BACKGROUND UNPBC Topic A: The Situation in Cambodia Topic B: The Situation in Burundi - IMUNA
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BACKGROUND UNPBC
GUIDE
2 0 2 1
Topic A: The Situation in
Cambodia
Topic B: The Situation in Burundi
Email: info@imuna.org
Phone: +1 (212) 652-9992
Web: www.nhsmun.org
Secretary-General Dear Delegates,
Maura Goss
My name is Minahil Nadeem, and I am the UNPBC Director for Session I at NHSMUN 2021. I
Directors-General
am looking forward to the conference and working with all of you! This past year I was the Assis-
Rose Blackwell
tant Director for UNPBC, and two years prior, I was a delegate, making this my third NHSMUN
JJ Packer
conference.
Conference Services
Hannah Lilley Currently, I am a junior at McMaster University in Hamilton, Canada. I am majoring in life science
Alisa Wong and minoring in political science, with plans to go to medical school for Neurology. I have actively
Delegate Experience participated in Model UN for six years now—throughout high school and university—and I have
Akanksha Sancheti attended conferences on both academic levels. I also have chaired my university’s Model UN con-
John Wood ference for the past two years (UNPFII and Ad-Hoc). Not only has MUN allowed me to better my
public speaking skills, but I have also made amazing memories with people from all over the world,
Global Partnerships
Sofia Fuentes formed long-lasting friendships, and gotten to express my love for international affairs through
Salmaan Rashiq exciting simulations. Besides Model UN, I am a part of executive teams for school clubs such as the
McMaster Global Medical Brigades and The Citizens Foundation. Outside of academics, I adore
Under-Secretaries-
General traveling and have had the privilege of traveling to half the world with friends and family (Turkey
Jon Basile will forever be my favorite traveling experience). I enjoy watching sports, particularly basketball
Ankita Bhat (GO RAPTORS!) and soccer (HALA MADRID!), just as much as I enjoy playing them.
Beatriz Circelli
Caitlyn Johnson UNPBC is an interesting committee to simulate and participate in, as we are responsible for pro-
Patrick Leong tecting and ensuring sustainable peace within post-conflict areas, which are the most vulnerable
Kathy Li and threatened by the onset of recurrent instability. The topics for this year’s agenda, chosen by
Pablo Maristany de my Co-Director Claudia Bermudez and I, are the Situations in Cambodia and Burundi, which are
las Casas internationally pivotal issues. As a product of all of our hard work and research, we hope that the
McCall Olliff Background Guide provides you with the necessary information regarding the topics. This Back-
Abolee Raut ground Guide is a great foundation for understanding the topic, but we strongly encourage you all
Pranav Reddy
to do external research to better grasp the content and your country’s position.
Clare Steiner
Ann Williams If you have any questions, please don’t hesitate to ask. Claudia and I are more than happy to answer
them, whether it is regarding the committee, the topics, NHSMUN, and even ourselves. I wish you
all the best of luck, and I am looking forward to seeing you all soon!
Kind regards,
Minahil Nadeem
minahil.nadeem@imuna.org
United Nations Peacebuilding Commission
Session I
Email: info@imuna.org
Phone: +1 (212) 652-9992
Web: www.nhsmun.org
Secretary-General Dear Delegates,
Maura Goss
I am so excited to welcome all of you to NHSMUN 2021! My name is Claudia Bermudez, and I am
Directors-General
your Session II Director for the United Nations Peacebuilding Commission (UNPBC). I know this
Rose Blackwell
background guide will be quite a read, but I’m so excited for all of you to research and familiarize
JJ Packer
yourself with the following topics that Minahil, our ADs, and I have been working on!
Conference Services
Hannah Lilley This session of NHSMUN will be my second year on staff. For NHSMUN 2020, I was the Ses-
Alisa Wong sion II Assistant Director for UNPBC. I only attended the conference once during my senior year,
Delegate Experience where I also was a delegate in the UNPBC. I am currently a Sophomore at Washington University
Akanksha Sancheti in St. Louis and am majoring in International Area Studies with a concentration in Development
John Wood and Economics and a minor in Legal Studies. I’m originally Colombian, but I have lived all over the
world because of my dad’s job. At WashU, I’m part of the Washington University Political Review,
Global Partnerships
Sofia Fuentes WashU TASSEL, and Sigma Iota Rho. In my free time, I like reading, drawing, watching Hyram
Salmaan Rashiq skincare videos, swimming, and watching soccer!
Under-Secretaries- I am also especially passionate about volunteering abroad and have found myself dedicating large
General amounts of time towards helping the people of Cambodia, leading to my interest in topic A,
Jon Basile
“The Situation in Cambodia.” Minahil and I hope you will find this background guide helpful and
Ankita Bhat
informative and that you will explore both of these topics more with your independent research.
Beatriz Circelli
Caitlyn Johnson The Situation in Cambodia and the Situation in Burundi are extremely relevant and vital topics for
Patrick Leong consideration in this committee.
Kathy Li
I’m so excited to see the comprehensive and creative solutions you all propose during the commit-
Pablo Maristany de
tee. If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to reach out to Minahil or me!
las Casas
McCall Olliff Looking forward to seeing all of you,
Abolee Raut
Pranav Reddy Claudia Bermudez
Clare Steiner claudia.bermudez@imuna.org
Ann Williams United Nations Peacebuilding Commission
Session II
UNPBC 4| Table of Contents Table of Contents A Note on the NHSMUN Difference 5 A Note on Research and Preparation 7 Committee History 8 The Situation in Cambodia 10 Introduction 11 History and Description of the Issue 12 Current Status 30 Bloc Analysis 35 Committee Mission 37 The Situation in Burundi 39 Introduction 40 History and Description of the Issue 40 Current Status 55 Bloc Analysis 61 Committee Mission 64 Research and Preparation Questions 66 Important Documents 67 Works Cited 70
UNPBC
A Note on the NHSMUN Difference |5
A Note on the NHSMUN Difference
Esteemed Faculty and Delegates,
Welcome to NHSMUN 2021! Our names are Rose Blackwell and JJ Packer, and we are this year’s Directors-General. Thank
you for choosing to attend NHSMUN, the world’s largest and most diverse Model United Nations conference for secondary
school students. We are thrilled to welcome you to our conference in March!
