Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy): Forest Exploitation by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
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Volume IX ● Issue 2/2018 ● Pages 169–178
INTERDISCIPLINARIA ARCHAEOLOGICA
NATURAL SCIENCES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu IX/2/2018
Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy): Forest Exploitation
by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
Alessandra Benattia,b*, Marie Bala, Philippe Alléea,
Giovanna Bosib, Daniele Dallaic, Anna Maria Mercurib
a
Geolab UMR 6042 CNRS, Department of Geography, University of Limoges, 39E rue Camille Guérin, 87036, Limoges, France
b
Laboratory of Palynology and Palaeobotany, Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Viale Caduti in Guerra 127,
41121 Modena, Italy
c
Botanical Garden, Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Viale Caduti in Guerra 127, 41121 Modena, Italy
A RT I C L E I N F O ABSTRACT
Article history:
Anthracological analyses were carried out on charcoal platforms located in the Monte Cimone
Received: 2nd July 2018
and Corno alle Scale mountain areas in the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines (Northern Italy), at high
Accepted: 30th December 2018
altitude. Analyses of charcoal fragments contained in these man-made structures have allowed the
reconstruction of human-forest relationships over the last centuries, in particular the exploitation of
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.24916/iansa.2018.2.4
forests for charcoal production. Comparison of our anthracological results with ethnobotanical and
historical-social information has made possible an improvement in our knowledge of this activity that
Key words:
was fundamental for the past mountain economy.
anthracology
Tuscan-Emilian Apennines
high elevation
ethnographic research
historical-social elements
1. Introduction contained in their substrate is able to provide information on
the previous forest composition and on the history of forest
The current structure and characteristics of mountain beech exploitation and management practice.
forests in Italy are the results of long-term human-forest Early studies about charcoal platforms were conducted in
relationships that developed over centuries (Savoia, 1984; the Pyrenees (Davasse, 1992; 2000; Bonhôte et al., 2002).
Nocentini, 2009). While in Italy today coppice and high More recently, charcoal kiln studies have spread throughout
forest management are found almost equally, in the Emilia- Europe, particularly in Germany (e.g. Nelle, 2003; Pèlachs
Romagna region, North Italy, it is coppice that prevails (about et al., 2009; Ludemann, 2010; Paradis-Grenouillet, 2012;
80%), located mainly in its mountain areas (Regione Emilia- Deforce et al., 2013; Knapp et al., 2013; Rouaud, 2013;
Romagna, 1983). The main reason for this situation has been Tolksdorf et al., 2015).
the past charcoal production, recognizable by the bushy In Italy, charcoal kiln studies have been few, anthracological
form of the trees due to their suckers and by the presence analysis on charcoal platforms having been carried out in the
of abandoned man-made platforms within the undergrowth, Ligurian Apennines (Montanari et al., 2000; Cevasco and
places where ancient human societies had transformed the Parola, 2013; Pescini et al., 2017). Other researches have
wood into charcoal. focused on the census of charcoal platforms in Tuscany,
Charcoal platforms are considered real archaeological Central Italy (Carrari et al., 2017).
sites and the anthracological study of the charcoal fragments This article presents the first anthracological analysis
applied to charcoal platforms found in the Tuscan-Emilian
*Corresponding author. E-mail: aleben87@yahoo.it Apennines at high altitude, specifically in the abandoned
169
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Alessandra Benatti, Marie Bal, Philippe Allée, Giovanna Bosi, Daniele Dallai, Anna Maria Mercuri: Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy):
Forest Exploitation by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
Figure 1. a) Location of Monte Cimone
and Corno alle Scale study areas. b) Some
abandoned charcoal platforms from the
study areas.
coppice beech forests of Monte Cimone and Corno alle coppice beech forest, in the mountain belt. In particular, they
Scale mountain areas, close to the timberline (Figure 1). The are located on the northwest slope of Monte Cimone, on the
objective of the research is to obtain information about the west slope of Monte Corno alle Scale and on its southern
exploitation of forest resources and on the organization of the side (the southwest slope of Monte Cornaccio) (Figure 2).
territory by past societies, as well as the possible role of the The study area borders two climatic regions: Continental
charcoal production activity on the position of the timberline. Europe to the north and Mediterranean region to the south
(Colombo et al., 2000). Mean annual temperature is about
2°C and mean annual precipitation ranges from 693.3 mm
2. Study area (registered at the Monte Cimone meteorological station)
to 2500 mm (registered in the other mountain stations at
The studied charcoal platforms are located close to the lower elevations) (Şerban et al., 2007; Alessandrini et al.,
timberline (between 1500 and 1700 m asl) in abandoned 2010). The fresh and humid climatic conditions with the
Figure 2. Location of charcoal platforms.
