50 Years of International Cultural Policy
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TRENDS IN ART AND CULTURE BOEKMAN EXTRA 22 December 2020
50 Years of
International Cultural
Policy
www.boekman.nl FREE
BOEKMAN EXTRA 22 2
Contents
3 Maxime van Haeren, Jack van der Leden, André Nuchelmans
Editorial
Art without borders
4 Mirthe Berentsen
International cultural policy (ICB) in practice
9 Toine Minnaert
Fifty years of ICB policy
The current situation
14 Judith Frederiks enTamara van Kessel
Culture and sustainable development at grass roots level:
European Capital of Culture Leeuwarden-Fryslân 2018
19 Esther Captain
From shared cultural heritage to entangled heritage
Paradoxes of colonial heritage
24 Toef Jaeger
From culture for all to culture by all
Photo page 1: The Cultural department of the Making connections between different groups Making Connections through Arts and Culture,
Netherlands in Turkey, together with Istanbul in society is one of the main objectives of the where the role of culture in society was being
Foundation for Arts and Culture (IKSV), Netherlands cultural policy in Turkey. The discussed by experts, policy makers, cultural
did an exploration of the cultural field in Turkey. Embassy and Consulate want to create a cultural organizations and artists from all around Turkey
A mapping was done in 19 cities from different dialogue with various different new target groups and from the Netherlands. By doing this, they
regions in Turkey to form an idea on the local and build on sustainable cultural cooperation created a platform where people from all over
cultural field, to widen our network as well as between the Netherlands and Turkey. On 26 and the country came together.
introduce ourselves to gain new partners. 27 June 2019 they organized the conference Photograph: Poyraz Tütüncü
Boekman Extra 22 3
Editorial Maxime van Haeren, Jack van der Leden and André Nuchelmans
Art without borders
I n this Boekman Extra, five articles mark
the five decades during which the Dutch
government has made targeted contributions to
The countries with which the Netherlands
has historical ties, occupy a specific place in
international cultural policy.The policy talks
international cultural exchange and cooperation. about “shared heritage”. However, Esther
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (BZ) has also Captain believes that this wording does not do
held the position of cultural ambassador for sufficient justice to the colonial past, and the
40 years. These are two reasons for reflecting on unequal balance of power within it. She prefers
the how and why of this policy. to talk about “entangled heritage”.
International cultural policy (ICB) does Together, the five articles thus provide a wide
not only focus on artistically-driven exchange. range of the perspectives with which the Nether
This is evidenced by an interview with cultural lands approaches international cultural exchange.
ambassador Arjen Uijterlinde and some of his During 50 years of international cultural policy,
colleagues working in London, Istanbul and the world has become faster, more complex,
Jakarta. In the latest policy paper for inter but also more interconnected. Where we are
national cultural policy, art, heritage and the going from here is uncertain, but we can derive
creative industry are also involved in global one lasting certainty from the words of Arjen
issues, as expressed in the Sustainable Uijterlinde: “Art and culture, like knowledge and
Development Goals (SDGs). science, are not bound by borders”. •
This collection of articles also comprises a
review of international cultural policy in recent The Boekman Foundation is the Dutch
years byToine Minnaert. Judith Frederiks and knowledge centre for art, culture and policy.
Tamara van Kessel then show how, within the For this publication we worked together with
framework of Leeuwarden as European Capital DutchCulture, a network and knowledge
of Culture in 2018, artists linked the local context organisation for international cultural
with ecological issues that concern the whole cooperation.
world.The local context also appears to be
The five articles are a selection from Boekman’s Dutch-language
important for the international policy of major themed issue on international cultural policy (#125, winter 2020).
cities, as Toef Jaeger shows in her article on
cities such as Amsterdam, Rotterdam and
Maastricht.
Boekman Extra 22 4 Mirthe Berentsen What keeps the world of cultural diplomacy turning and what opportunities are there in these challenging times? Ambassador for International Cultural Cooperation Arjen Uijterlinde in The Hague, the respective Heads of Culture & Communication of the embassies in Turkey, Quirine van der Hoeven, the United Kingdom, Roel van de Ven and Indonesia, Yolande Melsert, also the Director of the Erasmus Huis in Jakarta, share their views. International cultural policy (ICB) in practice Ô
Boekman Extra 22 5
C ongratulations, the position of Ambassador
for International Cultural Cooperation has
existed for 40 years. What does the position
replaced with digital contact. In terms of content,
our work now focuses more on helping the
cultural sector to survive and looking for
actually entail? alternatives to continue cooperating worldwide.
uijterlinde: The position illustrates the high van der hoeven: In the beginning, many
degree of importance the Dutch government people thought “nothing would be possible
attaches to culture as a pillar of foreign relations. anymore”. To continue to stimulate cooperation,
Originally, the ambassador’s role related largely we placed an open call for online art projects, the
to interstate traffic and bilateral cultural treaties. cultural micro support programme, and initiated
Since then, the emphasis has shifted to linking a digital residency with Turkish and Dutch
and integrating cultural and foreign policy. designers, so that we can continue to cooperate.
The Ministries of Foreign Affairs (BZ) and van de ven: The cultural sector is
Education, Culture and Science (OCW) have experiencing enormous pain – financially and
joined forces within this context. The ambassador creatively – and its prospects are far from clear.
advises the respective cabinet ministers within Fortunately, the Dutch sector is resilient and
their own ministries, and acts as an inter inventive and we can continue to invest through
departmental contact and budget holder for various schemes. We issued a special call for
international cultural programmes. The cultural remote projects and 30 amazing projects
attachés can approach us with any questions they emerged, including local radio and live streams.
may have – my team and I serve as their home melsert: The pandemic hit us the day after
base. This sometimes relates to particularly the Dutch state visit and trade mission to
practical matters such as state guarantees for Indonesia. We had to call off all activities. The
loaning artworks from abroad. greatest disappointment was that we had to
cancel the festive programme we had organised
Covid-19 is having a huge impact on cultural life, at the end of March to celebrate the 50th
both nationally and internationally. How does it anniversary of the Erasmus Huis.
affect your daily activities?