As a space for collaboration, consensus, and compromise, NHSMUN strives to transform today’s brightest thinkers into tomor-
row’s leaders. Our organization provides a uniquely tailored experience for all in attendance through innovative and accessible
programming. We believe that an emphasis on education through simulation is paramount to the Model UN experience, and this
idea permeates throughout NHSMUN.
Debate founded on strong knowledge: With knowledgeable staff members and delegates from over 70 countries, NHSMUN
can facilitate an enriching experience reliant on substantively rigorous debate. To ensure this high quality of debate, our staff
members produce extremely detailed and comprehensive topic overviews (like the one below) to prepare delegates for the com-
plexities and nuances inherent in global issues. This process takes over six months, during which the Directors who lead our
committees develop their topics with the valuable input of expert contributors. Because these topics are always changing and
evolving, NHSMUN also produces update papers intended to bridge the gap of time between when the background guides are
published and when committee starts in March. As such, this guide is designed to be a launching point from which delegates
should delve further into their topics.
Extremely prepared and engaged staff: The detailed knowledge that our directors provide in this background guide through
diligent research aims to spur critical thought within delegates at NHSMUN. Before the conference, our Directors and Assistant
Directors are trained rigorously through copious hours of exercises and workshops to provide the best conference experience
possible. Beyond this, our Directors and Assistant Directors read every position paper submitted to NHSMUN and provide
thoughtful insight on those submitted by the feedback deadline. Our staff aims not only to tailor the committee experience to
delegates’ reflections and research but also to facilitate an environment where all delegates’ thoughts can be heard.
Emphasis on participation: The UN relies on the voices of all of its Member States to create resolutions most likely to make
a dramatic impact on the world. That is our philosophy at NHSMUN too. We believe that to properly delve into an issue and
produce fruitful debate, it is crucial to focus the entire energy and attention of the room on the topic at hand. Our Rules of
Procedure and our staff focus on making every voice in the committee heard, regardless of each delegate’s country assignment
or skill level. However, unlike many other conferences, we also emphasize delegate participation after the conference. MUN
delegates are well researched and aware of the UN’s priorities, and they can serve as the vanguard for action on the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). Therefore, we are proud to also connect students with other action-oriented organizations to en-
courage further work on the topics.
Focused committee time: We feel strongly that interpersonal connections during debate are critical to producing superior com-
mittee experiences and allow for the free flow of ideas. Ensuring policies based on equality and inclusion is one way in which
NHSMUN guarantees that every delegate has an equal opportunity to succeed in committee. We staff a very dedicated team
who type up and format draft resolutions and working papers so that committee time can be focused on communication and
collaboration.
Educational emphasis, even for awards: At the heart of NHSMUN lies education and compromise. As such, when NHSMUN
does distribute awards, we de-emphasize their importance in comparison to the educational value of Model UN as an activity.
UNPBC 6| a NoTe oN The NhsMUN DiffereNCe NHSMUN seeks to reward schools whose students excel in the arts of compromise and diplomacy. More importantly, we seek to develop an environment in which delegates can employ their critical thought processes and share ideas with their counterparts from around the world. We always prioritize teamwork and encourage our delegates to engage with others diplomatically and inclusively. In particular, our daises look for and promote constructive leadership that strives towards consensus, as delegates do in the United Nations. Realism and accuracy: Although a perfect simulation of the UN is never possible, we believe that one of the core educational responsibilities of MUN conferences is to educate students about how the UN System works. Each NHSMUN committee is a simulation of a real deliberative body so that delegates can research what their country has said in the committee. Our topics are chosen from the issues currently on the agenda of that committee (except historical committees, which take topics from the appropriate time period. This creates incredible opportunities for our delegates to do first-hand research by reading the actual statements their country has made and the resolutions they have supported. We also incorporate real UN and NGO experts into each committee through our committee speakers program and arrange for meetings between students and the actual UN Permanent Mission of the country they are representing. No other conference goes so far to deeply immerse students into the UN System. As always, we welcome any questions or concerns about the substantive program at NHSMUN 2021 and would be happy to discuss NHSMUN pedagogy with faculty or delegates. Delegates, it is our sincerest hope that your time at NHSMUN will be thought-provoking and stimulating. NHSMUN is an in- credible time to learn, grow, and embrace new opportunities. We look forward to seeing you work both as students and global citizens at the conference. Best, Rose Blackwell and JJ Packer Directors-General
UNPBC
A Note on Research and Preparation |7
A Note on Research and Preparation
Delegate research and preparation is a critical element of attending NHSMUN and enjoying the conference’s intellectual and
cosmopolitan perspective. We have provided this Background Guide to introduce the topics that will be discussed in your com-
mittee. This document is designed to give you a description of the committee’s mandate and the topics on its agenda. We do not
intend to represent exhaustive research on every facet of the topics. We encourage and expect each of you to critically explore
the selected topics and be able to identify and analyze their intricacies upon arrival to NHSMUN in March. Delegates must be
prepared to intelligently utilize your knowledge and apply it to your country’s unique policy.
The task of preparing for the conference can be challenging, but to assist delegates, we have updated our Beginner Delegate
Guide and Advanced Delegate Guide. In particular, these guides contain more detailed instructions on how to prepare a
position paper and excellent sources that delegates can use for research. Use these resources to your advantage—they can help
transform a sometimes-overwhelming task into what it should be: an engaging, interesting, and rewarding experience.
An essential part of representing a state in an international body is the ability to articulate a given state’s views in writing. Ac-
cordingly, NHSMUN requires each delegation (the one or two delegates representing a country in a committee) to write a posi-
tion paper for both topics on the committee’s agenda. In delegations with two students, we strongly encourage each student to
participate in the research for both topics, to ensure that both students are prepared to debate no matter what topic is selected
first. More information about how to write and format positoin papers can be found in the NHSMUN Research Guide. To sum-
marize, position papers should be structured into three sections, described below.
I: Topic Background – This section should describe the history of the topic as it would be described by the delegate’s coun-
try. Delegates do not need to give an exhaustive account of the topic background, but rather focus on the details that are most
important to the delegation’s policy and proposed solutions.