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Alessandra Benatti, Marie Bal, Philippe Allée, Giovanna Bosi, Daniele Dallai, Anna Maria Mercuri: Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy):
Forest Exploitation by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
relatively abundant rainfall of this mountain belt favours pastures with deforestation, charcoal production has been
the maximum spread of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), which the anthropic activity that has most influenced the current
forms very extensive woods, where it is predominant and state of these forests (Bagnaresi, 1989; Minghelli, 1989;
accompanied by the presence of other species such as Acer Giacobazzi, 2013; Rosa, 1978; Rombaldi and Cenci, 2013).
pseudoplatanus L., Sorbus aucuparia L., Laburnum alpinum In the study area, most of the woods (80%) are strongly
(Mill.) Bercht. & J. Presl and Abies alba Mill. (Ferrari, marked and shaped by their past as source for charcoal
1989; Tomaselli et al., 1996; Alessandrini et al., 2010). The production (Savoia, 1984), that is, the woods consist
timberline reaches 1700 m asl at Monte Cimone and 1600 m of coppice, many of them abandoned and destined to a
asl at Corno alle Scale, both on the north and south slope. reconversion to high forest (Bagnaresi, 1983). Abandoned
Inside the forests there may also be meadows and pastures charcoal platforms are easily visible among the undergrowth
dominated by Nardus stricta L. and shrub communities (Figure 1b).
dominated by Ericaceae and Fabaceae, which are shrub plant The reasons for transforming wood into charcoal were
associations involved with forest reconstruction processes in practical ones: charcoal is much lighter than wood (Roversi,
areas previously deforested and used as pasture (Alessandrini 1972; Rosa, 1981; Rosa, 1982; Mordini and Mordini, 1994;
et al., 2010). From the mid-19th century until the post-World Rombaldi and Cenci, 2013) and during carbonization the
War II era, the climatic zone of the beech had been involved loss of the volume can exceed 70% of the starting wood mass
in conifer reforestation, performed with local species such (Schenkel et al., 1997). Moreover, charcoal has a calorific
as Picea abies (L.) H. Karst. and Abies alba, but also with value which can reach 7300 kilocalories, much higher than
non-native species, such as Pinus nigra J.F. Arnold, Pinus wood (Baroni and Telleri, 1987).
mugo Turra, Larix decidua Mill. and Pseudotsuga menziesii Charcoal was traded and used as fuel, both for domestic
(Mirb.) Franco (Bagnaresi, 1983; Geri, 1992; Tomaselli needs (heating and cooking) and industry (Mucci, 2004;
et al., 1996). Above the timberline there are pasturelands Rombaldi and Cenci, 2013; Mordini and Mordini, 1994;
dominated by Vaccinium heathland and Nardus stricta Tonelli, 1895; Savoia, 1984). Often charcoal production
meadows (Geri and D’Addario, 1997; Geri, 1992, Ferrari was the main source of profit for the mountain inhabitants
et al., 1992; Alessandrini et al., 2003; 2010) still used (Rombaldi and Cenci, 2013).
today although much less than in the past (Albani, 1964). From the 1950s the production of charcoal decreased and
Below the beech belt there is a hilly belt dominated by oak eventually disappeared from these mountains (Albani, 1964;
forest, woods with prevalent Ostrya carpinifolia Scop. and Bernardi, 1978; Savoia, 1984).
Castanea sativa Mill. (Geri, 1992; Tomaselli et al., 1996).
