IFAD Background Guide - International Fund for Agricultural Development - IMUNA
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NEW YO S MU N
RK NH
202 0
IFAD
International Fund for Agricultural Development
Background Guide
Email: info@imuna.org
Phone: +1 (212) 652-9992
Web: www.nhsmun.org
Secretary-General Delegates,
Vijittra Puckdee
It is my absolute pleasure to present you with the Background Guide for the International Fund for
Director-General
Agricultural Development (IFAD). My name is Lina Saleh, and I will be serving as your Director
Althea Turley
for Session I of NHSMUN 2020! My co-director, Camila, and I have put so much time and effort
Chiefs of Staff into writing this, and we’re so excited to meet you when March finally arrives.
Alex Burr
Walker Heintz I’m proud to say that NHSMUN 2020 will be my sixth time attending this conference. I was thrilled
when I first started participating in MUN during high school, and NHSMUN only reinforced my
Delegate Experience
Luis González enthusiasm. It was a wonderful conference for me personally when I was a delegate, and it forced
Merve Karakas me to reflect about my life and interests, showing me new ways to grow as a student and a global
citizen. As the Director for CCPCJ last year and the Assistant Director for WTO the year before
Domestic Partnerships
that, being on NHSMUN staff has only furthered my growth.
Maura Goss
Odion Ovbiagele Currently, I am a junior in the Honors College at the University of South Carolina studying public
Global Partnerships health and English. My goal is to one day work in public policy so that I can advocate for research
Renata Koch to reduce health disparities and provide resources to underserved populations. Outside of school,
Salmaan Rashiq I work as a research assistant on a nutrition study focused on African Americans, and I spent this
Internal Affairs last summer as a policy intern at a women’s rights non-profit. On my school’s campus, I serve on
Lia Lee the planning board for a student global health organization and as a member of a women’s writing
Natalie O’Dell workshop circle. Outside of my responsibilities, I am proudly nerdy about public health issues and
Under-Secretaries- love working on creative short stories, novels, and artwork, all while being an unofficial comedian
General for my family and friends.
Michael Beeli
Jill Bendlak Camila and I are both so excited about the topics that we have chosen, and we hope that you will de-
Rose Blackwell velop a keen understanding of the many issues at play in these subjects while you prepare through
Annica Denktas your research. Agriculture is so heavily intertwined with other prominent global issues. As a public
Rahul Francis health major, the concern of infectious disease in agriculture is incredibly interesting because the
Omar Mufti intriguing lens that it carries into food production about preserving the well-being of the lives in-
Jonathan Packer volved and how virulent diseases inhibit growth and food security. Similarly, our second topic also
Akanksha Sancheti focuses on intersections between agriculture and other global concerns by examining its stability
John Wood
during and after incidents of armed conflict.
Alisa Wong
As you explore and peruse the background guide and other sources of information, please feel free
to reach out for questions or any concerns that you might have. Also, do not be afraid to even just
say hello and tell us a little about yourself. I promise that we will be thrilled to hear from you!
Best,
Lina Saleh
lina.saleh@imuna.org
International Fund for Agricultural Development
Session I
Email: info@imuna.org
Phone: +1 (212) 652-9992
Web: www.nhsmun.org
Secretary-General Dear Delegates,
Vijittra Puckdee
My name is Camila Rueda Manrique and I will be your Director for Session II of IFAD. It is an
Director-General
honor to present to you the official Background Guide for the International Fund for Agricul-
Althea Turley
tural Development! My co-director, Lina, and I have prepared this committee’s topics with lots
Chiefs of Staff of dedication, investigation, and many sleepless nights. We hope you enjoy debating the issues of
Alex Burr this Background Guide as much as we enjoyed writing them. I am looking forward for this to be
Walker Heintz an exciting experience and that you may learn lots of new information and may find your passions
Delegate Experience along the way!
Luis González
Merve Karakas Currently, I am a second-year student at Universidad de Los Andes in Bogotá, Colombia, and I study
biology with a minor in international studies. I am passionate about all forms of life: plants, inver-
Domestic Partnerships
tebrates, mammals, you name it. My hobbies include riding horses, gardening, and binge-watching
Maura Goss
Odion Ovbiagele series on the weekends. The one thing I enjoy the most is spending a good evening with my friends
and family. I am also a part of the MUN team of my university, ONUANDES, and within it I am
Global Partnerships
part of the international crisis delegation called Crisis Team, which participates in representing our
Renata Koch
university in the North American MUN circuit. This will be my third year at NHSMUN and second
Salmaan Rashiq
time on staff. Last year, I was the Assistant Director of UNIDO. NHSMUN has always been a spe-
Internal Affairs cial Model UN conference for me, as each time I have participated I have grown academically and
Lia Lee professionally. It even helped me figure out that I wanted to do a minor in International Studies to
Natalie O’Dell
have a better understanding of how the world works! I hope that you will have the time of your life
Under-Secretaries- at the conference, and as I said before, be able to find your passions along the way.
General
Michael Beeli The one thing I like the most about IFAD is that I am able to relate my career goals with a more
Jill Bendlak humane and international point of view. Our topics focus on the issues that farmers face day-to-
Rose Blackwell day and the problems they have in order to progress economically and socially. Topic A talks about
Annica Denktas the importance of combating infectious diseases in agriculture, as there is a need to address public
Rahul Francis
health in rural areas since sickness in both humans, animals, and plants pose a significant threat to
Omar Mufti
farmers’ personal well-being and development. On the other hand, Topic B talks about the recov-
Jonathan Packer
Akanksha Sancheti ery of rural zones after an armed conflict, in which it takes into consideration the significance of
John Wood the recuperation of agriculture. This is important because farmers are one of the main victims of
Alisa Wong conflict, and by recovering their land and boosting agriculture again it is expected to improve their
lives and allow them to generate a stable income. In general, both topics will help you understand
the different issues that farmers face and to think of new methods to help them achieve a better life.
If any doubts or questions arise while you are reading the background guide, feel free to send an
email to Lina and me; we will be more than happy to answer your inquiries! See you in March 2020!