Uijterlinde: Along with most sectors, the Does the pandemic today affect policy
biggest changes include working from home developed previously by ICB?
more and making more phone calls. This uijterlinde: It’s having a huge impact on
precludes making random contacts and firing up exchange and cooperation as we knew it. We
new conversations, which cannot easily be continue to invest in our international profiling
and networking through schemes established by
‘By opting for specific
the national culture funds, special open calls
from our embassies and alternative working
focus countries, methods for conferences and training. During
the recent (online) feedback days, experiences
special calls and were exchanged about best practices over the
past months and new corona-proof plans for the
thematic programmes, network of posts are under development. It’s
clear that we cannot go back to the “old normal”,
cultural cooperation but that in the future – bearing in mind the
effects on sustainability and climate – we will see
also acquires political more hybrid projects and different working
methods.
significance’ van der hoeven: The Netherlands has
maintained diplomatic relations with Turkey for
more than 400 years and despite the difficult
times we’ve had, such as the diplomatic crisis
in 2017, the relationship will always remain
important. When I started working here in 2017,
Ô
Boekman Extra 22 6
From left to right,
Arjen Uijterlinde
our network was still very much focused (Ambassador for A question for the ambassador: the independent
International
on the internationally oriented art world in Cultural Coopera-
policy area of ICB lies between two ministries.
Istanbul. We travelled around the country tion), Stef Blok What are ICB’s own concrete objectives? What
(Minister of
extensively then and worked intensively to build Foreign Affairs)
makes interdepartmental policy necessary?
up new networks in other cities. We can now fall and Cees de Graaff uijterlinde: ICB is shaped by the objectives of
(Director of
back on that. DutchCulture).
cultural and foreign policy, trade and develop
melsert: When it became clear the pandemic Photograph: ment. Facilitating the international exchange of
Aad Meijer
was not going to blow over quickly, we started culture makers not only contributes towards the
thinking about how we could continue our work quality of the cultural offerings but also makes
in the best possible way, giving Dutch artists a the Netherlands more attractive to tourism and
platform and connecting Dutch and Indonesian foreign investors. It also contributes towards the
art, culture and their respective creative international prestige and market share of our
industries. We are now doing this by means of cultural industry abroad. By opting for specific
our virtual “e-rasmus huis” platform. Here, focus countries, special calls and thematic
we’ve invited performing artists to give online programmes, cultural cooperation also acquires
concerts and performances of about 30 to 45 political significance. This can be done through
minutes. We also have a “Family Film Festival” contacts with other authorities or by awarding
on that platform: every third Sunday of the the power of art, design and heritage a role in
month we show a Dutch children’s film with intercultural dialogue on social issues. ICB is an
subtitles in Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia) and essential part of the soft power of the Nether
around 300 to 400 accounts log in. There couldn’t lands as a medium-sized country. Inter
really be a better way to get Dutch culture into departmental policy is needed in order to align
Indonesian living rooms. numerous players and different instruments.
Ô
Boekman Extra 22 7
The Ministry of Education, Culture and Science van der hoeven: As an attaché, I’m not
(OCW) is primarily responsible for the basic directly involved in censorship. We do not select
infrastructure of the cultural sector in the the creators or their work, the curator or
Netherlands and the mandating of the national programmer does. We finance projects but are
culture funds and government services. The not involved substantively in the selection
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (BZ) is responsible process. Freedom of expression is under pressure
for the network of diplomatic posts and here – in the media and in relation to science –
earmarked ICB budgets. and many journalists are behind bars. We
sometimes notice that artists are becoming more
You are all at posts that are facing exciting times: cautious, while art is allowed to be abrasive and
an upcoming Brexit, increasing tensions and questioning; we will always defend freedom of
censorship in Turkey, and a new chapter in the expression.
history of the Netherlands and Indonesia with melsert: We are committed to openness and
the likelihood of a major return of objects from transparency in the Netherlands. This includes
colonial collections. How do you deal with this as open dialogue, genuinely addressing our
an attaché? relations. Relations are often – but certainly not
van de ven: The consequences of Brexit are not always – charged. In my experience, if you don’t
culture-specific. The EU has the Creative Europe shy away from painful topics, but instead listen
incentive programme, but has no cultural policy to what the other person has to say, indicate that
of its own; according to the EU Treaty, the you have heard them and that you want to do
member states themselves are responsible for something about it, you really make progress. In
this. The cultural sector will mainly feel the our case, for example, the discussion the advisory
generic effects of Brexit: free movement, committee of the Council for Culture had with
transport of works of art, customs tariffs and the Indonesian delegation on the return of
residence and work permits. Things that took objects from colonial collections in the Nether
care of themselves and could be taken for granted lands was an open discussion of this order. I
will become very different after 1 January; many think that maintaining such dialogue in the years
of the questions arising from this will be ahead will contribute towards the next step to be
answered by the government through the Brexit taken by the Netherlands and Indonesia. This
portal. But despite Brexit, the UK will remain a includes Indonesia wanting to do things in its
cultural superpower. So even after Brexit we own way. Even if it’s not always our way, but
have a lot to offer one another. having respect for this, not always knowing
better, now that’s the right attitude.
‘We sometimes notice Congratulations on the 50th anniversary of the
that artists are becoming Erasmus Huis, the cultural centre of the
Netherlands in Jakarta. What role does the
more cautious, while art Erasmus Huis play in relation to ICB?
melsert: The Erasmus Huis is a blessing for
is allowed to be abrasive diplomacy in Indonesia, because we have our
own place, even online! Ninety-five per cent of
and questioning; we will the audience are Indonesian, the majority of
whom are between the ages of 18 and 35. We
always defend freedom want to expand this in the coming years with a
children’s programme which, in addition to
of expression’ building the audience of the future, will also
bring in the parents. The beauty of art and
culture is that it is a good “lubricant” for bilateral
relations, but not only that: we connect with art
rather more readily than having to get down to
business directly. The results are less demonstrable
Ô
Boekman Extra 22 8
than for my colleagues in the political or How do you see the future of ICB and your
economic arena, because I can never claim that a country?