II: Country Policy – This section should discuss the delegation’s policy regarding the topic. Each paper should state the policy
in plain terms and include the relevant statements, statistics, and research that support the effectiveness of the policy. Compari-
sons with other global issues are also appropriate here.
III. Proposed Solutions – This section should detail the delegation’s proposed solutions to address the topic. Descriptions of
each solution should be thorough. Each idea should clearly connect to the specific problem it aims to solve and identify potential
obstacles to implementation and how they can be avoided. The solution should be a natural extension of the country’s policy.
Each topic’s position paper should be no more than 10 pages long double-spaced with standard mar-gins and font size. We
recommend 2-4 pages per topic as a suitable length. The paper must be written from the perspective of the country you are
representing at NHSMUN 2021 and should articulate the policies you will espouse at the conference.
Each delegation is responsible for sending a copy of its papers to their committee Directors via myDais on or before 19 Febru-
ary 2021. If a delegate wishes to receive detailed feedback from the committee’s dais, a position must be submitted on or before
29 January 2021. The papers received by this earlier deadline will be reviewed by the dais of each committee and returned prior
to your arrival at the conference.
Complete instructions for how to submit position papers will be sent to faculty advisers via the email submitted at registration.
If delegations are unable to submit their position papers on time, they should contact us at info@imuna.org as soon as possible.
Delegations that do not submit position papers to directors will be ineligible for awards.
UNPBC
8| Committee History
Committee History
The United Nations Peacebuilding Commission (UNPBC) was established as a part of the reform process that took place during
the 60th session of the General Assembly of the United Nations.1 Peacebuilding, a precautionary framework aimed at reducing
threats that would undermine the peaceful status of a post-conflict country, has always been a fundamental goal of the United
Nations. However, there was much deliberation throughout the process of creating a separate institution to address this issue.2
The inception of the UNPBC began in December 2004 when the former Secretary-General Kofi Annan established the High-
level Panel on Threats, Challenges, and Change.3 This panel sought to assess current global threats to international peace and
provide an analysis of future challenges, identify the contribution of international parties, and recommend changes necessary to
ensure effective collective action. It was within this panel’s report that the Secretary-General first proposed a new intergovern-
mental body, the “Peacebuilding Commission”.4 The framework of the Peacebuilding Commission provided the foundation for
the creation of the United Nations Peacebuilding Commission the following year.
The UNPBC’s mandate explains the Commission’s peacebuilding capabilities in the international community. On 20 December
2005, the Security Council and the United Nations General Assembly adopted resolution S/RES/1645 and A/RES/60/180
which established the UNPBC with the following mandate:
• To bring together all relevant actors to marshal resources and to advise on the proposed integrated strategies for post
conflict peacebuilding and recovery;
• To help ensure predictable financing for early recovery activities and sustained financial investment over the medium to
long-term;
• To develop best practices on issues in collaboration with political, security, humanitarian and development actors.56
In general, countries targeted by the UNPBC suffer from persistent development challenges such as poverty, political corruption,
and resource scarcity.7 These characteristics make countries highly vulnerable to conflict resurgence. The UNPBC recognizes
the interconnectedness of these factors and therefore seeks to combat these developments by identifying critical priorities. The
Commission works to analyze the status of post-conflict countries and extend their time in the international spotlight to prevent
relapses into violence.8 Additionally, the Commission is unique from other UN committees in that it directly focuses on the
needs and capacities of post-conflict countries and seeks to organize recovery projects that will ensure peaceful reconstruction.
The Peacebuilding Fund (PBF), in addition to intergovernmental and inter-organizational funding, funds the activities recom-
mended by the UNPBC in post-conflict states. The Peacebuilding Fund, which sponsors post-conflict reconstruction projects,
was launched on 11 October 2006. Its central purpose is to “establish a crucial bridge between conflict and recovery at a time
when other funding mechanisms may not yet be available.”9 Funds from the PBF are also available to countries deemed to be in
1 S/RES/1645, “Resolution 1645,” 20 December 2005, accessed 30 October 2018, http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/
RES/1645%20(2005).
2 “Peacebuilding and the United Nations,” United Nations Peacebuilding Support Office, http://www.un.org/en/peacebuilding/pbso/pbun.
shtml.
3 “The Peacebuilding Commission,” Global Policy Forum, http://www.globalpolicy.org/un-reform/un-reform-topics/the-peacebuilding-
commission.html.
4 Ibid.
5 A/RES/60/180, “The Peacebuilding Commission,” 30 December 2005, accessed 30 October 2018, http://www.un.org/ga/search/
view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/60/180.
6 S/RES/1645, “Resolution 1645,” 20 December 2005, accessed 30 October 2018, http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/
RES/1645%20(2005).
7 “Mandate of the Peacebuilding Fund,” United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, http://www.un.org/en/peacebuilding/mandate.shtml.
8 Ibid.
9 A/RES/60/180, “The Peacebuilding Commission,” 30 December 2005, accessed 30 October 2018, http://www.un.org/ga/search/
view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/60/180.
UNPBC
Committee History |9
similar circumstances by the Secretary-General.
The standing Organizational Committee is comprised of 31 member states, including the following:
• 7 members elected by the General Assembly;
• 7 members of the Security Council;
• 7 members of the Economic and Social Council;
• 5 members chosen as the top providers of assessed contributions to UN budgets and of voluntary contributions to the
UN funds, programmes and agencies, including a standing peacebuilding fund;
• 5 top providers of military personnel and civilian police to UN missions.10
When operating in a post-conflict country, the Organizational Committee convenes in a country-specific configuration (CSC),
which includes all the members of the organizational committee plus all the relevant actors operating in the country of interest.
Additionally, the UNPBC also convenes the Working Group on Lessons Learned (WGLL).11 By analyzing previous peacebuild-
ing tactics, these meetings are intended to “develop forward-looking lessons and recommendations for post-conflict strategies
and implementations.”12
The first session of the UNPBC was held in June 2006. The arrangements set out for the UNPBC in resolution A/RES/60/180,
were reviewed and amended in December 2010, five years after its adoption. These amendments led to the new format under
which the UNPBC operates. Countries currently on the UNPBC agenda include Guinea-Bissau, Burundi, Sierra Leone, and the
Central African Republic.13
Given that UNPBC is a relatively new body, its mandate is more fluid than the long-established bodies. For example, in its 2015
report, UNPBC announced that it would begin conducting country case studies of countries both on and off the commission’s
agenda, including Burundi, Central African Republic, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, and Timor-Leste.14
10 “Structure and Membership,” United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, accessed 30 October 2018, http://www.un.org/en/peacebuilding/
structuremember.shtml.