Sincerely,
Camila Rueda Manrique
camila.rueda@imuna.org
International Fund for Agricultural Development
Session II
IFAD 4| Table of Contents Table of Contents Background Guide 1 A Note on the NHSMUN Difference 5 A Note on Research and Preparation 7 Committee History 8 Simulation9 Combating Infectious Disease in the Agricultural Sector 10 Introduction11 History and Description of the Issue 11 Current Status 27 Bloc Analysis 32 Committee Mission 34 Recovery of Agricultural Zones Affected by Armed Conflict 36 Introduction37 History and Description of the Issue 38 Current Status 48 Bloc Analysis 52 Committee Mission 53 Research and Preparation Questions 54 Important Documents 55 Works Cited 57
IFAD
A Note on the NHSMUN Difference |5
A Note on the NHSMUN Difference
Esteemed Faculty and Delegates,
Welcome to NHSMUN 2020! My name is Althea Turley and I am this year’s Director-General. Thank you for choosing to attend
NHSMUN, the world’s largest Model United Nations conference for secondary school students. We are thrilled to welcome you
to New York City in March!
As a space for collaboration, consensus, and compromise, NHSMUN strives to help transform today’s brightest thinkers into
tomorrow’s leaders. Our organization provides a uniquely tailored experience for all in attendance through innovative and acces-
sible programming. We believe that an emphasis on education through simulation is paramount to the Model UN experience and this
idea permeates throughout NHSMUN.
Debate founded on strong knowledge: With knowledgeable staff members and delegates from over 70 countries, NHSMUN
can facilitate an enriching experience reliant on substantively rigorous debate. To ensure this high quality of debate, our staff
members produce extremely detailed and comprehensive topic overviews (like the one below) to prepare delegates for the com-
plexities and nuances inherent in global issues. This process takes over six months, during which the Directors who lead our
committees develop their topics with the valuable input of expert contributors. Because these topics are always changing and
evolving, NHSMUN also produces update papers that are intended to bridge the gap of time between when the background
guides are published and when committee starts in March. As such, this guide is designed to be a launching point from which
delegates should delve further into their topics.
Extremely prepared and engaged staff: The detailed knowledge that our directors provide in this background guide through
diligent research is aimed at spurring critical thought within delegates at NHSMUN. Prior to the conference, our Directors and
Assistant Directors are trained rigorously through copious hours of both virtual and in-person exercises and workshops in an
effort to provide the best conference experience possible. Beyond this, our Directors and Assistant Directors read every posi-
tion paper submitted to NHSMUN and provide thoughtful insight on those submitted by the feedback deadline. Our staff aims
not only to tailor the committee experience to delegates’ reflections and research but also to facilitate an environment where all
delegates’ thoughts can be heard.
Emphasis on participation: The UN relies on the voices of all of its Member States to create resolutions most likely to make a
dramatic impact on the world. That is our philosophy at NHSMUN too. We believe that in order to properly delve into an issue
and produce fruitful debate, it is crucial to focus the entire energy and attention of the room on the topic at hand. Our Rules
of Procedure and our staff are focused on making every voice in the committee heard, regardless of each delegate’s country as-
signment or skill level. However, unlike many other conferences, we also emphasize delegate participation after the conference.
MUN delegates are well researched and aware of the UN’s priorities and they can serve as the vanguard for action on the Sustain-
able Development Goals (SDGs). Therefore, we are proud to also connect students with other action-oriented organizations at
the conference to encourage further work on the topics.
Focused committee time: NHSMUN prohibits the use of any electronic devices during committee sessions. We feel strongly that
face-to-face interpersonal connections during debate are critical to producing superior committee experiences and allow for the
free flow of ideas. Ensuring a no-technology policy is also a way to guarantee that every delegate has an equal opportunity to
succeed in committee. We staff a very dedicated team in our office who type up and format draft resolutions and working papers
so that committee time can be focused on communication and collaboration. Please note that the dais is permitted a laptop to
communicate with members of Senior Staff and for other administrative needs.
IFAD 6| A Note on the NHSMUN Difference Educational emphasis, even for awards: At the heart of NHSMUN lies education and compromise. As such, when NHSMUN does distribute awards, we de-emphasize their importance in comparison to the educational value of Model UN as an activity. NHSMUN seeks to reward schools whose students excel in the arts of compromise and diplomacy. More importantly, we seek to develop an environment in which delegates can employ their critical thought processes and share ideas with their counterparts from around the world. We always prioritize a dedication to teamwork and encourage our delegates to engage with others in a diplomatic and inclusive manner. In particular, our daises look for and promote constructive leadership that strives towards consensus, as delegates do in the United Nations. Realism and accuracy: Although a perfect simulation of the UN is never possible, we believe that one of the core educational responsibilities of MUN conferences is to educate students about how the UN System works. Each NHSMUN committee is a simulation of a real deliberative body so that delegates can research what their country has actually said in the committee. Our topics are chosen from the issues currently on the agenda of that committee (except historical committees, which take topics from the appropriate time period). This creates incredible opportunities for our delegates to do first-hand research by reading the actual statements their country has made and the resolutions they have supported We also incorporate real UN and NGO experts into each committee through our committee speakers program and arrange for meetings between students and the actual UN Permanent Mission of the country they are representing. No other conference goes so far to deeply immerse students into the UN System. As always, I welcome any questions or concerns about the substantive program at NHSMUN 2020 and would be happy to dis- cuss NHSMUN pedagogy with faculty or delegates. Delegates, it is my sincerest hope that your time at NHSMUN will be thought-provoking and stimulating. NHSMUN is an incredible time to learn, grow, and embrace new opportunities. I look forward to seeing you work both as students and global citizens at the conference. Best, Althea Turley Director-General
IFAD
A Note on Research and Preparation |7
A Note on Research and Preparation
Delegate research and preparation is a critical element of attending NHSMUN and enjoying the conference’s intellectual and
cosmopolitan perspective. We have provided this Background Guide to introduce the topics that will be discussed in your com-
mittee. This document is designed to give you a description of the committee’s mandate and the topics on its agenda. We do not
intend to represent exhaustive research on every facet of the topics. We encourage and expect each of you to critically explore
the selected topics and be able to identify and analyze their intricacies upon arrival to NHSMUN in March. Delegates must be
prepared to intelligently utilize your knowledge and apply it to your country’s unique policy.
The task of preparing for the conference can be challenging, but to assist delegates, we have updated our Beginner Delegate
Guide and Advanced Delegate Guide. In particular, these guides contain more detailed instructions on how to prepare a position
paper and excellent sources that delegates can use for research. Use these resources to your advantage—they can help transform
a sometimes-overwhelming task into what it should be: an engaging, interesting, and rewarding experience.
