certain conflicts are directly global Official Development Assistance
related to competition over water (ODA), i.e. some US 8 billion dollars a
A
resources (Sri Lanka or the Gaza year, and this has been plummeting
Strip), in reality, there are more conflict for 5 years. Financing in the water TERVIEW W ccess to water still causes need to establish specific negotiation
IN I
situations which lead to problems of sector in humanitarian situations also conflicts between those processes on water issues and
AN
TH
accounts for less than 5% of total aid. who share or fight over anticipate the increase in water stress
This is critical, especially considering access to the same source. and its consequences.
“In reality, there are more the fact that the first disaster response These tensions are even more serious,
interventions are generally actions in the or even explosive in regions where water Are water-related conflicts on the rise
conflict situations which lead to water and sanitation sector. resources are scarce. This is the case on in the Middle East?
FADI GEORGES
problems of access to water Finally, what we expect from the main
COMAIR
the shores of the Mediterranean and all All the causes of vulnerability are to
multilateral institutional donors is more countries in the Middle East. There is a be found in the Middle East! First of
than the other way round” flexibility to allow integrated and multi- Wate r di pl o mat and
risk that they will be further exacerbated all, 60% of water in countries in the
sectoral projects to be supported, for i nte rnati o nal ne go - in the future by the consequences of region comes from external countries.
example, projects which link water and ti ato r, Mi ddl e Eas t climate change. For Georges Comair, a Secondly, the region is experiencing
nutrition. • s pe c i al i s t water diplomat, countries in the region strong population growth, at a rate
16 17
WATE R, A GL OBAL CHAL L EN G E WATE R, A GLOBA L CHA LLE NGE
TURKEY
GREECE
IRAN
of about 3.8% per year. Finally, the equitable sharing and reasonable use SYRIA
quantity of water available per capita of water – a text which was ratified by LEBANON
is low: 700m3 per capita per year in all countries in the region, with the Mediterranean
IRAQ
the Middle East, against an average of exception of Israel and Turkey. Sea ISRAEL
West Bank
7,000m3 per capita per year worldwide. The texts of the United Nations
Gaza Strip
Consequently, all the ingredients are Economic Commission for Europe
there for conflicts. At the same time, (UNECE) can also be taken as an JORDAN
we have established major dynamics to example. The management of the
promote dialogue between States. Danube is, for instance, exemplary:
all the countries which share the river LIBYA
EGYPT
What are these tools which promote negotiate and work together. This
cooperation and sustainable water management model can be applied in Red SAUDI ARABIA
resources management? the Middle East. The management of the Sea
The UN texts, which I call “anti-crisis” Orontes River was the first success of
texts, are there to build cooperation hydro-diplomacy in the Middle East.
and peace and secure water for future
generations. What is hydro-diplomacy?
Countries with transboundary I created this concept in the between Palestine, Jordan, Syria, Israel European Framework Directive, which WAT E R
basins will need to transfer early 1990s. Hydro-diplomacy and Lebanon. Israel decided to occupy came into force in 2015. The principle
14
information, exchange refers to the fact of getting the Palestinian Territories to secure involves getting riparian countries of S C A R C IT Y
their databases, model all stakeholders in water its access to water. This hegemonic a watercourse together to agree on a IN T H E
the impact of climate management around domination causes water and military regulatory text (UN, European, Middle
change affecting the table in the context conflicts. The Red Sea-Dead Sea Eastern…) and organize an equitable
MID D L E E A S T
these basins of the 33 likely of a new governance. project might break the deadlock in this sharing of water and its reasonable m 3 p e r c a p ita p e r ye a r
by conducting most water stressed The aim is to promote situation. This canal between the Red use. The creation of a basin agency
technological countries in 2040 the economic and Sea and Dead Sea will supply additional comes with three major questions: What + 2 ,5 0 0 m 3
audits, and are in the Middle East social benefits for desalinated drinking water, which will governance should be adopted? What
+ 1 ,7 0 0 m 3
propose transboundary basins be equitably distributed between Jordan, Water Code should be used? And what
Source: Aqueduct Projected Water Stress
adaptation plans. Country Rankings, Technical Note, and work on preventing Palestine and Israel. legislative text should be used in the + 1 ,0 0 0 m 3
This is without WRI 2015
the militarization of The Nile, for its part, concerns the two event of dispute?