11 “Working Group on Lessons Learned,” United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, Accessed 30 October 2018, http://www.un.org/en/
peacebuilding/sm_lessonslearned.shtml.
12 Ibid.
13 “Structure and Membership,” United Nations Peacebuilding Commission.
14 A/69/674–S/2014/911, “Letter dated 15 December 2014 from the President of the General Assembly and the President of the Secu-
rity Council addressed to the Secretary-General,” 17 December 2014, accessed 30 October 2018, http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.
asp?symbol=A/69/674.
UNPBC
NHSMUN 2021
Topic A:
The Situation in Cambodia
Photo Credit: Sasin TipchaiTopic A: The Situation in Cambodia
Committee History |11
Introduction
Genocide has repeatedly plagued countries worldwide, with Cambodia just one of many to suffer the
vast casualties of a brutal regime’s ethnic cleansing. Framed by the shadow of French colonialism and
bolstered by new independence, discord and instability in the country grew until its climax during the
Cambodian genocide committed by the Khmer Rouge in 1975.1 Although the regime that commit-
ted this atrocity has since fallen, Cambodia has been unable to secure lasting peace and stability. The
decades that followed the genocide were marked by further instability as different political factions
within the country fought for power.2 Ultimately, Cambodia seemingly achieved peace through the
leadership of Prime Minister Hun Sen. However, Hun Sen has gradually transformed the country’s
government into that of a dictatorship, as he has secured his position since 1985 by removing any
threats or opposition to his rule.3 In fact, the 2018 elections in Cambodia are considered illegitimate
by the international community after the Supreme Court in the country dissolved the opposition po-
litical party.4 Hun Sen keeps Cambodia in a delicate balance, teetering back towards authoritarianism
and conditions similar to those during the destructive and traumatic Khmer Rouge regime.5
Although the United Nations took action in Cambodia af- the Khmer Rouge regime, Cambodia still faces pressing issues
ter the region (with the help of Vietnam) freed itself of the that require serious policy reform and implementation.
Khmer Rouge rule, the United Nations Transnational Author-
The United Nations Peacebuilding Commission needs to act
ity’s limited work in Cambodia (UNTAC) has not been suc-
swiftly to help curb the effects of conflict and chaos in Cam-
cessful in securing a lasting peace in the region.6 Cambodia is
still faced with pervasive corruption, high malnutrition, and bodia that have uprooted and threatened the lives of millions
pronounced poverty in rural areas.7 Cambodians continue to of Cambodians over the past 70 years.11 Immediate action in
be displaced due to poverty, sanitation issues, and exploita- the region is especially important in the wake of COVID-19.
tion and face additional distress due to a lack of clean water, As the current government and PM use this global pandemic
poor healthcare, sexual trafficking, and child labor, among as an alternative way to amass power, Cambodia inches closer
other issues.8 Cambodia still has a large concentration of the and closer to an authoritarian state. The Commission’s assis-
population—about 90 percent—living in rural areas.9 This tance is crucial to achieve peace within the region and give
concentration tends to worsen access to education and health- Cambodia a chance to recover from decades of conflict and
care, such that 87 percent of Cambodians lack access to safe trauma. Comprehensive solutions that acknowledge the in-
drinking water.10 Despite progress made in certain areas, such terconnectivity of the issues in Cambodia and support from
as lessening the spread of HIV/AIDS and urbanization after member states are key for achieving peace in Cambodia.12
1 Elizabeth Becker and Seth Mydans, “Nordom Sihanouk, Cambodian Leader Through Shifting Alliances, Dies at 89,” New York Times,
October 14, 2012, https://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/15/world/asia/norodom-sihanouk-cambodian-leader-through-shifting-allegiances-
dies-at-89.html.
2 “1991 Paris Peace Agreements,” Cambodian Information Center, http://www.cambodia.org/facts/?page=1991+Paris+Peace+Agreem
ents.
3 “Hun Sen: Cambodia’s Strongman Prime Minister,” BBC News, July 27, 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23257699.
4 BBC News, “Hun Sen: Cambodia’s Strongman Prime Minister.”
5 BBC News, “Hun Sen: Cambodia’s Strongman Prime Minister.”
6 Andrew Nachemson, “Remembering Cambodia’s 1970 Coup,” The Diplomat, March 20, 2020, https://thediplomat.com/2020/03/remem-
bering-cambodias-1970-coup/.
7 “Key Issues Affecting Youth in Cambodia” OECD, 2015, https://www.oecd.org/countries/cambodia/youth-issues-in-cambodia.htm.
8 “Cambodia: Abusive “war on drugs”, rife with torture and corruption, must be overhauled,” Amnesty International, May 13, 2020,
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/05/cambodia-abusive-war-drugs-torture-corruption-must-overhauled/.
9 “The Cambodia Water Crisis,” Lifewater, May 7, 2018, https://lifewater.org/blog/cambodia-water-crisis/.