An essential part of representing a state in an international body is the ability to articulate a given state’s views in writing. Ac-
cordingly, NHSMUN requires each delegation (the one or two delegates representing a country in a committee) to write a posi-
tion paper for both topics on the committee’s agenda. In delegations with two students, we strongly encourage each student to
participate in the research for both topics, to ensure that both students are prepared to debate no matter what topic is selected
first. More information about how to write and format position papers can be found in the NHSMUN Research Guide. To sum-
marize, position papers should be structured into three sections, described below.
I: Topic Background – This section should describe the history of the topic as it would be described by the delegate’s coun-
try. Delegates do not need to give an exhaustive account of the topic background, but rather focus on the details that are most
important to the delegation’s policy and proposed solutions.
II: Country Policy – This section should discuss the delegation’s policy regarding the topic. Each paper should state the policy
in plain terms and include the relevant statements, statistics, and research that support the effectiveness of the policy. Compari-
sons with other global issues are also appropriate here.
III. Proposed Solutions – This section should detail the delegation’s proposed solutions to address the topic. Descriptions of
each solution should be thorough. Each idea should clearly connect to the specific problem it aims to solve and identify potential
obstacles to implementation and how they can be avoided. The solution should be a natural extension of the country’s policy.
Each topic’s position paper should be no more than 10 pages long double-spaced with standard margins and font size. We
recommend 2-4 pages per topic as a suitable length. The paper must be written from the perspective of the country you are
representing at NHSMUN 2020 and should articulate the policies you will espouse at the conference.
Each delegation is responsible for sending a copy of its papers to their committee Directors via myDais on or before 14 Febru-
ary 2020. If a delegate wishes to receive detailed feedback from the committee’s dais, a position must be submitted on or before
24 January 2020. The papers received by this earlier deadline will be reviewed by the dais of each committee and returned prior
to your arrival at the conference.
Complete instructions for how to submit position papers will be sent to faculty advisers via the email submitted at registration.
If delegations are unable to submit their position papers on time, they should contact us at info@imuna.org as soon as possible.
Delegations that do not submit position papers to directors will be ineligible for awards.
IFAD 8| Committee History Committee History The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) is a specialized agency of the United Nations. IFAD was founded in 1977 after the 1974 World Food Conference, as a response to world leaders noting that food insecurity is not caused by a lack of food, but rather that food was not available and affordable for impoverished rural people.1 IFAD was established exclusively to provide economic stimuli and development assistance to people and agricultural systems in need, and was the first interna- tional institution to do so. Currently, there are 176 member states actively contributing funds to be used in the development of countries with high concentrations of rural poverty around the world. IFAD’s mission is to fund projects that help poor people living in agricultural areas have a better quality of life and access to nutrition and clean water. IFAD does this through cooperation with UN bodies such as FAO, NGOs, development agencies, governments, small family farms, and other organizations that present a project of interest inside IFAD’s goals.2 The Interna- tional Fund does not design the projects, instead they analyze and see which ones are under the best interest of the region. IFAD has an extremely important role since it needs to carefully look into the project so that it not only fulfills the immediate need of the region, but instead, develops the region in a way that encourages self-sufficiency. IFAD is constantly changing its actions to benefit those in need and empower them to achieve a better lifestyle. In 2018, the Annual Report on Results and Impact of IFAD operations declared that around 80% or more projects based on important criteria of relevance, innovation, scaling up, gender equality, rural poverty impact are satisfactory.3 In order to maintain this effectiveness, it is important to understand that IFAD is governed over criteria from the Strategic Framework for 2016-20254 and from the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).5 Understanding the Targeting policy and guidelines imposes clarity on who IFAD should target, giving emphasis on reaching “the poorest people in the poorest countries” and also tackling the 2030 Agenda commitment of “leaving no one behind.”6 1 “An International Response to Global Food Shortages,” International Fund for Agricultural Development, accessed 22 September 2019, https:// www.ifad.org/fi_FI/home?p_p_id=101&p_p_lifecycle=0&p_p_state=maximized&p_p_mode=view&_101_struts_action=%2Fasset_ publisher%2Fview_content&_101_assetEntryId=39289109&_101_type=content&_101_urlTitle=history&inheritRedirect=true 2 “Partners,” International Fund for Agricultural Development, accessed 22 September 2019, https://www.ifad.org/en/partners. 3 “2018 Annual Report on Results and Impact of IFAD operations,” International Fund for Agricultural Development, 18 October 2019, accessed 22 September 2019, https://www.ifad.org/en/web/ioe/evaluation/asset/40802619. 4 “IFAD Strategic Framework 2016-2025,” International Fund for Agricultural Development, April 2016, accessed 22 September 2019, https:// www.ifad.org/en/web/knowledge/publication/asset/39369820. 5 “17 goals that will transform our world,” International Fund for Agricultural Development, accessed 22 September 2019, https://www.ifad.org/ en/ifad-and-the-sdgs. 6 “2018 Annual Report on Results and Impact of IFAD operations,” IFAD.
IFAD
Simulation |9
Simulation
This simulation at NHSMUN 2020 will allow all delegates to participate equally in a vibrant debate. Delegates must thoroughly
familiarize themselves with their country’s policies so that they can accurately represent them when the committee discusses each
topic. The goal of this committee will be to build a consensus to support and pass a resolution that thoroughly addresses the
topics under discussion, while also respecting the differing goals and opinions of all member states. With this goal in mind, del-
egates should develop and support resolutions that align with their country’s policies. Each country must work towards finding
compromises without abandoning their own country’s goals in favor of the resolution. The resolutions should, therefore, aim to
improve the situation while allowing each country to stay on policy and accomplish what their government believes is important.
To start committee, after delegates have been introduced to the dais, they will first debate the setting of the agenda and then
progress to substantive debate, which will deepen and progress throughout the following sessions. There will be two main forms
of discussion in this committee: formal debate and caucusing. Formal debate consists of delegates adding themselves to the
speakers list to be formally recognized before the rest of the committee for a specified length of time. When delegates appear
before the committee, it is their opportunity to give an overview of their country’s position. It is imperative that all delegates re-
main respectful of others during this time and observe all procedural rules in order for delegates to be heard and for the speaker’s
list to flow smoothly. The chair will move down the speakers list, allowing each country who has volunteered their name to speak
for a set amount of time and present their concerns to the committee.