The study areas are located in two regional Parks: Parco del 2.2 Charcoal production in the mountains
Frignano and Parco del Corno alle Scale. In order to interpret the results from an anthracological study
of the charcoal platforms, it is necessary to know all phases of
2.1 E
conomic history of charcoal production in the charcoal kiln construction and operation. Through historical
Monte Cimone and Corno alle Scale mountain areas sources and oral testimony from the last charcoal burners
Among the multiple uses of these forests for human needs it is possible to learn all the stages of charcoal production
during the last centuries, such as supply of firewood, and the charcoal burner’s lifestyle. In 2010, the CAI (Italian
supply of timber for construction and trade, and creation of Alpine Club) in collaboration with the association Appennino
Figure 3. Typical hut of charcoal burners (Il Massaro, 1969; Govi, 1936).
171IANSA 2018 ● IX/2 ● 169–178
Alessandra Benatti, Marie Bal, Philippe Allée, Giovanna Bosi, Daniele Dallai, Anna Maria Mercuri: Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy):
Forest Exploitation by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
Cinemafestival made an historical reconstruction of charcoal Charcoal production on a single platform lasted several
kilns as well as a video concerning an interview with the days, and thus the charcoal burners would build a hut within
last charcoal burner of the Modena mountains, Mr Orlando the forest (Figure 3) made of wood, stones, and earth, and
Bettini (Fregni and Maccaferri, 2010). If not otherwise covered with moss, branches and clods of earth (Poli Bini,
indicated, the reported information about this activity 1982), typically called “plicci” in the Bologna Apennines
pertains to this video. (pers. comm., Ettore Scagliarini, 2017). Within the hut a bed
Figure 4. Construction phases of a charcoal
kiln.
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Alessandra Benatti, Marie Bal, Philippe Allée, Giovanna Bosi, Daniele Dallai, Anna Maria Mercuri: Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy):
Forest Exploitation by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
made of brushwood and leaves, called “rapazzola”, would be of Monte Corno alle Scale, and within 0.21 km2 on the
made (Poli Bini, 1982). southwest slope of Monte Cornaccio (Figure 2). For each
Charcoal production started with the creation or the platform, geographical coordinates were noted, as well as
rearrangement of an ancient platform: a portion of land the larger and smaller diameter, and state of conservation.
from the upper slope was removed and placed below on After the surveys, 4 platforms located at Monte Cimone
the downhill slope; if the slope was very steep, a dry stone (Carbo MC-1, MC-2, MC-3 and MC-4; no, 1, 2, 3 and 4 in
wall was built downhill. The construction of a charcoal Figure 2a) and 4 others from Corno alle Scale (Carbo CS-1,
kiln would start with the planting of a wooden pole, called CS-2, CS-3 and CS-4; no, 1, 2, 3 and 4 in Figure 2b) were
“cavicchio”, in the middle of the platform. Around the pole chosen near the timberline to be sampled: they are quite
was interwoven the so-called “castellina” made of wooden distant from each other inside the prospection area in order
rods (Figure 4a). Seasoned wood was arranged around the to obtain more complete information from a spatial point of
“castellina” (Figure 4b) to build a dome-shaped woodpile view. They range from 50 to 70 m between each other at
(Figure 4c) that could have a diameter of 3–4 m or even Monte Cimone, and from 400 to 700 m at Corno alle Scale.
more and a height that could exceed 3 m. Carbonization is
an incomplete combustion process that occurs when there 3.2 Charcoal platforms sampling
is very little oxygen. For this reason, the kiln covering The sampling point of each platform (a cuadrat of 50 cm side)
would be made waterproof. The woodpile was wrapped was located between the centre and the periphery to avoid
by a “camicia” formed of fine wood, which was covered the collection of charcoal fragments from the embers used to
with stony and grassy clods for the first 50 cm from the light the woodpile and charcoal pieces too fragmented by the
ground; the remaining surface was covered first with wet charcoal burners’ activity around the charcoal kiln (Rouaud,
leaves collected in the undergrowth (called “patricia”) and 2013). After the removal of the leaf layer of undergrowth
then with earth (Figure 4d). The waterproof layer would be (1–2 cm), samples were taken approximately every 5 cm,
5–10 cm thick. from the surface to the end of the black carbonized layer
The ignition of the charcoal kiln occurred by dropping (Davasse, 2000; Paradis-Grenouillet, 2012; Rouaud, 2013).