deal was struck thanks to a visit to the Erasmus van der hoeven: The coming years will be
Huis or through our other external cultural decisive. In 2023, the Republic of Turkey will
programme. However, the audience reached by have existed for one hundred years. What’s more,
the Erasmus Huis is attractive to the we’re in the midst of economically challenging
Netherlands: we are in direct contact with more times. I previously worked at the Ministry of
than 50,000 followers from the better educated Education, Culture and Science (OCW) on a
middle class, the young professionals and policy document about ICB and it contained
(future) leaders. assertions like “culture can contribute towards
strengthening bilateral relations”. While that was
The most recent policy document states that ICB always an abstract phrase, I have now experienced
has contributed towards the “internationalisation for myself that culture can build bridges,
of Dutch culture” and that it “serves as a especially if relations become strained. Cultural
connecting link between political, economic cooperation continued throughout the
and social issues in cultural and foreign policy”. diplomatic crisis in 2017. Take loaning the “View
But what exactly is the internationalisation of of Ankara” from the Rijksmuseum to the Rahmi
culture? Koç Museum in Ankara. It was incredible to see
uijterlinde: Similar to knowledge and science, how a painting could generate so much positivity
art and culture are not constricted by borders. and media attention. This helped enormously
The art institutions and culture makers towards maintaining dialogue between the two
themselves determine the arenas and audiences countries.
they wish to target. Internationalisation is in fact melsert: Indonesia is steeped in art and
an autonomous trend, driven by the intrinsic culture and it really is the way to establish
quality of art, which is also acknowledged and contact and build relations. The year 2021 has
valued in national policy (for example, in the been dubbed the Year of the Creative Industry,
advice of the Council for Culture and subsidies and there’s a great need to build and share skills.
granted by the national culture funds). Leading We’re committed to sustainability on all fronts.
on from this, ICB caters to the demands and This will present enormous opportunities for the
requirements of artists and cultural institutions, Netherlands, not only for the creative sector, but
while at the same time offering a geographical also for the economy and politics.
and thematic framework. The focus countries van de ven: The years ahead are going to be
draw up long-term plans together with funding exciting; the UK’s economic contraction is
agencies and supporting institutions. The plans heading towards 20% and many British people
establish a link between the objective of feel let down by the EU – those who voted in
internationalisation and the other two favour of and those who voted against Brexit.
objectives: how can art in a country contribute For this reason, we now need the unifying power
towards bilateral, cultural and political relations, of the autonomous arts. The arts are free, but this
and how can art, heritage and the creative does not preclude culture from serving the
industry be involved in the dialogue on major relationship. Clearly, this can be a double-edged
social issues and in achieving the Sustainable sword. •
Development Goals? A good example here is
the Inclusive Cities & Societies programme of
the Creative Industries Fund, through which,
with ICB’s support, 26 projects have emerged in Mirthe Berentsen
works as a journalist,
recent years in the field of sustainable urban writer and policy
development and social inclusion. advisor for national
and international
organisations,
magazines and
newspapers
Photograph: Jiri
BüllerBoekman Extra 22 9 Toine Minnaert Now, half a century after publication of the first policy document on international cultural policy (ICB) (Luns et al. 1970), it is a good time to take stock. What has ICB meant as a separate policy and as a supplement to the regular policy pursued by the ministries involved? Fifty years of ICB policy The current situation Ô
Boekman Extra 22 10
P eriodisation helps to identify policy shifts
and the ideological tensions surrounding it.
For this reason, developments in policy in
opposition were highly critical of the lack of
progress in terms of policy (Minnaert 2016). This
was illustrated when member of parliament Aad
general as well as in ICB1 are examined, with the Nuis sneeringly remarked in 1986 that the main
periods being based on the mutual relations source of coherence was the staple holding the
between the ministries involved – Education, joint policy document together (Ibid. 2016).
Culture and Science (OCW) and Foreign Affairs
(BZ)2 – and the dominant policy ideology is Multiculturalism
examined for each period (see also Minnaert The second period of ICB (1987-1996) showed a
2009, 2013, 2014 and 2016). transition towards cultural policy playing a
stronger leadership role and was characterised
Cultural nationalism by growing multiculturalism. The notion that
The first ICB period (1970-1986) was one of cultural and national identities are convergent
inter-ministerial exploration andcharacterised became less tenable in a world where migration
by strong cultural nationalism. In the joint policy, and globalisation were leading to growing
art and culture were used to introduce foreign cultural diversity within national borders.
countries to the Netherlands, because culture Spurred on by the 1987 Culture without Borders
was seen as a characteristic of the nation. Art report published by the Scientific Council for
policy focused on the set-up of the national Government Policy (WRR), the Ministry of
policy system. International activities were Welfare, Public Health and Culture (WVC) took
limited and incidental by nature; as was their the lead. The growing attention for cultural
subsidisation. After an initial change in direction diversity in national cultural policy was at odds
under the Den Uyl government, foreign policy with foreign policy. Cultural autonomy was high
entered a period of consolidation and on the agenda in the run-up to establishing the
conservatism (Hellema 2014, 270). There was European Union (EU). Introducing the cultural
little room for idiosyncratic art; maintaining memorandum system in 1993 made it possible
stable relations was paramount. Inter for cultural institutions to plan for a longer
departmental policy, shaped by the Coordinating period of time, which benefited international
Committee on International Cultural Relations cooperation. An additional advantage was that
(Coördinatiecommissie Internationale Culturele the cultural memorandum cycle provided a
Betrekkingen, CICB), consisted mainly of framework for ICB – and consequently, themes
informing one another about relevant activities. such as diversity and internationalisation.
During parliamentary debates on successive However, insufficient financial resources made it
government documents, the coalition and impossible to achieve the ambitions.
The growing attention
Cultural relativism
In the third period of ICB (1997-2007), the
for cultural diversity in departments concerned cooperated more closely
and cultural relativism emerged. The
national cultural policy relationship between culture and the nation was
almost entirely abandoned within the context of
was at odds with foreign international exchange. Additional financial
resources from the Homogeneous Group for
policy International Cooperation (HGIS Cultural
Resources) significantly boosted international
activities during this period. In ICB, culture and
foreign policy were able to co-exist and often
strengthened each other. Cosmopolitan thinking
reigned supreme in national cultural policy and
its defence. However, this was at odds with
growing nationalism that became visible during
ÔBoekman Extra 22 11
this period, exemplified by the rise of Pim
Fortuyn. Unfortunately, it was not cultural policy
but integration policy that became the context
for discussions on cultural identity and the
nation. These developments were reflected in
foreign policy. The lack of a clear cultural
identity made it more difficult to present a clear
picture of the Netherlands in the changing global
balance of power.