Caucusing can be done in one of two ways: moderated and unmoderated. The speakers list will be suspended for both types of
caucuses. Moderated caucuses flow similarly to formal debate, but delegates’ speaking times are often shorter, and each caucus
has a specific topic that delegates must discuss in their comments. A moderated caucus will allow more speakers to address the
assembly without having to wait for their turn to come on the speakers list. Unmoderated caucuses suspend formal rules of
debate for a designated period of time during which delegates are free to move around the room and informally discuss policy
and potential solutions with one another. The majority of writing for working papers and draft resolutions will occur during
these unmoderated caucuses.
The topics in this committee are challenging and will require a great deal of research. Because NHSMUN emphasizes compro-
mise and innovative problem solving, pre-written resolutions are not allowed at this conference. While your delegation may have
some informal ideas about possible solutions before committee begins, you may not bring them to the conference in resolution
form; this would defeat the purpose of the committee, which is to work together and compromise. Working papers and resolu-
tions are collaboratively created by starting with solutions, first just as a set of ideas. These solutions are formatted into a working
paper, then voted upon as draft resolutions, and finally presented as resolutions in plenary if passed in committee. Throughout
this process and the debates, the dais staff will be available at all times to help delegates with any concerns or questions they may
have. The dais is always happy to help delegates not only with substantive questions related to the topics under discussion, but
also with adjusting to the procedural aspects of Model UN.
During the conference, the chair will be moderating the committee and setting up a general direction for the flow of debate.
However, it is truly up to the delegates to decide how the committee proceeds, and it is up to the delegates to make the confer-
ence and committee the best that it can be. Delegates are welcome to contact the dais at any time for help, both before and
during the conference, as they are there to answer any questions. They will help to make sure the committee runs smoothly and
is a success.
IFAD
NHSMUN 2020
Topic A:
Combating Infectious Disease in the Agricultural Sector
Photo Credit: AmbboxTopic A: Combating Infectious Disease in the Agricultural Sector
History and Description of the Issue |11
Introduction
Agriculture is not only vital for securing favorable health outcomes, but its development also im-
proves production capabilities to refine the well-being of the overall population. Through the better-
ment of agricultural production, the health risks that accompany food insecurity can be reduced and
rural communities that depend on agriculture can improve overall health.1 The intersections between
agriculture and public health are extensive, and, if used correctly, this relationship can help promote
improved health for rural communities and agricultural workers, as well as increased development.2
However, the risk of infectious diseases within the agricultural sector threatens to undermine farm-
ers’ efforts to promote development, thereby taking away the opportunity of ensuring positive health
outcomes for themselves, their livestock, and their crops.
The most dangerous infectious diseases are present in agricul- ties. Good health in these regions contributes to improved
tural communities, which comprise a majority of the global agricultural outcomes, and increased productivity prevents
population living in poverty.3 These diseases rob the field of food insecurity and allows for a higher standard of health in
laborers in their prime working years and steal away produc- the population. However, the inherent complexities and many
tivity that could contribute towards development. Alongside factors at play within the issue have created the current road-
human diseases, animal infections work in tandem to reduce blocks that prevent rural areas from achieving better health.
agricultural development by limiting any benefits gained from Understanding how these roadblocks tie into improving out-
livestock cultivation, as well as putting livestock farmers at comes for the agricultural sector and increasing development
risk of contracting animal transmitted illnesses. In addition to is crucial for improving the status of this topic.
these two, plant diseases threaten to destroy entire livelihoods
by decimating crop health. When they are left unobstructed in Infectious Diseases in Rural Communities and
their destruction of the agricultural sector, the result is mas-
the Cycle of Poverty
sive human population loss and reduced access to food.4 The Before the latter half of the twentieth century, the rapid spread
health of plants, livestock, and humans are all interconnected of infectious diseases was the most significant cause of death
at the threat of infectious disease; therefore addressing each and largely a result of a lack of public health infrastructure.5
of these intertwined parts is an investment for holistically im- In recent decades, however, the focus of food-related health
proving rural communities throughout the developing world. has shifted from infectious to chronic illnesses, such as heart
disease, diabetes, lower respiratory infections, and other con-
ditions.6 Public health infrastructure includes frameworks that
History and Description of the Issue
contribute to the improvement of the overall population, such
The intersection between agricultural production and health as better sewage and sanitation systems, access to clean drink-
provides a unique opportunity to invest in creating wide- ing water, and adequately supported health administrations
spread change in the overall quality of life of rural communi- with the capacity to address concerns for public well-being.7
1 “The Two-Way Links Between Agriculture and Health,” World Development Report 2008, (October 2007): 224-225, accessed 14 June 2019,
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDRS/Resources/477365-1327599046334/8394679-1327606607122/WDR08_18_Focus_H.pdf.
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid.
4 “Research Priorities for the Environment, Agriculture, and Infectious Diseases of Poverty,” World Health Organization Technical Report Series,
No. 976 (2013): accessed 14 June 2019, https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/78129/WHO_TRS_976_eng.pdf ?sequence=1.
5 “Shifts in Country-Specific Health Trends, Growth in Chronic Disease,” Population Reference Bureau, last modified 7 March 2013, https://
www.prb.org/global-burden-disease-2010/.
6 “The Top 10 Causes of Death,” World Health Organization, last modified 24 May 2018, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/
detail/the-top-10-causes-of-death.
7 “Public Health Infrastructure,” Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, last modified 6 July 2019, https://www.healthypeople.
gov/2020/topics-objectives/topic/public-health-infrastructure.12|TH opic A: Combating Infectious Disease in the
istory and Description of the Issue
Agricultural Sector
These structures have greatly improved the health of popula- that has continued into the current Sustainable Development
tions across the world and significantly reduced rates of infec- Goals (SDG).11 While significant progress has been made,
tious diseases; however, low and middle-income countries are these three diseases remain at the top of worldwide infectious
less likely to have these public health developments in place. 8
concerns and current data places them within the leading thir-
Furthermore, rural communities, especially those in the midst teen global causes of death.12 In 2016, these diseases collec-
of poverty, are even less likely to have protective public health tively amounted to roughly three million deaths worldwide.13
measures and infrastructure set, making them considerably Their widespread nature makes them an effective tool for
more vulnerable to infectious diseases than urban regions. tracking the overall effects of infectious disease as a whole in
rural agrarian communities.14 While the initial human cost of
Rural agricultural communities oftentimes exist at the inter-
in agrarian societies is a compelling matter of its own, there
section between limited income, lack of development, and
are also immense economic repercussions in farm production
poor access to health resources — all of which increase vul-
that characterize this issue. Diseases like HIV/AIDS, malaria,
nerability to infectious diseases in a cycle of perpetual pov-
and tuberculosis all diminish the agricultural labor force, ei-
erty.9 This cycle stems from limited public health infrastruc-
ther through death or debilitation — ensuring that their sur-
ture and development, and causes disease rates to spike. As a
rounding communities remain within a never-ending cycle of
result, this takes away from people’s ability to work, reduces
poverty.