- 1 ,0 0 0 m 3
forgetting that the water-related conflicts. Sudans, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Egypt. Governance is a central issue.
countries upstream from I have applied this concept Once it has been completed, the Grand Riparian countries can opt for a Basin
watercourses will need to in the basin of the Orontes River, Ethiopian Renaissance Dam will be Commission, which is only composed Source: Le Dessous des Cartes
ensure that they do not cause harm to which originates in Lebanon, crosses the largest hydropower dam in Africa of technicians, or for a Basin Agency,
countries located downstream. Syria and flows into the Mediterranean. and will store approximately 80% of which is more broadly composed of
In the transboundary basins in the According to Unesco, the win-win the water from the Nile. There will be politicians, researchers, industry
Middle East, international legislative and agreement signed between Lebanon, serious consequences for food security leaders, farmers… In the latter case,
regulatory texts are increasingly being Turkey and Syria is a model for water in Egypt, whereas the country is already water demand management takes
used. For example, the 1997 United management in the Middle East. faced with increased droughts and major into account comprehensive plans for
Nations Convention advocates for the I have also applied it in the context of demographic pressure. Conversely, the adaptation to changes, with measures
the Jordan River crisis, which affects dam will secure Sudan’s energy needs. concerning floods, droughts, the
Palestine, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan. Consequently, it is not only water transfer of populations, etc.
For the Nile, we will need to establish sharing that is at issue, but also the food
700m3 of water per year are an extremely dynamic hydro-diplomacy! and energy security of countries. The Apart from water sharing, what
available to a Middle East sectoral approach alone is no longer problems can Basin Agencies provide a
Indeed, what are the current areas of sufficient to work on water issues. response to?
inhabitant. It is almost 10 times tension in the Middle East? Basin Agencies can address problems
less than the world average. There are many inter-State issues over What is the role of Basin Agencies? related to agriculture, the efficiency
water. For example, the Tigris and the The concept of basin agencies came of networks and financing structures.
Euphrates cross Turkey, Syria and Iraq. about in France in the 1970s. It was For example, in the Middle East, the
Water from the Jordan River is shared extended to Europe in the context of a agricultural sector is a huge water
18 19WATE R, A GL OBAL CHAL L EN G E
GEOPOLITICS
consumer and its irrigation methods
need to be changed. But how to finance
water stress, as is currently the case
in Lebanon, with the 2 million Syrian
“In most cases,
the necessary technological change? refugees.
The lack of efficiency of drinking water
networks is also a central issue. In the
The water shortage will also increase
the security threat: the strongest
wars are not fought
Middle East, there is a 40% loss rate on countries will impose their hegemonic
drinking water supply networks due to
leaks, against 10% in Europe. How can
management on the weakest countries
and conflicts will intensify.
over water”
they be stopped and service quality be Finally, this increased scarcity will
improved for citizens? cause an economic and environmental
Consequently, the question of financing shock. The economies of countries will
M
is central to the water issue. Financing be affected and river ecosystems will
can be provided by systems of donors, change: there will be fewer green areas, TERVIEW W anagement and sharing What is the extent of the water crisis?
IN I
creditors (World Bank, European less flora, less fauna. This will also have of waters often provoke It is estimated that 700 to 800 million
AN
TH
Investment Bank, etc.), or by private a number of consequences. conflicts in the world. people lack sufficient clean drinking
financing in the context of public-private The Paris Pact on Water and Adaptation, Or more accurately, water. The water crisis concerns water
partnerships with regulatory agencies. signed in 2015, provides for water data awake underlying tensions between pollution, over-use of rivers and lakes,
This can finance the construction of to be shared so that we can understand States sharing the vital resource. For depletion of underground waters.
infrastructure, such as wastewater how aquifer resources will be affected Stephen McCaffrey, lawyer specialized Internationally, problems often arise when
treatment plants, which are essential by global changes and develop common STEPHEN in watercourses management, zones of one State sharing a river with another
in preventing water in countries responses. This type of framework does
MCCAFFREY hydroconflicts exist but conflicts there State changes the way it uses the water.
downstream from being polluted by not exist in the Middle East. For the time Di s ti ngui s he d are not only related to water. A look on It can be by building a dam, diverting
countries upstream. being, the creation of a Mediterranean Pro fe s s o r o f L aw, international management of water and some of the water for irrigation purposes
Water Agency has not been able to fo rme r I nte rnati o nal water conflicts. or allowing new industrial activities to
How is global warming threatening materialize for diplomatic reasons. But L aw Co mmi s s i o n’s discharge their waste into the river.