10 Lifewater, “The Cambodia Water Crisis.”
11 Nachemson, “Remembering Cambodia’s 1970 Coup.”
12 “Corruption and Cambodia’s Governance System: The Need for Reform,” Transparency International Cambodia, 2014, https://www.12|TH opic A: The Situation in Cambodia
istory and Description of the Issue
History and Description of the Issue tion undertook a secret bombing campaign in 1969” on the
Cambodian border to attack Vietnamese forces, resulting in
Cambodian Genocide an estimated 50,000 Cambodian casualties.20
To fully understand the battles Cambodia is currently fight- Sihanouk’s constant shift in alliances during the Vietnam War
ing, it is crucial to first explore the root causes that gave the by attempting to appease the Americans while also permit-
country its current post-conflict status, beginning with colo- ting North Vietnamese troops to utilize Cambodia was ex-
nialism. From 1863 to 1953, the French exercised control over acerbated by his seemingly subordinate position concerning
Cambodia.13 Acting head of state at the time, King Norodom the United States led to a coup that ousted him the very next
Sihanouk, negotiated independence with the French for years year in 1970.21 Rumors regarding the United States’ involve-
before it was finally granted on November 9, 1953.14 For a ment in the coup began circulating by Sihanouk and those
small period following Cambodia’s independence, Sihanouk who supported him; however, the polls and political climate
was viewed in Cambodia as a hero. However, Sihanouk’s at the time in Cambodia tell a different story. In The History of
implementation of a Buddhist socialist agenda fared poorly Cambodia, Justin Corfield points out that Sihanouk’s approval
and led to significant economic stagnation.15 As Sihanouk’s in Cambodia was already dwindling, and his supporters were
glory and hero-status subsided, the Vietnam War presented losing faith in him.22 Regardless of whether or not the United
itself at Cambodia’s doorstep and became the foundation of States actually backed the coup, Sihanouk blamed the Ameri-
Cambodia’s state of conflict.16 The consequences of the war can government.23 After Sihanouk was voted out of office,
from 1955-1975 were not isolated to Vietnam, as they traveled the disgraced king went to Beijing and “accepted Chinese ad-
across the shared border into Cambodia and initiated the root vice to resist the coup.”24 Sihanouk allied himself with China,
of the conflict.17 The tricky balance of appeasing all diplo- North Vietnam, and the growing Khmer Rouge (also known
matic powers involved in the conflict ultimately led to Cam- as the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK)) forces led by
bodia’s demise.18 Sihanouk tried to maintain a neutral role, but Pol Pot. Although King Sihanouk had once fought against the
his weak position set the path for the Vietnamese commu- Khmer Rouge, he forged a new alliance with them, persuaded
nists to use Cambodia’s eastern border and Cambodia’s west-
by their promise of reinstating him as King once they won
ern port, Sihanoukville, as part of the Ho Chi Minh trail to
power over Cambodia.25 Sihanouk’s name even appeared in
transport military supplies.19 As the Vietnamese soldiers used
Khmer Rouge propaganda and booklets aimed towards tar-
Cambodia’s land for personal gain to defeat US troops during
geting peasants to recruit as communist allies.26
the Vietnam war, Sihanouk scrambled to mend Cambodia’s
diplomatic relations with the US. The government even went Following King Sihanouk’s removal from power, Lon Nol–
so far as to look the other way when “the Nixon administra- the Prime Minister at the time who was largely favored by
dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/cambodia-transparency-international-corruption-and-cambodias-governance-system-2014.pdf.
13 “1863-1953 French Colonial Rule,” Global Security, https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/cambodia/history-france.htm.
14 Global Security, “1863-1953 French Colonial Rule.”
15 Russell R. Ross, Cambodia: A Country Study (Library of Congress).
16 “Hun Sen,” Encyclopedia Britannica, March 31, 2020, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hun-Sen.
17 Encyclopedia Britannica, “Hun Sen.”
18 Encyclopedia Britannica, “Hun Sen.”
19 Becker and Mydans, “Nordom Sihanouk, Cambodian Leader Through Shifting Alliances, Dies at 89.”
20 Becker and Mydans, “Norodom Sihanouk, Cambodian Leader Through Shifting Alliances, Dies at 89;” Brett S. Morris, “Nixon and the
Cambodian Genocide,” Jacobin Magazine, April 27, 2015. https://www.jacobinmag.com/2015/04/khmer-rouge-cambodian-genocide-united-
states/.
21 Becker and Mydans, “Norodom Sihanouk, Cambodian Leader Through Shifting Alliances, Dies at 89;” Nachemson, “Remembering
Cambodia’s 1970 Coup.”
22 Nachemson, “Remembering Cambodia’s 1970 Coup.”
23 “1863-1953 French Colonial Rule,” Global Security, https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/cambodia/history-france.htm.
24 “Civil War,” Encyclopedia Britannica, December 9, 2019, https://www.britannica.com/place/Cambodia/Civil-war.
25 Becker and Mydans, “Nordom Sihanouk, Cambodian Leader Through Shifting Alliances, Dies at 89.”
26 Becker and Mydans, “Nordom Sihanouk, Cambodian Leader Through Shifting Alliances, Dies at 89.”Topic A: The Situation in Cambodia
History and Description of the Issue |13
American forces–assumed the position of head of state.27 1975.36
Shortly after that, the Khmer Rouge took advantage of the
The Khmer Rouge switched all calendars to “year zero” and
unrest in Cambodia that followed the transition of power and
eradicated everything that represented the “old society.” After
requested that North Vietnamese forces invade the country.28
forcing everyone to evacuate cities as the first step in mov-
Lon Nol fought off North Vietnamese forces attempting
ing towards an agrarian society, more than two million people
to invade the capital and even forcibly repatriated 200,000
from Phnom Penh and other cities throughout the country
Vietnamese citizens in Cambodia to South Vietnam.29 This
were displaced within two weeks.37 The thousands of people
conflict with the Khmer Rouge and North Vietnam marked
the beginning of the 1970 Cambodian Civil War between the that died on the forced marches out of cities only marked
CPK and Lon Nol’s government.30 Despite US support and the tragic beginning of the millions of deaths for which the
intervention, Lon Nol’s deteriorating health, dependence on Khmer Rouge were eventually responsible.38 In the four years
the US military, and ongoing defeats forced Lon Nol to accept the Khmer Rouge held power in Cambodia, from April 1975
his loss and flee the country.31 Two weeks before the Khmer to January 1979, the regime committed a mass genocide that
Rouge took control of Phnom Penh in 1975, Lon Nol and killed approximately 1.7 million people.39 Their ultimate ob-
his family escaped via helicopter to Thailand before settling jective was to establish a classless communist state “based on
in Hawaii.32 a rural agrarian economy and a complete rejection of the free
market and capitalism.”40 Pol Pot believed that by eradicating
In April of 1975, the Khmer Rouge soldiers took over Phnom all traces of the “old society” and abolishing private property,
Penh and effectively began their rule of terror.33 A handful of he could force everyone in Cambodia to live in an agrarian
CPK leaders under the authority of Pol Pot–the appointed society. Following the example of Maoist China, Pol Pot and
prime minister of the newly-named Democratic Kampuchea– the Khmer Rouge sought to convert Cambodians who did not
ruled the country during this time. Born in 1925 as Saloth pose a threat to the “new society” into an unpaid labor force
Sar, Pol Pot was granted a government scholarship to pursue to double the rice yields on a national level.41 The Cambodian
radio technology in Paris in 1949.34 While in Paris, he got in-
Tribunal Monitor, a group which provided crucial informa-
volved with the Communist Party, where he took on the name
tion to the tribunal investigating the crimes the Khmer Rouge
Pol Pot and became involved with a group of fellow young
committed, described the methods of overhauling the old or-
Cambodian nationalists who later became fellow leaders in the
der:
Khmer Rouge.35 However, Pol Pot returned to Phnom Penh
in 1953 only to flee the capital because the Cambodian police “To accomplish this, they abolished money, free markets, nor-
suspected his communist ties, and from then on, he dedicated mal schooling, private property, foreign clothing styles, reli-
himself to building up the CPK until they assumed power in gious practices, and traditional Khmer culture. Public schools,