Instrumental attitude
During the fourth period of ICB (2007-2015),
the departments followed different directions
and an instrumental attitude towards culture
prevailed. The growing economic crisis led to
a more pragmatic attitude in terms of foreign
policy, where commercial spirit dominated. ICB
Concert hall
mainly identified foreign countries as markets and stage during
and appeared to serve the top-sector policy of the International different roads lead there and that institutes play
Chamber Music
the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Innovation Festival 2016.
a dominant role in implementing policy.
(EZI). A major intervention in the national Photograph: Eric Although it was emphasised that this policy was
de Redelijkheid
cultural system, introducing the Basic shared by both ministries and that “several
Infrastructure (BIS) in 2009, resulted in the perspectives and policy agendas converged”
disappearance of sector institutes and expertise (Blok et al. 2019, 3) to generate added value,
in the field of internationalisation. This was convergence did not lead to cohesion.
partly absorbed by DutchCulture, the driving Consequently, the added value of ICB as an
cross-sector force behind policy implementation. independent policy area came under pressure,
The cultural cutbacks in 2012 narrowed the basis all the more so because the objectives were so
of the subsidised system and limited the scope generic that they led to the erosion of ICB.
for international ambitions. This increased the
role of – and pressure on – the national funds in Departmental cross-section
subsidising international ambitions. In the The Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ policy is by
second period of BIS (2013-2016), a little more nature directed at Dutch interests around the
room was created, but the emphasis remained on world. In the early days of ICB, the Cold War was
the national facilities. still in full swing and culture was used as a
diplomatic instrument in the dialogue with
Idealism Eastern Bloc countries, among other things. In
The fifth period of ICB began in 2016. In the 1990s, the end of the Cold War and European
response to the strong focus on using integration prompted the Ministry of Foreign
instruments, a new wave of idealism seemed to Affairs to reconsider this policy. This resulted in
permeate ICB policy throughout the 2017-2020 an integrated approach within HGIS, where the
period. The contribution of culture “towards a interdependence of mutual relations (economic,
safe, just and future-proof world” (Koenders et medical, social security, employment,
al. 2016, 7) and the link to the Sustainable environmental policy, etc.) played a key role.
Development Goals (SDGs) in the plans for Culture played a subordinate role in cultural and
2021-2024 (Blok et al. 2019, 11) are typical of the public diplomacy, which was reflected in the
broad ambitions. These words echoed through most recent policy plans in connecting ICB to
the first government document of 1970, which the SDGs.3 As a result, the specific role of art and
also referenced the ambition of contributing culture shifted more into the background.
towards a better world (Luns et al. 1970). The Cultural policy only reacted sparingly to this
ministries describe a shared horizon, albeit that change. When, at the end of the 1980s, the ICB
ÔBoekman Extra 22 12
primacy shifted to cultural policy, one of the The shifting role of policy
arguments was that global developments The first government document of 1970
demanded a review of the role of (national) highlighted the need to arrive at a coherent
culture. Initially, this even took place; Armour policy aimed at “a concept of culture that
or Backbone (Nuis 1995) and Culture as encompasses civilization as a whole” (Luns et al.
Confrontation (Ploeg 2000) cultural memoranda 1970, 3). Now, fifty years later, ICB is linked to
in particular emphasised the dualistic character different social objectives including the SDGs. In
of culture as an indication of what people share this sense, the circle is complete. However, as we
and where they differ from one another. have seen more often in history, the policy lacks
However, when the debate about national a clearly defined position with concrete plans,
identity flared up, the focus within cultural policy along with the associated responsibilities.
was on redesigning the system. The diversity In this article, I have tried to present a picture
debate was reduced to an integration debate. of the history of policy by highlighting the most
Only in the last policy period did a broader important hurdles. ICB as an independent policy
concept of culture return to the agenda, along area remains a thorny issue, because it implies
with renewed attention for cultural heritage in that there are objectives that can only be
relation to national identity. Establishment of achieved through cooperation between the two
the Diversity & Inclusion Code4 exemplifies the ministries (OCW and BZ). However, the
reactive and introspective manner in which the connection between the wide range of topics
theme is explored. Cultural policy does not play leads to objectives that run along departmental
an active role in current national debate on lines. ICB has shifted from being policy as a
cultural diversity and inclusion: a missed means to achieve objectives to a normative and
opportunity for ICB’s policy area, which relates constructivist policy, in which it is an instrument
perfectly to the changed relationship between to legitimise administrative action, the outcome
culture and the nation. After all, if policy does of a reasonable debate.
not address the elephant in the room, the debate The balance between the interests of
does not have to address it either, and the diplomacy (BZ) and cultural exchange (OCW) is
integration debate will be dominated by the not typically Dutch, and just as in, for example,
discussion of cultural diversity. Finland and France, foreign affairs had the upper
hand in this period. All countries have an
Balancing the interests
extensive network of posts within which cultural
attachés operate, and there is generally a central
of diplomacy (Foreign institute. In Denmark and the United Kingdom,
for example, policy implementation and the
Affairs – BZ) and cultural associated funding are in the hands of central
institutes. In France and Germany respectively,
exchange (Education, the Institut Français and the Goethe-Institut
play an important role, coupled with an
Culture and Science – international network of local institutes. What is
typically Dutch, however, is the “poldering” of
OCW) the executive structure in a DutchCulture –
cultural representation – rural funds triangle.