household income, and prevents communities from devel-
oping. Not only does poor income ensure that households In the case of HIV/AIDS, the vulnerability of rural house-
are unable to pay for treatment if it becomes necessary, but holds and their limited access to health outreach has resulted
limited health resources also ensure that diseases continue to in the disease spreading rapidly among agricultural commu-
thrive. Regardless of which point in the poverty cycle the issue nities.15 HIV/AIDS is both a chronic and infectious disease,
is viewed from, the end result remains the same: communities meaning that it can impact the affected individual over a long
are left unhealthy and unable to achieve better public wellness. period of time before eventually resulting in death. The dis-
This cycle is only enhanced by the subject of agriculture, as ease has the ability to decimate the existing agricultural work-
certain aspects of agricultural production cause communities force, with those who contract it continually suffering and
to be heavily susceptible to high rates of infectious diseases.10 possibly becoming impaired in their ability to work.16 For ex-
The amount of infections that have the potential to affect ample, the immune systems of those who are HIV-positive
these communities is seemingly limitless, however, this section can become severely compromised, which leaves them unpro-
of the background guide will focus heavily on HIV/AIDs, tected against other infectious threats that can remove them
malaria, and tuberculosis (TB). The previously used Millen- from the agricultural labor force.17 Unfortunately, since HIV/
nium Development Goals (MDG) considered reversing the AIDS was originally assumed to be an issue only for urban
growth trends in these three diseases to be a core initiative communities, data collection on how this issue impacted rural
8 Ibid.
9 Corinna Hawkes and Marie T. Ruel, “Understanding the Links Between Agriculture and Health,” International Food Policy Research Institute
(IFPRI) 2020 vision briefs, (2006), accessed 30 June 2019, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5055724_Understanding_the_Links_Be-
tween_Agriculture_and_Health.
10 Ibid.
11 “Goal Six: Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria, and Other Diseases,” United Nations, https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/aids.shtml.
12 Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser, “Causes of Death,” University of Oxford: Global Change Data Lab, last modified April 2019, https://our-
worldindata.org/causes-of-death.
13 Ibid.
14 Ibid.
15 Peter Lamptey et al., “Once an Urban Phenomenon, HIV/AIDS Threatens Lives and Livelihoods of Rural Communities,” Population
Reference Bureau, last modified 20 August 2003, https://www.prb.org/onceanurbanphenomenonhivaidsthreatenslivesandlivelihoodsofrural-
communities/.
16 Martina Halswimmer, “What Has AIDS to do With Agriculture,” Food and Agriculture Organization Report, (1994), accessed 30 June 2019,
https://www.un.org/popin/popis/aids/aidsbro.html.
17 Ibid.Topic A: Combating Infectious Disease in the Agricultural Sector
History and Description of the Issue |13
Community health workers in Vanuatu enacting an educational drama about HIV/AIDS
communities is incomplete.18 As a result of this inadequate ease on rural households and labor.20 Many of the important
research background, the virus was given the opportunity to points FAO made in 1993 about how HIV/AIDS impacts ag-
flourish in rural communities and policymakers were left un- ricultural production are still currently present in this topic,
aware about the additional consequences in agricultural pro- and time has only made these concerns all the more pressing.
duction that accompany the loss of human life.19 Following Alongside HIV/AIDS, malaria also shares a unique connec-
this period of inaction, the UN Food and Agriculture Orga- tion to agricultural production. Malaria is a parasitic disease
nization (FAO) notably took the early steps in 1993 to put the carried by mosquitoes, and stagnant water sources serve as
issue of the connection between HIV/AIDS and agricultural breeding grounds for female mosquitoes to lay eggs, popu-
production into public concern through the publication of late the surrounding area, and greatly increase a community’s
“What Has AIDS to do with Agriculture,” which was one of risk of infection.21 Certain practices involved in food produc-
the first major attempts to highlight the impact of the dis- tion routinely create numerous sources of stagnant water that
18 Ibid.
19 Jacques du Guerny, “Some Considerations on the Inter-relations Between Agriculture, Infectious Diseases, and HIV/AIDS,” Interna-
tional Union for the Scientific Study of Population, (2004), accessed 30 June 2019, http://archive.iussp.org/members/restricted/publications/
Ouagadougou04/5-thr-deguerny04.pdf.
20 Ibid.
21 “Water-Related Diseases,” World Health Organization, last modified 29 April 2018, https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseas-
es-risks/diseases/malaria/en/.14|TH opic A: Combating Infectious Disease in the
istory and Description of the Issue
Agricultural Sector
contribute to malaria occurrence, which is especially prob- While there is medicine for curing malaria after one has been
lematic in rural areas that are limited in their access to health infected, disease and public health experts have determined
resources and medical treatment. Irrigation agriculture is the that the best possible way to ensure more lives are saved is to
artificial facilitation of water for crop production mainly for have communities implement malaria prevention rather than
lands in arid and semi-arid climates, a prominent example be- rely on treatment.30 Existing tools for effectively reducing
ing how rice fields are flooded for cultivation.22 When this malaria include insecticide-treated mosquito nets for homes,
occurs on farms with ineffective drainage systems and other surveillance and control of mosquito attracting sites, spraying
safety precautions, it creates new breeding ground for mos- high-contact areas, and promoting general awareness about
quitoes.23 Additional water-related agricultural practices that the causes and symptoms.31 Making these prevention mea-
contribute to this increased risk of malaria include the use of sures more readily available has the potential to create long-
ponds for fish farming and storing water in open tanks for term positive results in agricultural output and production
livestock.24 These processes are normal for agricultural pro- capabilities, which puts farmers and their communities on a
duction and unfortunately result in workers experiencing high more secure path toward future development. Reducing ma-
rates of malaria as an occupational hazard.25 In addition, many laria greatly improves crop yields, as research in Côte d’Ivoire
farmers remain unaware of what malaria symptoms look like found when it examined the disparities in agricultural output
or what aspects of their surrounding environment increase for smallholder vegetable farmers caused by malaria.32 During
risk.26 A study conducted in Oyo State, Nigeria found that a single production cycle of cabbage, farmers who were un-
less than half of the people surveyed in the communities as- able to work because of malaria for an average of four days
suffered 47% lower yields and 53% lower revenues than those
sessed could correctly identify malaria symptoms or the main
who did not experience malaria symptoms.33 In Zambia, free
causes of transmission, which is one of the many challenges
distribution of treated mosquito nets saw an average increase
countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have faced in attempting to
of 14.7% in the annual harvest value for smallholder farmers.34
improve survival conditions for malaria.27 In addition, general
Higher household income puts agriculture-dependent house-
research shows that smallholder farmers globally lose an aver-
holds in a better position for escaping the cycle of poverty by
age of twenty-two working days due to malaria infection and
helping to reduce the malnutrition and malnourishment that
are only able to harvest around 40% of their crop or livestock
cause all disease symptoms to be more severe, creating a route
during this time.28 These lost working days are extremely dif-
out of the cycle of poverty.