Spe c i al Rappo rte ur
Middle East? the negotiation is going to resume in the When did water become a scarce
o n i nte rnati o nal
The Middle East is one of the first context of the “5+5” Dialogue, which I w ate rc o urs e s resource? What is the peculiarity of water
regions affected by global warming. have the honor of chairing. The amount of water on Earth has been compared to other resources?
According to the modelling of the same for billions of years and is not Water is characterised by more
climatologists, a temperature rise of two What are the emergencies? likely to change. What has changed is complicated problematics than other
degrees will have an impact of 30% on Without hesitation, political will! Without the planet’s human population. It has natural resource issues: it is vital to
rainfall over the next ten years. dialogue between riparian countries, multiplied many times even only since human life and is also used for a wide
Faced with the coming shortage, without active hydro-diplomacy, conflicts even the mid-20th century. range of purposes, from drinking and
farmers will leave increasingly arid will increase. In the second half of the 20th century, generating electricity to powering mills
areas and settle on the Mediterranean The second need is education, as it is water specialists and international and irrigating agricultural lands. And it
coasts. Rural areas will consequently the basis of sustainable development. organizations, such as the United is also essential to the maintenance of
lose their populations to large cities. We need to train senior officials and Nations, began to realize that the amount a healthy environment as demonstrated
In addition, the presence of these educate young generations to ensure of water per capita was decreasing by the conclusions of the Kishenganga
climate refugees will further increase everyone understands that water is sharply. And the link between water- case which opposed Pakistan to India. The
the condition for their survival in this borne diseases and poor (or no) Permanent Court of Arbitration found that
region and that wastage has dramatic sanitation also were better understood India had the right to use the waters of
consequences on supply. The population during this period. the Kishenganga River for the production
“We need to train senior has a role to play! Perhaps oddly, severe famines during this of hydroelectric energy, but it must do so
officials, educate young Finally, the third emergency is to work period, such as that in Ethiopia, received while ensuring a minimum environmental
on the water-energy-food triptych, in much coverage in the media, but were flow to protect water resources, even
generations to ensure they the context of a regional body, in order actually, for the most part, brought on by though the 1960 Indus Waters Treaty
understand that water is to reduce the energy cost of water droughts that prevented growing crops. made no mention of such an obligation.
and promote sustainable resources So, water scarcity was manifested in food
the condition for their survival” management. scarcity. Finally, it must be said that we How are problems of water
And only good governance will make all have much better information now than management dealt with
this possible. • we did fifty years ago on these matters. internationally?
20 21WATE R, A GL OBAL CHAL L EN G E WATE R, A GLOBA L CHA LLE NGE
WATER, SOURCE OF CONFLICTS
The Col umbi a The Danube T h e S yr D a rya
Ri ver Sl o v ak i a, Hungary K yrg yzsta n ,
Canada, United States Uzb ekista n ,
The legal framework for management Silala (Chile v. Bolivia, 2016) were filed to Ta jikista n ,
T RAN S- K a za kh sta n
of transboundary aquifers and The Hague. Not counting the important
BOUND ARY
watercourses is reflected in the 1997 UN Kishenganga Arbitration (2013).