The latter accounts for the lion’s share of the
financial (HGIS) resources. This structure and
the division between strategy and practice have
made management from a policy perspective
vulnerable, because internationalisation has
become an implementation issue within the
context of ICB. The debate on ICB is therefore
far removed from the cultural-political and
fundamental debate it wants to have. The corona
ÔBoekman Extra 22 13
crisis makes it all the more clear how intertwined Literature Notes
Blok, S., S.A.M. Kaag and I. van 1 At the time, it was referred to as Foreign
we have become as a global society but, at the Engelshoven (2019) Beleidskader Cultural Relations Policy. For the sake of
same time, operating strongly nationally in terms internationaal cultuurbeleid 2021-2024 = readability, the policy pursued
International cultural policy 2021-2024. throughout the period will be referred to
of approach. There is a great need for inter Tweede Kamer (Dutch House of as international cultural policy or ICB.
departmental policy in order to build the bridge Representatives) 31482, no. 108. 2 Over the years, several ministries have
Hellema, D. (2014) Nederland in de wereld: been involved in relation to policy:
between these apparently contrasting move de buitenlandse politiek van Nederland Education and Science (before culture
ments. However, policy must then give rise to Amsterdam: Spectrum. was added to the portfolio), Economic
Koenders, B. and J. Bussemaker (2016) Affairs and Development Cooperation.
debate and the courage to take a stand in the Beleidskader internationaal cultuurbeleid The latter ministry, which forms part of
identity debate. A bridge connects, but leaves 2017-2020 = International cultural policy Foreign Affairs, will be addressed at a
framework, 2017-2020. Tweede Kamer later point.
both banks intact. Stop poldering, start building (Dutch House of Representatives) 3 The SDGs – of global significance for
bridges.. • 31482, no. 97. sustainable development – were set by
Luns, J. and M. Klompé (1970) Nota the UN for 2015-2030.
betreffende de internationale culturele 4 codeculturelediversiteit.com/de-code
betrekkingen (Memorandum on inter
national cultural relations). Tweede
Kamer (Dutch House of Represent
atives) 10916, no. 2.
Minnaert, T. (2009) ‘Drang naar samenhang:
het internationale cultuurbeleid van
Nederland’. In: Boekman, Vol. 21, no. 80,
6-13.
Minnaert, T. (2013) ‘Internationaal
cultuurbeleid als ideologisch strijdperk’.
In: Boekman, Vol. 25, no. 95, 79-85.
Minnaert, T. (2014) ‘Footprint or fingerprint:
international cultural policy as identity
policy’. In: The International Journal of
Cultural Policy, Vol. 20, no. 1, 99-113.
Minnaert, T. (2016) Verbinden en verbeelden:
de rol van nationale identiteit in het
internationaal cultuurbeleid. Utrecht:
[s.n.] (dissertation Utrecht University).
Nuis, A. (1996) Cultuurnota 1997-2000:
pantser of ruggengraat (Armour or
backbone: cultural policy 1997-2000:
summary). Tweede Kamer (Dutch House
of Representatives) 25013, no. 1.
Ploeg, R. van der (2000) Cultuur als
confrontatie: cultuurnota 2001-2004
(Culture as Confrontation: Cultural
Memorandum 2001-2004). Tweede
Kamer (Dutch House of
Representatives) 26591, no. 2.
WRR (1987) Cultuur zonder grenzen.
The Hague: Staatsuitgeverij.
Toine Minnaert
is a university
lecturer at Utrecht
University, where
his tasks include
coordinating the
Arts & Society
master’s
programmeBoekman Extra 22 14 Judith Frederiks and Tamara van Kessel International cultural policy played no significant role in achieving the sustainable development goals set by the United Nations in 2015. Why not? And was it any better at local level, for example in Leeuwarden when that city was Capital of Culture? Culture and sustainable development at grass roots level European Capital of Culture Leeuwarden-Fryslân 2018 Ô
Boekman Extra 22 15
T he seventeen Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) signed by the 193 member
states of the United Nations (United Nations
on several occasions. However, safeguarding and
protecting cultural heritage is part of “making
cities and human settlements inclusive, safe,
Department of Economic and Social Affairs resilient and sustainable” (SDG 11.4) and local
2020) can be briefly summarised as: to achieve a culture is part of sustainable tourism (objectives
world in which the climate issue, inequality and 8.9 and 12b). Since the Brundtland Report
poverty are things of the past by 2030. These (WCED 1987) – which concluded that global
challenges require a joint approach, both environmental problems are the result of
globally and locally. The question is how massive poverty in the South and unsustainable
governments can achieve these goals, and patterns of consumption and production in the
especially how cultural policy can contribute to North – the focus has been on the three pillars of
this “sustainability” that is so difficult to define. sustainable development: economic develop
Is it primarily about ecological management, ment, social equality and environmental
about works of art that bring about a change in protection (Isar 2017, 152). However, under the
mentality, or about the sustainability of culture leadership of UNESCO, a great deal of work has
itself, as a treasure trove of inspiration and ideas been done on recognising culture as the fourth
for future generations? pillar.
Festivals often show how you can implement the Since the UNESCO report Our creative diversity
role of culture in sustainable development at a was published in 1995, crucial steps have been
local level (Perry et al. 2020, 614). It is striking, taken to deploy culture as an essential part of
for example, how Leeuwarden, as European sustainable development (Wiktor-Mach 2019).
Capital of Culture in 2018 (LF2018), chose to Although culture is not at the forefront of the
promote the relationship between culture and SDGs, the cultural policy of UNESCO has
sustainability both locally and internationally, indirectly been reflected in them. We can also see
something that is only slowly taking shape in that in The European Agenda on Culture in 2007,
Dutch international cultural policy. the European Commission stressed “the strong
link between culture and development”: cultural
International diversity and stimulating the cultural dialogue
The relationship between culture and sustain were among its strategic objectives (Commission
able development was not a priority in global, of the European Communities 2007). Sustain
European and Dutch policy for a long time. ability in cultural heritage and the promotion of
None of the seventeen SDGs are directly about social cohesion, equality and well-being are now
culture, although UNESCO has advocated this priorities in current European cultural policy
(Council of the European Union 2018).
The value of culture in The value of culture in sustainable development
sustainable development seems to be recognised only slowly in the inter
national cultural policy of the Dutch govern
seems to be recognised ment. In the period 2010-2016, the emphasis was
on market expansion (Minnaert 2016, 192-195).
only slowly in the The policy framework for international cultural
policy 2017-2020 (Koenders et al. 2016) states as
international cultural its second main objective the contribution “to a
safe, just and future-proof world”. Reference
policy of the Dutch was made to the Universal Rights of Man but
not to the SDGs, although there is a clear echo of
government SDG 11 in the emphasis on future-proofing and
the pursuit of a “creative and inclusive approach
to urban problems in the field of sustainability
and liveability” (Ibid. 2016, 8).