ficult for farmers to bear given that the times of the year when
malaria is most likely to be transmitted coincides with crucial While these tools are useful, common agricultural practices
harvest times.29
that result in high malaria transmission require additional
22 “About Irrigation,” Victoria State Government, last modified 29 June 2018, http://agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/farm-management/
soil-and-water/irrigation/about-irrigation.
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid.
25 Ibid.
26 Oladimeji Oladepo et al., “Malaria Knowledge and Agricultural Practices that Promote Mosquito Breeding in Two Rural Farming
Communities in Oyo State, Nigeria,” Malaria Journal 9, No. 91 (2010), accessed 30 June 2019, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC2856588/.
27 Ibid.
28 “Mosquitoes, Malaria, and Agriculture,” BASF Global, last modified 2016, https://agriculture.basf.com/en/Pest-Control/Commitment-
to-Public-Health/Mosquitoes-malaria-and-agriculture.html.
29 Ibid.
30 “Core Vector Control Methods,” World Health Organization, last modified 19 February 2019, https://www.who.int/malaria/areas/vec-
tor_control/core_methods/en/.
31 Ibid.
32 Olivier Girardin et al., “Opportunities and Limiting Factors of Intensive Vegetable Farming in Malaria Endemic Côte d’Ivoire,” Acta
Tropica 89, No. 2 (2004), accessed 30 June 2019, https://www-sciencedirect-com.pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/science/article/pii/S0001706X03002845.
33 Ibid.
34 Günther Fink and Felix Masiye, “Health and Agricultural Productivity: Evidence from Zambia,” Journal of Health Economics 42, (2015),
accessed 30 June 2019, https://www-sciencedirect-com.pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/science/article/pii/S0167629615000521#bib0120.Topic A: Combating Infectious Disease in the Agricultural Sector
History and Description of the Issue |15
prevention measures. Reducing misconceptions about how
the disease is transmitted, encouraging farmers to regularly
clear their land for stagnant water, covering open containers,
and removing plant brush that foster mosquito breeding are
examples of the practices that will promote healthier farms
for its workers and production outputs.35 Currently, however,
these are mostly performed on wealthier farms since their
owners generally have better knowledge about malaria trans-
mission.36 Smallholder farmers may view the idea of changing
these routine farming practices as unnecessarily creating ad-
ditional challenges, but research has shown that any economic
gains made from these processes are quickly lost because of
detriments stemming from illness.37 Use of a river bed for irrigated agriculture in an arid upland landscape in Yunnan
Province, China
Tuberculosis is the third major infectious disease concern,
almost six times more likely considering that many of them al-
and like its two counterparts, it is equally detrimental to agri-
ready are afflicted with latent TB before coming into repeated
cultural communities. Unlike HIV/AIDS and malaria, tuber-
contact with the disease.41 Even if the person is aware that the
culosis (TB) is transmitted from person to person through
mild symptoms are TB, the pressure of needing to earn an in-
the air, and its highly infectious status ensures that someone
come can cause them to continue working as long as the lack
only needs to inhale a few germs to contract it.38 Around
of severity in the disease allows them.42 A limited agricultural
one fourth of the world population has latent TB, meaning
workforce means that crop yields, livestock production, and
that they have already been infected but have not fallen ill
soil fertility are halted and forced to a standstill.43 Low crop
and cannot transmit the disease.39 Although these individuals
yields for subsistence farmers growing food exclusively to
have approximately a 5-15% risk of actually experiencing the
sustain themselves and their families creates seasons without
symptoms, this risk greatly increases for people who are im-
food security, without proper nutrition, and with worse overall
munocompromised, such as those who are HIV-positive, as
health.44 Commercial farmers are similarly forced to cope with
well as those experiencing malnutrition or malnourishment.40
major losses as low crop yields are devastating to their income
Property and instability are risks present in many rural agri-
and reduce overall household spending power.45
cultural communities and residents from these areas are more
likely to have weakened immune system and an increased risk The overall mortality and economic loss in productivity
of contracting TB. Farm workers are at an extremely high risk caused by HIV/AIDS, malaria, TB, and other diseases are
of contracting active TB due to its highly infectious nature — catastrophically detrimental to rural communities. However,
35 “Core Vector Control Methods.”
36 Oladimeji Oladepo et al., “Malaria Knowledge and Agricultural Practices that Promote Mosquito Breeding in Two Rural Farming Com-
munities in Oyo State, Nigeria.”
37 Izabel Cristina dos Reis et al., “Epidemic and Endemic Malaria Transmission Related to Fish Farming Ponds in the Amazon Frontier,”
PLOS One 10, No. 9 (2015), accessed 30 June 2019, https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0137521https://
journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0137521.
38 “Tuberculosis,” World Health Organization, last modified 18 September 2018, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tuber-
culosis.
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid.
41 Ibid.
42 Ibid.
43 Martina Halswimmer, “What Has AIDS to do With Agriculture.”
44 “What is Subsistence Farming?” Africa Development Promise, last modified 6 October 2014, http://africadevelopmentpromise.org/what-
is-subsistence-farming/.