WAT E RS Convention on the Law of the Non-
The Dour o,
t he Tagus and
Navigational Uses of International Can water diplomacy contribute to t he Guadi ana
Watercourses. This treaty is generally build peace? Spai n, T h e I n d u s R i ve r
accepted as a codification of the rules Of course, it can. Because, it is Po rtugal and its
of customary international law on the fundamentally in the interest of States to t ri b u t a ri e s
In d ia , P a kista n
subject. There are over 300 treaties cooperate with States they share natural The Senegal
between countries sharing freshwater resources with. Conflict is always more Ri ver The Mekong
The Col or ado
resources, and those treaties often expensive than cooperation and its Se ne gal , Ch in a , La os,
Ri ver Mauri tani a
establish their own implementation outcome more uncertain. Cooperation V ietn a m, Th a ila n d ,
Uni te d State s ,
Ca mb od ia
mechanisms, generally in the form of can increase the basket of benefits Me x i c o
263 joint commissions. available to all riparian States, getting
The Ganges
in t er n a ti o n a l The implementation of treaties such away from what is otherwise likely to I ndi a, Bangl ade s h
r ivers The Cenepa Sahar an
as the UN Watercourses Convention be a zero-sum game where one’s gain aqui f er s
Ri ver
and other bilateral and regional water is always the other loss. In most cases, Ec uado r, Pe ru L i by a, Chad,
Sudan
The Ni l e
agreements will help and bring a wars are not fought over water. Water- Egy pt,
sustainable and peaceful management based conflict almost always reveals Ethi o pi a, Sudan,
of transboundary waters. an underlying problem, or problems, The Par aná The Zambezi Uganda
Ri ver Zambi a, Zi mbabw e
between the States concerned, giving
Braz i l , Paraguay,
Are water-based conflicts increasing? rise to tense relations between them, Arge nti na
Based on the number of disputes that water or any other trigger can set
submitted to the International Court off. unprecedented, torrential rainfall and the early 1990s, with the realization Forecasts
145 of Justice, one could conclude that accompanying floods; and this has been that governments were often not doing for 2025
S t a t es’ t er ri to ri e s water-based conflicts are increasing. Are there some international examples borne out recently. The IPCC has also enough to ensure that their populations
a r e r u n thro u g h Wat e r
or b or d e re d But most water-related disputes are of successful water management? predict that for each degree of global had access to safe, clean water. In
s c ar c it y
b y su c h not submitted to the Court, hence this Examples of successful water warming, approximately 7% of the 2003, the UN Committee on Economic,
in t er n a t ion al ri v e rs number is only the tip of the iceberg. management include cooperative efforts global population is to be exposed to a Social and Cultural Rights adopted L ac k o f
Only two cases (River Oder, 1929, and of European countries concerning the decrease of renewable water resources General Comment 15, The Right to inf r as t r uc t ur e s
Meuse, 1937) concerning the use of Rhine and the Danube, both of which of at least 20%. Water, recognizing that such a right
shared freshwater resources had been are governed by treaties that establish The uncertainties and changes in water was included in articles 11 and 12 of L it t le o r no
s ho r t age
submitted to the World Court until the joint commissions. We can also think of distribution and timing of availability the ESC Covenant on the rights to an
1990s. After 1997, year of the Gabcíkovo- treaty arrangements between the United brought about by climate change make adequate standard of living and health.
Nagymaros Project case opposing States and its neighbours, Canada it urgent to build regimes for sustainable According to the Comment, the right to Water conflict
Hungary and Slovakia, there had been a and Mexico, which also establish joint water management. It will be difficult water entitles everyone to “sufficient, zones
succession of cases, concerning various management commissions. However; for even the most advanced countries safe, acceptable, physically accessible
300
aspects of the use of rivers through power asymmetries can skew equality to cope with these developments alone, and affordable water for personal and
t r ea t ies be tw e e n H igh t e ns io n,
cou n t r ies s h a ri ng which, or along a bank of which, borders of participation in the management and to the extent that shared freshwater domestic uses.”