ÔBoekman Extra 22 16
Sense of Place
(left) and Embassy
for Water (right),
projects at
Leeuwarden-
Fryslân 2018. ©
Tryntsje Nauta and
Heleen Haijtema
The policy framework for international cultural framework it is striking that the SDGs are
policy 2021-2024 (Blok et al. 2019) does contain mainly associated with the creative industry
explicit references to the SDGs, namely to 11 (Ibid. 2019, 8 et seq.), while cultural heritage can
and 16. The ministers concerned are “together also play an important role in sustainable
with the EU and UNESCO, [...] convinced development.
that the cultural and creative sectors offer
opportunities to make an innovative contribution Iepen mienskip
to the agenda and promotion of the SDGs” The link between culture and global sustainable
(Ibid. 2019, 11). It is noteworthy that this development goals is only marginally
objective is mainly linked to the Foreign Trade incorporated into cultural policy. It is therefore
and Co-operative Development agenda. With a striking that the local practice of LF2018 actually
discourse on “excellence” to help others across embraces this link. In the bid book that led to
the border and “Dutch branding” that has to be Leeuwarden being named European Capital
reinforced (Ibid. 2019, 8) there is a threat that of Culture 2018, the city described its willingness
the focus will be on sending, not receiving: on the to respond to the cultural, social, economic
Netherlands as a guide to help others on their and ecological challenges that are visible not
way to the SDGs. This is at odds with the only in Leeuwarden, but throughout Europe
distancing of the classic Western modernisation ((Leeuwarden-Ljouwert candidate for
theories that would be buried with the SDGs. European Capital of Culture 2018, 2013).
Unlike the Millennium Development Goals, This bid book, which was submitted in 2013,
the SDGs also demand a sustainability transition already forged a link with what was to be called
in the North, which is something to which sustainable development goals in 2015:
UNESCO’s quest to decolonise the concept of threatened biodiversity, awareness of the climate
“development” and protect cultural individuality issue, the importance of water, and cultural
has contributed. In addition, in this policy diversity in society. Through LF2018, the city
ÔBoekman Extra 22 17 hoped to find sustainable solutions in the areas Greater awareness of ecology, diversity and the relationship These examples show that culture has been used between city and countryside. Great importance differently in the LF2018 programme: to create was attached to the active participation of ecological citizenship and raise public awareness, citizens and the development of future-proof to make culture itself sustainable, and to raise solutions. Culture as a catalyst for awareness among other cultural organisers. This transformation was one of the central principles. illustrates once again how complex sustainable The motto iepen mienskip – Frisian for “open development is and how culture can frequently community” – which recurred in the bid book, give substance to it. In the evaluation of LF2018 referred to mutual cooperation in order to tackle (Municipality of Leeuwarden et al. 2018) we see challenges from different perspectives. For that the results can mainly be linked to high- example, through collaboration between an quality education, affordable and sustainable artist and a farmer, or a Polish seasonal worker energy, decent work and economic growth, and a local resident. An example of this is the innovation and infrastructure and partnership in LF2018 project Poetic Potatoes, which brought order to achieve these objectives. This corresponds poetry and agriculture together, and to numbers 4, 7, 8, 9 and 17 of the SDGs. Many Leeuwarden and Valetta, the Maltese city that projects also contributed to cultural participation. was European Capital of Culture at the same Although this is not an end in itself in the SDGs, time as Leeuwarden.1 With Embassy for Water, it is an important means of creating awareness. an artists-in-residence project that talked about No hunger, clean drinking water, healthcare and water thematically, culture was given the role of combatting poverty had less priority. The goals animator and catalyst in raising the awareness of were to improve the city’s image. The European society (Duxbury et al. 2017, 223).2 The Sense of Commission’s evaluation notes that LF2018 Place project used De streken – a tidal mainly focused on locally-oriented projects. 700 installation by Marc van Vliet – to convey the of the 800 projects focused on the iepen mien experience of and respect for nature, but also to skip, in which the European dimension was not create greater awareness of life in and on the always visible. Wadden Sea: an educational function alongside the aesthetic that fits in with what Soini and In thinking about culture and sustainable Dessein (2016) call culture for sustainability. development, Leeuwarden anticipates Dutch Here, culture mediates in achieving economic, international cultural policy and offers social and ecological sustainability.3 We see here inspiration for European cultural programmes. the role of animator and catalyst for LF2018, but Perhaps the focus of the programme has been also that of educator and promoter, leading to too local and the international character of the the “ecological citizenship” that implies a greater European Capital of Culture could have been sense of responsibility for nature (Duxbury et al. exploited to a greater extent, precisely because 2017, 224). the realisation of the SDGs calls for an increased The Welcome to the Village festival, part of sense of global solidarity. At the same time, LF2018, also reflects this aspiration, as well as working on the SDGs starts by raising awareness the role of culture as a driver.4 In collaboration and making people feel responsible. LF2018 with Innofest, which uses eleven festivals showed that cultural participation and the search throughout the Netherlands as living labs for for connection in it are really key words. • sustainable innovation, Welcome to the Village is making other festivals aware of the possibilities of becoming more sustainable through Innofest. Ô
Boekman Extra 22 18
Bibliography Wiktor-Mach, D. (2019) ‘Cultural heritage
Blok, S., S.A.M. Kaag and I. van and development: UNESCO’s new
Engelshoven (2019) Beleidskader paradigm in a changing geopolitical
internationaal cultuurbeleid 2021-2024 = context’. In: Third World Quarterly, Vol.
International cultural policy 2021-2024. 40, no. 9, 1593-1612.
Tweede Kamer (Dutch House of
Representatives) 31482, no. 108. Notes
Commission of the European Communities 1 Potatoes are the most important
(2007) Communication from the agricultural product for both regions and
Commission to the European Parliament, Malta and Friesland are officially
the Council, the European economic and bilingual. This resulted in a poetry
social committee and the committee of the project in which Frisian and Maltese
regions on a European agenda for culture poems on potato sacks were exchanged.
in a globalizing world. Brussels: 2 The other roles mentioned by Duxbury,
Commission of the European Kangas and De Beukelaer in this context
Communities. are that of regulator and protector (next
Council of the European Union (2018) Draft generations), translator and driver
Council conclusions on the work plan for (making cultural actors and institutions
culture 2019-2022. Brussels: Council of sustainable) and educator and promoter
the European Union. of ecological citizenship (Duxbury et al.
Duxbury, D., A. Kangas and C. De 2017, 223).