45 Martina Halswimmer, “What Has AIDS to do With Agriculture.”16|TH opic A: Combating Infectious Disease in the
istory and Description of the Issue
Agricultural Sector
there are additional elements of harm for agriculture-depen- This enormous burden placed on caregivers in communities,
dent households where one or more family members become which may already lack resources to spare, is greatly enhanced
sick or die as a result of disease. Those who fall ill or who by the unique needs of disease-orphaned children.53 Along
are permanently incapacitated by their disease must have with the general costs of feeding and clothing these children,
other family members act as caregivers. Because these care- caregivers must also tend to the mental and emotional needs
givers would normally be contributing their efforts toward of those who may be traumatized by the loss of their fami-
agricultural production, the lost working days increase from ly.54 Children who have lost their parents to HIV/AIDS are
one person to two. The cost of purchasing medical treatment likely to also be HIV-infected and could suffer from AIDS-
and materials to treat household member affected by disease related stigma from the rest of the community and even their
becomes even more difficult to accomplish as a result of this caregivers, along with any other accompanying behavioral and
loss in productivity.46 emotional issues.55 This burden of orphan caretaking and the
Research conducted in Kogi State, Nigeria ran calculations to significant effort it requires diminishes agricultural production
determine the amount of overall income lost for an agricul- capabilities and reduces the overall income of rural house-
tural household where one family member has fallen sick with holds, thus limiting opportunities for development.
malaria.47 Combining costs of malaria prevention and the lost Infectious disease traps rural communities within a cycle of
working efforts of caregivers demonstrated a 13% overall re- inescapable poverty that blocks potential agricultural develop-
duction in household income.48 Although this comprehensive ment form occurring. Tackling the many factors involved in
study is too detailed to apply on a global scale, this research
this issue requires a coordinated intervention combining agri-
conducted in Nigeria is a strong indicator that the productivity
cultural and health-focused interests that focus on preventing
losses as a result of the burden placed on caregivers is a major
the spread of diseases and encourage farmers to take preven-
aspect of improving agricultural development.49 This caregiv-
tion measures into their own hands.
er burden continues after these individuals pass away; disease-
orphaned children have become more and more prominent Livestock Production and Zoonotic Diseases
over the last several decades as it coincided with the rise in
global HIV/AIDS cases.50 In particular, HIV/AIDs has been Livestock is one of the fastest growing sectors of the agrarian
incredibly taxing for the stability of rural agrarian communi- economy, with animal production contributing almost 40% of
ties because of the unprecedented amount of orphaned chil- the global value of agricultural output in recent years.56 The
dren caused by the disease.51 By 2000, over 13 million children rapid growth in livestock cultivation offers new avenues of op-
— the majority in Africa — had lost one or both parents to portunity for reducing poverty, increasing food security, and
HIV/AIDS, and this number has only continued to increase.52 promoting development within rural agricultural communi-
46 Mohammed Kebiru Ibrahim, J. David, and Ufedo Monday, Shaibu, “Malaria and Agriculture: Examining the Cost Implications and
Effect on Productivity Among Farm Households in Kogi State, Nigeria,” International Journal of Tropical Disease and Health 23, No. 3 (2017):
1-9, accessed 30 June 2019, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317352254_Malaria_and_Agriculture_Examining_the_Cost_Impli-
cations_and_Effect_on_Productivity_among_Farm_Households_in_Kogi_State_Nigeria.
47 Ibid.
48 Ibid.
49 Ibid.
50 Laura L. Murphy, Paul Harvey, and Eva Silvestre, “How Do We Know What We Know About the Impact of AIDS on Food and
Livelihood Security? A Review of Empirical Research from Rural Sub-Saharan Africa,” Human Organization 64, No. 3 (2005): 265-275, ac-
cessed 30 June 2019, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277363922_How_Do_We_Know_What_We_Know_about_the_Impact_
of_AIDS_on_Food_and_Livelihood_Insecurity_A_Review_of_Empirical_Research_from_Rural_Sub_Saharan_Africa.
51 “Children Orphaned by AIDS: Frontline Responses from Eastern and Southern Africa,” UNICEF Report, accessed 30 June 2019,
https://www.unicef.org/publications/files/pub_aids_en.pdf.
52 Ibid.
53 Rachel Kidman and Tonya R. Thurman, “Caregiver Burden Among Adults Caring for Orphaned Children in Rural South Africa,” Vul-
nerable Children Youth Studies 9, No. 3 (2014): 234-246, accessed 30 June 2019, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4066884/.
54 Ibid.
55 Ibid.
56 “Animal Production,” Food and Agriculture Organization, http://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/.Topic A: Combating Infectious Disease in the Agricultural Sector
History and Description of the Issue |17
boundary, meaning they can easily spread from one agricul-
tural community to another — a threat which is increasingly
more likely if the animals are also used for transportation.61
Farming animals are a valuable asset of wealth that can not
only be used as credit or trade in agricultural communities,
but also carry positive social implications.62 Furthermore, live-
stock death contributes to a rise in food prices and heightens
food insecurity within communities.63 Therefore, losing these
assets to scourges of preventable infectious diseases is a major
threat to rural household livelihoods. Because of the multidi-
mensional nature of these impacts, policy responses to this
issue have been difficult to coordinate. Despite this, these dif-
ficulties demonstrate that the need for assessments surveying
Animal husbandry in the Congo
the impact of animal health are critical for those in rural com-
ties.57 However, agrarian communities in the developing world
munities of the developing world whose lives depend on it.64
are partially excluded from experiencing the full effects of the
major demand for livestock because they must also counter- While there are numerous diseases currently plaguing livestock
balance this with the threat of animal diseases. This risk of throughout multiple continents, several key viral infections
disease in livestock carries significant concerns for both the represent the overall burden placed on agricultural workers
livelihoods of rural households and human health, requiring a from this issue.65 These include Peste des Petits Ruminants
programmatic approach that addresses both aspects. (PPR), Rift Valley Fever virus (RVFV), and Bluetongue virus
(BTV) — all of which are highly contagious and have a par-
For rural communities dependent on agriculture as a major
ticularly strong impact on sheep and goat production.66 This
source of income, the consequences of deadly livestock dis-
is especially harmful for poor farming communities, which
eases are catastrophic.58 In the case of subsistence farmers
depend on sheep and goats as livestock because of their
who are not focused on matching the fast movement of the
adaptability to different habitats, extreme weather conditions,
industry’s demand for animal products, livestock diseases are
and high production capabilities.67 These diseases also have
equally detrimental.59 Households that do not have access to
the potential to turn food products made from animals into
other resources are able to have greater means if they own
health hazards.
even a single animal, as it can meet their needs for food and
milk, transport, trade, and provide a route for exiting pover- Other major livestock diseases that are not extremely deadly
ty.60 Moreover, many of these animal diseases are also trans- or do not have long-term implications for food safety still car-
57 Ibid.
58 “Combating Infectious Diseases of Livestock for International Development,” Biotechnology and Biosciences Research Council, last modified
February 2010, https://bbsrc.ukri.org/documents/cidlid-brochure/.