27 Peter Kerr, “Lon Nol, 72, Dies; Led Cambodia in Early 1970s,”New York Times, November 18, 1985, https://www.nytimes.
com/1985/11/18/world/lon-nol-72-dies-led-cambodia-in-early-1970-s.html.
28 Ben Kiernan, Blood and Soil: Modern Genocide 1500-200 (Melbourne University Publishing), 548.
29 Jan Ovseen and Ing-Britt Trankell, Civilizing the Margins: Southeast Asian Government Policies for the Development of Minorities (Cornell Univer-
sity Press), 247, https://books.google.com/books?id=LwUbfCUCjrkC.
30 Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Civil War.”
31 Soksreinith Ten, “Lon Nol“, VOA Cambodia Adrift, https://projects.voanews.com/cambodia-election-2018/english/biography/lon-
nol.html.
32 Ten, “Lon Nol.”
33 Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Civil War.”
34 “Pol Pot Biography,” Biography, July 11, 2019, https://www.biography.com/political-figure/pol-pot.
35 “Pol Pot,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, May 15, 2020, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pol-Pot.
36 “Khmer Rouge,” History, August 21, 2018, https://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/the-khmer-rouge.
37 Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Civil War.”
38 “Genocide in Cambodia,” Holocaust Museum Houston, https://hmh.org/library/research/genocide-in-cambodia-guide/.
39 “Key Facts on the Khmer Rouge,” Aljazeera, February 3, 2012, https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/02/20122314155454169.
html.
40 Aljazeera, “Key Facts on the Khmer Rouge.”
41 Biography, “Pol Pot Biography.”14|TH opic A: The Situation in Cambodia
istory and Description of the Issue
pagodas, mosques, churches, universities, shops and govern- eases, overwork, or execution.45 The regime targeted perceived
ment buildings were shut or turned into prisons, stables, re- threats such as intellectuals, merchants, Buddhist monks, for-
education camps and granaries. There was no public or private mer government officials, former soldiers, and ethnic minori-
transportation, no private property, and no non-revolutionary ties–including around 90,000 Muslims of the Cham culture
entertainment. Leisure activities were severely restricted. Peo- and half of the Chinese population living in Cambodia at the
ple throughout the country, including the leaders of the CPK, time. During this “cleansing,” the Khmer Rouge eliminated
had to wear black costumes, which were their traditional revo- anyone of the educated class. Even people with glasses or soft
lutionary clothes.” 42
hands were killed because the CPK determined that they rep-
resented “the old society” and “intellect.”46
As the CPK attempted to destroy the “old society,” it cut off
Cambodia from the rest of the world. The borders were shut The highly suspicious CPK also tortured people due to its
for diplomats, and any foreigners within Cambodia’s borders crippling fear of foreign powers, specifically the United States,
when the Khmer Rouge took over were killed. To further 43
identifying Khmer Rouge leaders.47 Victims were taken to “in-
establish control, the CPK also banned all religions, profes- terrogation centers,” where they were tortured and forced to
sions, public gatherings, any form of family relationship, sign documents stating their alleged involvement with the CIA
publications, and travel within the country without permis- and treasonous behavior towards the CPK.48 One of the big-
sion.44 Millions of people died from starvation, treatable dis- gest torture prisons the Khmer Rouge employed was a public
This image depicts S-21 Torture Prison in Phnom Penh after it was remodeled from the high school it once used to be
42 Aljazeera, “Key Facts on the Khmer Rouge.”
43 Aljazeera, “Key Facts on the Khmer Rouge.”
44 Becker and Mydans, “Nordom Sihanouk, Cambodian Leader Through Shifting Alliances, Dies at 89.”
45 Becker and Mydans, “Nordom Sihanouk, Cambodian Leader Through Shifting Alliances, Dies at 89.”
46 “Genocide in the 20th Century,” History Place, accessed 28 September 2020, https://www.historyplace.com/worldhistory/genocide/
pol-pot.htm.