r is k o f w at e r
f r esh w ate r run between countries (Navigational and of shared freshwater resources as resources (including groundwater) are The major challenge is in w ar
r esou r c e s Related Rights, 2009, Pulp Mills, 2010, illustrated by the relationship between involved, it will be virtually impossible. implementation of the right, especially
Certain Activities, 2015, Construction Israel and its neighbours, Lebanon, Thus, cooperation will become even - but not only - in developing countries. D is put e s o v e r
of a Road, 2015) and dispute over the Jordan, and especially, Palestine. more important as the effects of climate International donors, both multilateral r e s o ur c e s har ing
status and use of the waters of the change, already observable, intensify. and bilateral are supporting the e t hydr aulic
ins t allat io ns
How climate change is aggravating implementation of this right, but it
water crisis? In a context of decreasing freshwater will take time. The difficulties are
“Conflict is always more Severely. The Intergovernmental Panel availability, how to make a human right underscored by the fact that the US Sources: UN, UNDP
expensive than cooperation” on Climate Change (IPCC) has long to water effective? State of California, 6th largest economy
predicted that arid areas of the world A human right to water is not contained in the world, recently had as many
will become even more dry, while humid in any of the basic human rights as 250,000 inhabitants for whom the
or well-watered areas will experience instruments. It has emerged, only in human right to water was not realized. •
22 23WATE R, A GLOBA L CHA LLE NGE
Jamalpur District,
GENDER Bangladesh. A
woman uses a
manual pump to
collect drinking
freshwater.
“Women and men have For instance, tanks and ponds have been
filled with concrete for the development
of housing, malls, etc. affecting drainage
differential roles, rights and channels and leading to waterlogging
during flash floods. Marginalised women
in marginalised or fragile environments
responsibilities” prone to climate uncertainty are more
vulnerable, as are women in conflict
prone areas and refugee camps.
How does water and sanitation scarcity
W
affect women and young girls’ life?
TERVIEW W ater and sanitation sector Women have diverse water needs Typically, girls in South Asia and in
IN I
is no exception and makes including water for both domestic many regions of Africa spend more
AN
TH
way for deep inequality (bathing, washing, drinking, cooking) time fetching water and doing other
between men and women. and productive (agriculture, small domestic chores compared to their
There is a rising consciousness of the enterprises, aquaculture) purposes. brothers. As girls reach puberty and
gender inequalities in many fields of Access to water cannot be seen in start menstruation, they are often pulled
development, but gender questions isolation from access to sanitation and out of school, particularly if there are
SARA
find little resonance in the water good hygiene, including menstrual no sanitation facilities. No doubt these
AHMED
and sanitation sectors. Sara Ahmed, health management. And of course, norms are being challenged and many
Inde pe nd e n t researcher and specialist of water, water quality and safe wastewater organizations such as WaterAid and its
re s e arc he r o n rural development and gender disposal are as important as partners have done a lot of awareness
the po litic al e c o n o my equity, explains how women availability. raising on Menstrual Hygiene matters in
o f w ate r, r u r a l are at a disadvantage when Competition and conflicts India. Taboos are being broken and low-
Women
de v e lo p me n t
it comes to water and and girls are over water, particularly cost sanitary napkins are being made
and ge nde r e q u it y
in Ind ia sanitation. responsible for in the context of water available to young women.
8 10
water collection in scarcity or multiple
How is the global uses from the same How to remedy water scarcity and
water crisis a water source can quality issues including social equity
women’s issue? out of impact women and gender justice?
Gender equality differentially, e.g. Keeping social equity and gender justice
is at the heart of h o u se h o l d s walking further to as guiding principles in the development
the Sustainable with water off premises collect water for of policies and plans whether at the
Development Goals domestic purposes local, national or global level is critical.
Source: Progress on drinking water,
(Goal 5). Likewise, sanitation and hygiene: 2017 update or using water of Good planning needs to be supported
and SDG baselines, JMP Washdata.
gender intersects with poor quality. Long lines by strong analysis based on gender and
other social relations at community stand posts socio-economically disaggregated data,
of power, particularly in the and fights over water brought the use of practical participatory tools,
developing world to determine who has by tankers are not uncommon in many the development of gender-sensitive
access to how much water, when and semi-arid areas prone to water scarcity. indicators for monitoring and evaluation,
where. In many parts of the world, gender and not least, the equal participation
intersects with social caste to determine of women. Sadly, both the water and
who has access to which water. Typically climate sectors are largely gender blind,
“Gender intersects with in India, Dalit (lower caste) women often though they pay adequate lip service to
are not allowed to access the village well the need to address women and gender
social caste to determine who or if they do, the area has to be purified concerns.
has access to which water” after they have withdrawn water. Policies have been created to
Urbanisation and concomitantly, the have women participating in water
growth of peri-urban areas has also put management, but it needs also capacity
pressure on common water resources. buildings and bottom up approaches.