59 Ibid.
60 Ibid.
61 “Transboundary Animal Diseases,” Food and Agriculture Organization, last modified 2016, http://www.fao.org/emergencies/emergency-
types/transboundary-animal-diseases/en/.
62 “Combating Infectious Diseases of Livestock for International Development.”
63 Ibid.
64 Karl M. Rich, and Brian D. Perry, “The Economic and Poverty Impacts of Animal Diseases in Developing Countries: New Roles, New
Demands for Economics and Epidemiology,” Preventative Veterinary Medicine 101, No. 3-4 (2011): 133-147, accessed 30 June 2019, https://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016758771000228X?via%3Dihub#bib0145.
65 “Combating Infectious Diseases of Livestock for International Development,” Biotechnology and Biosciences Research Council, last modified
February 2010, https://bbsrc.ukri.org/documents/cidlid-brochure/.
66 Ibid.
67 António Monteiro, José Manuel Costa, and Maria João Lima, Goat Systems Productions: Advantages and Disadvantages to the Animal, Envi-
ronment, and Farmer, London: Intech Open, 2018, accessed 30 June 2018, https://www.intechopen.com/books/goat-science/goat-system-
productions-advantages-and-disadvantages-to-the-animal-environment-and-farmer.18|TH opic A: Combating Infectious Disease in the
istory and Description of the Issue
Agricultural Sector
ry harmful economic impacts for agricultural communities.68 duct thorough assessments on the epidemiology of livestock
Foot-and-mouth disease, or FMD, is a highly contagious vi- health and the economic impact of their diseases. While the
ral infection that affects all animals with divided hooves (i.e. benefits of owning health livestock for smallholder farmers in
cows, pigs, sheep, goats, and deer); the impact of this disease the developing world are more difficult to contextualize and
on a community is a perfect example of how severe economic calculate because of the social importance of animal owner-
concerns can still exist even when the illness in question has ship, the information is still incredibly necessary to collect.
low mortality and does not impact food safety.69 FMD spreads
Livestock diseases are incredibly costly to agricultural com-
incredibly quickly and is prevalent within many countries in
the developing world, including most of Sub-Saharan Africa.70 munities because they remove a crucial resource that can con-
Animals suffering from FMD are unable to contribute to pro- tinue the cycle of poverty in rural communities. The social de-
duction while they endure the illness, which usually results in terminants of health associated with poverty indirectly impact
a lower efficiency of permanent herd structures.71 FMD also human quality of life, but livestock diseases also directly harm
diminishes market access for farmers living in countries where the health of agricultural workers and their surrounding com-
the disease is common, which is especially harmful in the case munities when these illnesses are transmittable to humans. A
of the high-export meat markets for the United States, Japan, disease that is naturally transmissible from animals to people
the European Union, and others as well.72 Studies in Zambia is classified as a zoonosis.76 These can be transmitted by hav-
on controlling the impact of FMD through vaccination found ing physical contact with infected livestock, consuming their
that the economic losses caused by the disease were over 1.6 food products, or even having contact with soil or water that
billion USD for exports of beef and sable antelopes alone, has been contaminated by the animals.77 Approximately 60%
with an annual cost of over 2.7 million USD spent on preven- of existing human infectious diseases stem from animals, and
tive measures.73 Although most developed high-income coun- out of the five new diseases that appear annually, three are
tries eradicated the disease prior to the turn of the century, from animal sources as well.78 This threat of emerging illness-
a major outbreak of FMD in the United Kingdom in 2001 es places a significant burden on agricultural capacity of farm-
provided researchers with additional perspectives on the eco- ers who stand on the front lines for becoming infected and
nomic losses involved.74 This epidemic cost the UK between 7 having poor health, which limits the productivity of workers.
and 10 billion USD, and a later occurring outbreak of bovine Physical impairment and long recovery times prevent farmers
TB in 2011 forced the government to spend approximately 91 from being fully effective, and they may even be forced to kill
million USD compensating farmers.75 The severe extent of the disease-spreading livestock in order to avoid future infec-
these costs demands that researchers and policymakers con- tion. These infections are an entirely preventable hazard in
68 “Foot-and-Mouth Disease,” Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, last modified July 2013, https://www.aphis.usda.gov/publications/
animal_health/2013/fs_fmd_general.pdf.
69 Yona Sinkala et al., “Challenges and Economic Implications in the Control of Foot and Mouth Disease in Sub-Saharan Africa: Lessons
from the Zambian Experience,” Veterinary Medicine International, (2014), accessed 30 June 2019, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC4158296/.
70 Ibid.
71 T. J. D. Knight-Jones and J. Rushton, “The Economic Impacts of Foot and Mouth Disease - What are they, How big are they, and Where
do they Occur?” Preventive Veterinary Medicine 112, No. 3-4 (2013): 161-173, accessed 30 June 2019, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC3989032/.
72 Yona Sinkala et al., “Challenges and Economic Implications in the Control of Foot and Mouth Disease in Sub-Saharan Africa: Lessons
from the Zambian Experience.”
73 Ibid.
74 Karl M. Rich, and Brian D. Perry, “The Economic and Poverty Impacts of Animal Diseases in Developing Countries: New Roles, New
Demands for Economics and Epidemiology.”
75 “Livestock Disease,” House of Parliament Office of Science and Technology, last modified October 2011, http://www.ifst.org/sites/default/
files/Livestock%20diseases%20POST-PN-392.pdf.
76 “Livestock Health, Pests and Diseases,” Queensland Government, last modified 28 March 2019, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/indus-
tries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/land-management/health-pests-weeds-diseases/livestock/pests-diseases-animals/diseases-spread-
humans.
77 Ibid.
78 “One Health ‘At a Glance,” World Organisation for Animal Health, http://www.oie.int/en/for-the-media/onehealth/.You can also read