47 Encyclopedia Britannica, “Civil War.”
48 “S-21 Prison and Choeung Ek Killing Fields: Facing death,” Killing Fields Museum of Cambodia, http://www.killingfieldsmuseum.com/Topic A: The Situation in Cambodia
History and Description of the Issue |15
school turned prison code-named “S-21.”49 Approximately protect against traitorous foreign powers.55
15,000 victims passed through the prison and were tortured
The period in which the CPK was in power was highly trau-
in brutal and grotesque ways.50
matic for all of Cambodia and set the country back decades
Victims who were not tortured first were directly sent to one in economic development, healthcare, education, and mental
of around 20,000 mass grave sites called “killing fields.”51 health. Millions today still suffer from the aftermath of the
Since the CPK relied on secrecy, victims were killed at night trauma inflicted by the regime. After the Khmer Rouge regime
while large trees were used to amplify the radio’s sound to was dismantled, Cambodia still struggled to give power to a
mask any sounds. Since they wanted to keep these executions government the people trusted and wanted. Sihanouk then
a secret, Pol Pot instructed members to use farm tools instead allied with Vietnam to create a government that would be rec-
of firearms to eliminate sound. Once executed, the victims’ ognized by the UN; however, Cambodians did not support
bodies were thrown into mass graves. Even if a citizen was the new government and rendered it virtually ineffective.56
not determined to be an immediate risk to the regime, they Still, Cambodia reestablished property ownership, which led
still had a high risk of death. Thousands of Cambodians died to an economic boom, and reestablished Buddhism, which
from the brutal conditions the CPK forced them to work in. helped foster a sense of normalcy and spirituality in the once-
For example, in the province of Battambang, 20,000 Cam- Buddhist state.57
bodians died building a reservoir in the village of Kamping
Additionally, the withdrawal of Vietnamese troops also paved
Puoy.52
the way for the new Khmer Rouge, the United Front for an
Despite their power, however, the Khmer Rouge was crippled Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia
by its paranoia and began killing and torturing its soldiers in an (Funcinpec), and the Cambodian People’s Party (CPP) to
attempt to stop alleged CIA infiltration into the regime. De- “seek through negotiation the political objectives they had
spite the recent completion of the Vietnam War, Vietnamese been unable to obtain by military action against the Phnom
forces took advantage of the Khmer Rouge’s internal weak- Penh government.”58 In 1991, a peace agreement amongst
nesses and entered Cambodia to successfully overthrow the the factions was passed that provided for a popularly elected
Khmer Rouge in 1979.53 In June of 1997, Pol Pot was placed government.59 The following year, the United Nations estab-
under house arrest for crimes against humanity, and in July lished the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia
of that same year, he was convicted of treason.54 His last in- (UNTAC), which would monitor the progress of elections
terview that year with the Far Eastern Economic Review claimed and safeguard human rights.60 Two years later, under a UN-
his “conscience was clear” that the killings were necessary to monitored election, Funcinpec, led by Sihanouk, won. Al-
s21-victims.html.
49 Killing Fields Museum of Cambodia, “S-21 Prison and Choeung Ek Killing Fields: Facing death.”
50 Encyclopedia Britannica, “Civil War.”
51 Marissa, “The History of Cambodia’s Killing Fields,” Culture Trip, July 7, 2018, https://theculturetrip.com/asia/cambodia/articles/a-
guide-to-cambodias-killing-fields/.
52 “Things to see and do- Battambang, Cambodia,” Tourism of Cambodia, https://www.tourismcambodia.com/travelguides/provinces/
battambang/what-to-see/56_kamping-puoy-bassin.htm.
53 “Khmer Rouge: Cambodia’s years of brutality,” BBC, November 16, 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-10684399.
54 Seth Mydans, “Death of Pol Pot; Pol Pot, Brutal Dictator Who Forced Cambodians to Killing Fields, Dies at 73,” New York Times, April
17, 1998, https://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/17/world/death-pol-pot-pol-pot-brutal-dictator-who-forced-cambodians-killing-fields-dies.
html.
55 “Pol Pot.”
56 Becker and Mydans, “Nordom Sihanouk, Cambodian Leader Through Shifting Alliances, Dies at 89.”
57 Sokty Chhair and Luyna Ung, “Economic History of Industrialization in Cambodia,” Brookings Institution, 2013, https://www.brook-
ings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/L2C_WP7_Chhair-and-Ung-v2-1.pdf
58 “Vietnamese Intervention.”
59 “1991 Paris Peace Agreements,” Cambodian Information Center, http://www.cambodia.org/facts/?page=1991+Paris+Peace+Agreem
ents.
60 “Cambodia- UNTAC Background,” United Nations, accessed 28 September 2020, https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/past/un-
tacbackgr1.html.16|TH opic A: The Situation in Cambodia
istory and Description of the Issue
though the Cambodian People’s Party refused to accept the and Afghanistan on the CPI.66
results, Sihanouk negotiated a coalition with Norodom Rana-
Many Cambodians perceive the police and the judicial system
riddh from Funcinpec to be the first prime minister, Hun Sen
as highly corrupt. In fact, according to the Global Competi-
from the CPP to be second prime minister, and Sihanouk as
tiveness Report of 2016–2017, more than half of Cambodi-
Cambodia’s King for the second time.61 However, the CPP
ans view the police as a corrupt institution and do not have
later created a coup to oust Ranariddh in 1997, and Hun Sen
trust in the police’s ability to legitimately protect the commu-
won enough seats to become the first prime minister, with
nity.67 This perception is founded as corruption within police
Ranariddh as president of the assembly.62 Relative peace in
forces is common; for instance, a police chief in Kampong
the country was not achieved until the following year when
the CPP was in power, Pol Pot died, and the Khmer Rouge Thom was removed from office in 2017 after it was revealed
almost completely dissolved due to infighting and plummet- that he repeatedly demanded bribes from officers under his
ing support.63 command in exchange for career advancements.68 Traffic po-
lice are even legally allowed to keep 70 percent of all cash
The United Nations left after monitoring the first elections in collected from handing out fines.69 Although the government
1993 under the UNTAC. Today, Cambodia is still struggling is currently attempting to reduce rent-seeking behavior from
with corruption, a stagnant economy, an AIDS epidemic, hu- cops by raising the fine rates by five, this could simply encour-
man rights abuses, environmental challenges, poor quality ed- age cops to further abuse their power. Police corruption has
ucation, and generational trauma all brought about by the last also surged with Cambodia’s new war on drugs. A relatively
half of the 20th century, especially the four years the Khmer new investigative report conducted by Amnesty International
Rouge ruled over Cambodia.64 documented how Cambodian authorities “prey on poor and
marginalized people, arbitrarily carry out arrests, routinely
Corruption
subject suspects to torture and other forms of ill-treatment,
One of the biggest root causes of the issues Cambodia is fac- and dispatch those who cannot buy their freedom to severe-
ing today is pervasive government corruption. Corruption in ly overcrowded prisons and pseudo rehabilitation centres in
the country affects citizens from a systemic to an individual which detainees are denied healthcare and are subjected to se-
level, and although Cambodia’s anti-corruption law meets in- vere abuse.”70 Amnesty International’s report also highlighted
ternational standards, it is poorly enforced, allowing public the human rights violations caused by the overcrowding cri-
officials to easily continue to engage in corrupt practices. Cur- sis in prisons in Cambodia– the most notable example being
rently, Cambodia is “ranked 162 out of 180 countries, scoring Cambodia’s largest prison facility, Phnom Penh’s CC1, having
20 out of 100 in the 2019 Corruption Perception Index (CPI) five times as many prisoners than its capacity of 2,050.71 Aside
by Transparency International, which corresponds to ‘highly from the fact that detention centers are severely overcrowded,
corrupted.’”65 Out of all Southeast Asian and Asia-Pacific these centers actively use torture methods on inmates. Am-
countries, Cambodia only scored higher than North Korea nesty International also testified that prisoners “provided
61 “Vietnamese Intervention.”