Beukelaer (2017) ‘Cultural polices for 3 Dessein and Soini also distinguish
sustainable development: four strategic “culture in sustainability”, as the fourth
paths’. In: International Journal of autonomous pillar in sustainable
Cultural Policy, Vol. 23, no. 2, 214-230. development, and “culture as
European Commission (2019) Ex-post sustainability”. Thanks to culture,
Evaluation of the 2019 European sustainability becomes embedded in the
Capitals of Culture – report. Brussels: way of life, leading to an ecocultural
Directorate-General for Education, civilisation. These functions overlap and
Youth, Sport and Culture. reinforce each other (Soini et al. 2016).
Isar, Y.R. (2017) ‘“Culture”, “sustainable 4 At the three-day festival Welcome to the
development” and cultural policy: Village, artists, musicians, chefs and start-
a contrarian view’. In: International ups provide a programme that
Journal of Cultural Policy, Vol. 23, no. 2, encourages discussion and further
148-158. thought. It is about what our world will
Koenders, B. and J. Bussemaker (2016) look like in the future, and is a joint
Beleidskader internationaal cultuurbeleid venture between local farmers, tenants
2017-2020 = International cultural policy and caterers. See: www.
framework, 2017-2020. Tweede Kamer welcometothevillage.nl
(Dutch House of Representatives)
31482, no. 97.
Leeuwarden-Ljouwert candidate for
European Capital of Culture 2018 (2013)
Criss-Crossing communities: Iepen
Mienskip. Leeuwarden: Stichting
Kulturele Haadstêd Leeuwarden-
Ljouwert 2018.
Minnaert, T. (2016) Verbinden en verbeelden:
de rol van nationale identiteit in het
internationaal cultuurbeleid. Utrecht:
[s.n.] (dissertation, Utrecht University).
Municipality of Leeuwarden and Province of
Friesland (2019) Slotmeting LF2018:
onderzoeksresultaten. Leeuwarden:
Municipality of Leeuwarden and
province of Friesland.
Perry, B., L. Ager and R. Sitas (2020)
‘Cultural heritage entanglements:
festivals as integrative sites for
sustainable urban development’. In:
International Journal of Heritage Studies,
Vol. 26, no. 6, 603-618.
Soini, K. and J. Dessein (2016) ‘Culture-
sustainability relation: towards a
conceptual framework’. In: Sustainability,
Vol. 8, no. 2, 1-12.
United Nations Department of Economic
and Social Affairs (2020) ‘The 17 Goals’. Tamara van
On: sdgs.un.org/goals, 9 October. Kessel is a
WCED (1987) Report of the World university lecturer
Commission on Environment and in Cultural Studies
Development: our common future. [S.l.]: at the University of Judith Frederiks
World Commission on Environment and Amsterdam and is a policy advisor
Development. specialises in on culture at the
international municipality of
cultural policy DordrechtBoekman Extra 22 19
Esther Captain
Colonial heritage has long been regarded as “shared
heritage”. That term does not do justice to its history.
It is time for a reassessment, which can give new impetus
to the social debate on how to deal with colonial objects
and collections.
From shared
cultural heritage
to entangled
heritage
Paradoxes of colonial heritage
Diorama of a slave
dance, Gerrit
Schouten, 1830.
Photograph:
Rijksmuseum
ÔBoekman Extra 22 20
L ast October, the book Steinharts biecht:
zielenstrijd op de Batoe-eilanden (Steinhart’s
Confession: the battle for souls on the Batu
freedom fighter who fought against the colonial
ruler in the Java War (1825-1830). The prince
was captured several times. Legend has it that
Islands) was published, in which Karel Weener Diponegoro’s kris had magical powers: if he
tells about the missionary Willem Steinhart. He pointed it at a wall, holes would be made in it.
arrived on the Batu Islands in Indonesia in 1924 Diponegoro is said to have escaped from Dutch
with the assignment of converting the “pagan” captivity several times in this way.
inhabitants to Christianity. One consequence of The mystical kris pusaka (passed down
this was that they renounced their rituals and through generations) occupies an important
related objects: “...every Christian family to be place in Indonesian culture. But it is also
baptised [should] surrender their wooden important to our culture: the kris is on
ancestor statues to us. All pagan charms such as UNESCO’s List of the Intangible Cultural
amulets and talismans also had to be removed” Heritage of Humanity.1 Shortly after its return,
(Weener 2020, 54). Steinhart sent a large number the news came out that Indonesian weapons
of these ancestor statues to a collector of ethnic experts doubted whether the object was
artefacts in The Hague. Steinhart wrote to him in authentic. Indonesia does not want to display it
a letter: “Much has already been lost due to the until experts have reached a final opinion on it
lack of interest and the failure to take notes. (...) (Savitri 2020). This has made the kris the focus of
We have to save what is left” (Ibid. 2020, 55, 59). a discussion in the still sensitive relations
The missionary, who began his mission with high between Indonesia and the Netherlands.
ideals, gradually had to face up to the fact that This painful incident for the Netherlands aptly
the Batu culture he had come to appreciate was illustrates how heritage can be deployed in the
being destroyed partly by his own actions. field of international diplomacy, based on the
desire to come to terms with sensitive and
A sensitive area emotionally charged periods in the past. But this
The question is whether we are better able to is a sensitive area. Welcome to the field of inter
tackle this paradox of colonial heritage in 2020. national cultural cooperation! The International
The controversy surrounding the kris of Prince Cultural Policy (ICB) is an integral part of the
Diponegoro (1785-1855) has previously been foreign policy of the Netherlands. It has held the
described in Boekman (Beurden 2020). In March position of cultural ambassador since 1960;
this year, the king returned this kris to Indonesia countries such as the United States and France
on behalf of the Netherlands. It was believed to preceded the Netherlands in this. Part of the ICB
be lost for decades. Diponegoro was a charismatic is the field of “Shared Cultural Heritage” (GCE),
a special policy field because it is a joint
responsibility of the Ministries of Foreign Affairs
It is appropriate for (BZ) and Education, Culture and Science
democratic states to be (OCW), in which OCW is in charge. How does
this respond to increasingly developed insights
aware of sensitive issues in the field of GCE?
in history and to want to Social debate
In this article on “Dutch” heritage in the former
be answerable for them colonies, I am concentrating on the most recent
policy period (2017-2020). I will look back, but
in the public domain above all forward: what challenges lie ahead and
which have already arisen, such as the incident
involving Prince Diponegoro’s kris?