24 25WATE R, A GL OBAL CHAL L EN G E WATE R, A GLOBA L CHA LLE NGE
Bukoba, Tanzania.
Every day, Mariam
Abkaraki fetches
water one kilometre
away from home.
A lot can also be done locally – small is often determined by land ownership, supported by Unesco, was launched in
actions that build social capital or support which restricts women’s participation in Venice in May 2017. I have been working
autonomous adaptation efforts are great, community water user associations where in the water field for 30 years and I
and likely to be more sustainable in the decisions about crops and water rotations am very interested in the relationship
long term. are taken. Male out-migration, seasonal between art, culture and water. My
I don’t really think that the situation or otherwise, puts a larger burden on dream was to have a water museum in
has fundamentally changed in the last women to manage homes and fields in India.
decades. Terms like “gender”, “equity”, the absence of state recognition of their We have started this virtual museum1
“inclusion” are still very much on the role as farmers – bypassed by agricultural first with the idea to engage young
margins of our discourse on water. extension workers as they are not recorded people to learn about their water history
as heads of households. But migration and water heritage. Water is so much a
What could change the gender roles over can also be seen as an adaptive strategy part of our life that we take it for granted.
water? since remittances can be used to enhance Young people must understand that
Gender is dynamic and we are already household water security – build water water just doesn’t come out of a tap.
seeing that a lot of roles are changing storage and harvest rainwater in drought People used to revere water. Poems,
as men assume more responsibility prone areas, or build a toilet or a flat-roof stories, values, ethics: there is so much
for household work and as women are (for food storage) in flood prone areas. about water in all cultures.
engaged in collective action and decision- In India, there have been reforms in
making both at the household and public policy to accord greater land rights
community level. Empowering women to women, whether as sole holders or “As girls reach puberty
requires that they can first, freely access joint, and several networks have been
education (at a minimum, complete negotiating with the State to ensure and start menstruation, they
school and if possible a graduate that policy is implemented. But if there
are often pulled out of school,
degree or professional or skill-based is no water, land cannot be cultivated,
qualification). Secondly, women require beyond the one or two rain-fed crops. particularly if there are no
assets in their names, whether it is land Unfortunately, work on land rights has
sanitation facilities”
or a house or a well. Land reforms in not always extended to water rights.
India have played a role in facilitating joint
ownership and encouraging women to How giving better access to water can
own a field of their own, or lease land help empowering women?
collectively. And access to land Access to water for domestic purposes
typically determines access closer to her home can save women The aim is not to fossilize history. Water
to water for agriculture. the time and energy spent in collecting is a connector across different faiths
200
Thirdly, capacity building water, even though it does not and communities. Much of our so-
on the technical and necessarily question gender roles: called “old” water infrastructures have
financial aspects of women continue to fetch water, and withstood time and are still used (step
million hours managing local water make even more frequent trips as wells, tanks, karez, etc.). Through digital
are lost every day infrastructure is household water demand increases. narratives, we want to show how people
by women and girls equally important. Time saved can be used for income- have used and managed water in the
spend collecting water There are examples of generating opportunities. For past and how these water systems have
women being trained as example, the Self-Employed Women’s been adapted through times.
handpump mechanics, Association’s (Indian NGO) Water Through this virtual museum, we want
Source: Unicef
masons or water pump and Work campaign was built on this to demonstrate the importance of
operators, but these are few connection with members organizing interdisciplinarity and, collaboration
and far between. around the development of local water between artists, scientists, engineers,
resources that they could manage. water professionals… Water is a flow
Why are women’s land rights important resource, and more importantly, a shared
to build water security? Last year, you launched the online resource. We need to think about water
Women and men have differential roles, Living Waters Museum. Why is it in a systemic and integrated manner. •
rights and responsibilities in relation to important to promote water heritage?
water – their access to water for irrigation A global network of water museums, 1
www.livingwatersmuseum.org
26 27You can also read