62 “Hun Sen,” Encyclopedia Britannica, March 31, 2020, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hun-Sen.
63 “Vietnamese Intervention.”
64 “Vietnamese Intervention.”
65 Taing Rinith, “Rising Corruption in Cambodia: Who, What, Why and How?” Khmer Times, January 30, 2020, https://www.khmertimeskh.
com/685222/rising-corruption-in-cambodia-who-what-why-and-how/.
66 Rinith, “Rising Corruption in Cambodia: Who, What, Why and How?.”
67 Rinith, “Rising Corruption in Cambodia: Who, What, Why and How?.”
68 Brad Adams, “30 Years of Hun Sen,” Human Rights Watch, January 12, 2015, https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/01/12/30-years-hun-
sen/violence-repression-and-corruption-cambodia.
69 Charlie Campbell, “This Country Just Made It Legal for Cops to Keep 70% of All the Traffic Fines They Collect,” Time, July 29, 2015,
https://time.com/3976259/cambodia-traffic-police-keep-fines-corruption/.
70 “Cambodia: Abusive “war on drugs”, rife with torture and corruption, must be overhauled,” Amnesty International, May 13, 2020,
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/05/cambodia-abusive-war-drugs-torture-corruption-must-overhauled/.
71 Amnesty International, “Cambodia: Abusive “war on drugs”, rife with torture and corruption, must be overhauled.”Topic A: The Situation in Cambodia
History and Description of the Issue |17
detailed accounts of physical abuse amounting to torture or to Cambodia’s high levels of corruption in land administra-
other ill-treatment committed by staff or so-called ‘room lead- tion. As a ramification of official policies that banned private
ers–inmates entrusted by staff to enforce discipline.”72 These property ownership and forced evacuations during the Khmer
centers also have several reports revolving around sexual vio- Rouge regime, many people do not have official ownership
lence and death in custody. Corruption within police forces documentation of their property, making land rights a highly
and detention centers actively fosters behavior that violates contentious issue in Cambodia.79 Land titles handed out be-
human rights and perpetuates a cycle of violence against the fore the Khmer Rouge regime are no longer recognized, and
Cambodian people. foreigners are prohibited from buying land, making it hard for
immigrants to find stable housing. Although the Land Law
Corruption is also rampant in Cambodia’s judicial system. Ac-
does permit Cambodians to apply for official documents (if
cording to a study done by the Global Corruption Barometer
they can legally prove they occupied and used a plot of land
in 2015, Cambodians rank the judiciary as the country’s most
for at least five years before 2001), the application is expen-
corrupt institution.73 Although the constitution provides the
sive and time-consuming, making it difficult for impoverished
opportunity for an independent judiciary, the government’s
lack of respect for its independence in practice only wors- Cambodians to acquire the legal means to defend themselves.80
ens the corruption issues currently plaguing the judiciary.74 In With full knowledge that poor individuals or families residing
fact, judicial officials often hold positions in the ruling party on desirable land will not have official documents, the rich
alongside their roles in the judiciary.75 Thus, instead of acting and powerful target these plots of land to make more money
as an independent body to enact justice, the judiciary bases its for themselves.81 In one groundbreaking case, it was uncov-
decisions on party rules. A report released by the International ered that the head of the Preah Vihear Provincial Department
Bar Association’s Human Rights Institute (IBAHRI) found of Mines and Energy illegally sold a government plot of land
clear evidence of corruption at every stage of the judiciary in for USD 62,400 in profit.82 During his testimony, he claimed
Cambodia.76 Methods of corruption embedded in the Cam- that numerous other officials were also involved, including the
bodian legal system include bribes for successful basic training local commune chief and governor, further highlighting the
completion and bar admission, bribes to determine the verdict intense corruption present in this sector. Additionally, under
of court cases, and the extreme political power retained by the the Land Law, the government is legally entitled to take con-
Justice Ministry.77 Unsurprisingly, the Cambodian Ministry of trol of all “private state land” and lease approximately 25,000
Justice denied the claims and claimed they could not accept acres of land to a company up to 99 years.83 This permits
the findings of the IBAHRI report.78 Nonetheless, corruption the government to divide some of the most fruitful lands in
in the police system and the judicial circuit will not change Cambodia and take it for themselves, evicting thousands of
unless the government takes responsibility and systematically impoverished citizens for the commercial benefit of an elite
eliminates opportunities for corruption. group.84
Impoverished citizens in Cambodia also suffer greatly due Cambodia’s public school system is also notorious for corrup-
72 Amnesty International, “Cambodia: Abusive “war on drugs”, rife with torture and corruption, must be overhauled.”
73 Abby Seiff, “Cambodia: Corruption in the Judiciary ‘Endemic,’” International Bar Association, September 21, 2015, https://www.ibanet.
org/Article/NewDetail.aspx?ArticleUid=63af01f5-7bf3-4433-8edb-bbeb512395d7.
74 Seiff, “Cambodia: Corruption in the Judiciary ‘Endemic’.”
75 Seiff, “Cambodia: Corruption in the Judiciary ‘Endemic’.”
76 Seiff, “Cambodia: Corruption in the Judiciary ‘Endemic.’”
77 Seiff, “Cambodia: Corruption in the Judiciary ‘Endemic.’”
78 Seiff, “Cambodia: Corruption in the Judiciary ‘Endemic.’”
79 Seiff, “Cambodia: Corruption in the Judiciary ‘Endemic’.”
80 Mu Sochua and Cecilia Wilkstrom, “Land Grabs in Cambodia,” New York Times, July 18, 2012, https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/19/
opinion/land-grabs-in-cambodia.html.
81 Seiff, “Cambodia: Corruption in the Judiciary ‘Endemic’.”
82 Seiff, “Cambodia: Corruption in the Judiciary ‘Endemic’.”
83 Sochua and Wilkstrom, “Land Grabs in Cambodia.”
84 Sochua and Wilkstrom, “Land Grabs in Cambodia.”You can also read