The fact that the kris of Diponegoro was used
as a tool in international and diplomatic relations
between Indonesia and the Netherlands is
remarkable now that the (post-)colonial
ÔBoekman Extra 22 21
relationship between these countries lies under a
magnifying glass. The highly topical social debate
on how to deal with colonial objects and
collections calls for further reflection on the way
in which countries want to profile themselves in
this regard. The recent recommendations of the
Raad voor Cultuur (Council for Culture) on
dealing with colonial collections are crystal clear:
recognise and redress historical injustice and
proceed to the unconditional return of objects to
countries of origin that have lost them
involuntarily (Raad voor Cultuur 2020). It is
appropriate for democratic states to be aware of
sensitive issues in history and to want to be
answerable for them in the public domain. This Head of a Javan,
fragment of
requires support from the various sections of the the demolished
population, such as those involved from the Van Heutsz
monument in
relevant post-colonial communities, and their Batavia, Hendrik
descendants. However, even citizens with no Albertus van den
Eijnde, 1932.
direct ties to the colonial past – or none that they Photograph:
are aware of – are increasingly coming into Rijksmuseum
contact with links between the area where they
live and, for instance, slavery. For example,
recent historical research has shown that “the
administration of the city of Amsterdam was
involved in the slave trade directly, globally, on a historical presence of the Netherlands in the
large scale, on many fronts and in the long-term, overseas territories of Southeast Asia and the
and that past has had an impact on today’s Caribbean, a prerequisite for the creation of this
Amsterdam” (Brandon et al. 2020). Not only heritage, was not at the invitation of the “host”
those affected, but also those directly or countries. This presence in Indonesia, Suriname,
indirectly involved are faced with the question of the Antilles and South Africa was often violently
how to acknowledge the impact of the colonial enforced by the Netherlands and then
past. This means that “lay experts” are perpetuated in a colonial system with unequal
increasingly contributing to these debates relations between the coloniser and the
(Knoop 2020). The public discussion on Zwarte colonised. The latter were made complicit in the
Piet (Black Peter) shows that this can meet with functioning and enforcement of a system that
resistance. was structurally violent, such as the Indonesians
who served in the colonial army or
Paradox administration. What the missionary Steinhart
In the current policy period (2017-2020), the already experienced in the 1920s is still valid
starting point is that there is shared cultural today. The “saving of objects”, embedded in a
heritage: “Globally, the Netherlands has left structure of power inequality, went (and still
many traces in the course of history and has goes) along with their destruction by literally
taken back cultural influences, both tangible and and figuratively taking them from their first
intangible. Conservation, management and owner and context. It is the paradox of colonial
access to this ‘shared cultural heritage’ is, in all heritage. Van Beurden speaks of “dissonant
cases, a matter of international cooperation. colonial heritage”, a term that does justice to the
After all, we share a common past” (Koenders et (post-)colonial context and the associated
al. 2016, 10). But when considering “Dutch” complexities and potential internal
heritage in the former colonies, can we really contradictions that may surround heritage
speak of “shared cultural heritage”? The (Beurden 2020).
ÔBoekman Extra 22 22
Entangled heritage when there is a shared history. Cooperation with
Memorandum 2017-2020 also states that the countries with which the Netherlands shares a
Netherlands bases its cultural policy on equality, (colonial) past will therefore remain important
reciprocity and respect for ownership (Koenders in 2020-2024” (Blok et al. 2019, 10). It is no
et al. 2016, 10). These are important principles, surprise that Indonesia and Suriname are among
which are probably easier to achieve on paper the 23 countries on which the Netherlands is
than in practice. If we consider the kris of strategically focussed. Another instruction for
Diponegoro, then several contradictory layers of the cultural ambassador is that “...it is desirable
meaning can be ascribed to the object: a war to link up with current themes and priorities in
trophy for the Dutch in colonial times, a stolen the target countries in order to collaborate on
(art) object for the Indonesian republic, a stolen the basis of dialogue (...) with room for the
heirloom for descendants of the prince and a different perspectives”. I read in this a subtle but
controversial tool in diplomatic relations crucial shift, a further step in a process of
between the Netherlands and Indonesia. The reflection on the national identity of the
weapon also illustrates that a colonial past can Netherlands, and on the possible long-lasting
influence contemporary principles such as effect of unequal positions of power between
equality and reciprocity, and that transferring colonising and colonised countries, including the
ownership is not easy. The kris cannot simply be internal contradictions in the societies of the
regarded as “shared cultural heritage”; not time.
before, and not now, despite the best of Colonial heritage is confrontational and
diplomatic intentions. It is important to note that awkward. It is the paradox of the missionary
this insight has been embraced in the new policy Steinhart, who wanted to bring good and in
document. There is no longer any question of an doing so brought destruction. But it is also the
unproblematic use of the term “shared” heritage, paradox of the Netherlands now. The Nether
although it has been carefully worded: “Heritage lands aims to use “...culture as soft power, (...) to
contributes to mutual understanding, especially make friends and exert influence as a country. In
a world of increasing international contacts,
Experiences at
culture can make a positive contribution to
perception and debate” (Blok et al. 2019, 5).
diplomatic missions in Against the background of colonial heritage in
the current debate, this appears rather too non-
Indonesia, Suriname committal and naïve. Experiences at diplomatic
missions in Indonesia, Suriname and South
and South Africa in Africa in the past policy period have also shown
that, in daily practice, the term “shared cultural
the past policy period heritage” is more likely to arouse resistance than
create connection. That is why, on the initiative
have shown that the of the Ministry of Education, Culture and
Science, it is no longer being used in the new
term “shared cultural policy period and more appropriate concepts
have been sought that can underpin the policy.2
heritage” is more With the designation “dissonant colonial
heritage”, Van Beurden has given a major
likely to arouse impetus to a reassessment of terms. It seems to
resistance than create me that the concept of “entangled heritage” is
useful, as a further elaboration of the concept
connection of “interwoven heritage” (Werner et al. 2003).
The latter term indicates that colonial heritage,
which arose and was significant in the relation
ship between the Netherlands and its colonies,
was not based on equality. It provides space for
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