embers (small pieces of wood called “mozzi”) into the For each layer, from 1 to 3 kg of sediment were collected.
chimney formed by the removal of the central pole
(Figure 4e). This operation was made by the “meo”, a name 3.3 Anthracological analysis and radiocarbon dating
attributed to the youngest charcoal burner who would have Sediment samples were sieved under a running water jet with
been the one responsible for preparing meals. To control the sieves of mesh size 5 and 2 mm. Taxonomic identification,
carbonization process, the quantity of oxygen entering the made for all the sampled layers, was performed under an
woodpile was regulated by the opening and closing of holes, incident light microscope (100X, 200X, 500X) by observing
called “cagnoli” in Modena and “arfummi” in Bologna the transversal, tangential and radial sections of charcoal
(Il Massaro, 1969), that were arranged in rows, one at ground pieces. The identification was supported by the use of wood
level and another at a height of 50 cm. The timing of charcoal anatomy atlases (Jacquiot et al., 1973; Schweingruber, 1990;
production ranged from 3–4 days (for the smallest charcoal Vernet et al., 2001).
kilns) to 10–12 days (for the largest ones). The wood charcoal Estimation of the diameter of starting trunks or branches
would be ready when the smoke coming out from the holes was made by observing the curvature of the growth rings
was sky blue. The charcoal was then collected and packed visible on the charcoal fragments. According to Marguerie
for transport. To evaluate the charcoal quality, the charcoal and Hunot, (2007) and Cabanis and Marguerie (2013), the
burners and the merchants used to wet a charcoal fragment curvatures were classified into three categories: weakly,
with saliva; if it became white as milk it was of high quality moderately and strongly curved.
(Fregni and Maccaferri, 2010). Characteristics of charcoals that could give information
about the state of the wood before carbonization were noted:
radial cracks, vitrification, fungal hyphae and insect galleries
3. Material and methods (Marguerie and Hunot, 2007).
Because of the great homogeneity in the taxonomic
The anthracological study included a survey of charcoal identification, we considered that the analysis of 50 charcoals
platforms in the study areas, a sampling from eight platforms, (randomly selected), from each sampled level were sufficient
and the isolation of charcoal for anthracological analysis and to represent a whole sample.
radiocarbon dating. To detect the former period of activity of a platform, we
selected a charcoal from the bottom layer (Nelle, 2003;
3.1 Charcoal platforms survey Rouaud, 2013) for radiocarbon dating. To make the dating
Charcoal platforms were surveyed during periods of coincide with the moment when the tree and its branches
prospection near the timberline, both in the wooded and were cut, we selected charcoals with bark (Davasse, 2000).
open areas, as well as at lower elevations (1500 m asl). The AMS 14C dating was carried out at the Centre de Datation par
surveys were performed within 0.21 km2 on the northwest le Radiocarbone (Lyon) for the 4 platforms of Monte Cimone,
slope of Monte Cimone, within 0.18 km2 on the west slope and at the Centro di Datazione e Diagnostica (University of
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Alessandra Benatti, Marie Bal, Philippe Allée, Giovanna Bosi, Daniele Dallai, Anna Maria Mercuri: Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy):
Forest Exploitation by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
Salento) for the 4 platforms of Corno alle Scale. The dates Monte Corno alle Scale and 6 others on the southwest slope
were calibrated as BP and AD on the base of the data set of Monte Cornaccio. The presence of many platforms was
Intcal13.14c (Reimer et al., 2013). also observed at lower altitudes, at about 1500 m asl, in the
Monte Cimone area (Figure 2).
The 8 studied charcoal platforms present different degrees
4. Results of conservation. The 4 platforms of Monte Cimone (Carbo
MC-1, MC-2, MC-3 and MC-4) and two of the west slope
During the survey, 7 charcoal platforms were discovered on of Monte Corno alle Scale (Carbo CS-1 and CS-2) show an
the northwest slope of Monte Cimone, 8 on the west slope of excellent state of conservation, despite them being located at
Figure 5. Dentro-anthracological results of charcoal platforms analysis.
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Alessandra Benatti, Marie Bal, Philippe Allée, Giovanna Bosi, Daniele Dallai, Anna Maria Mercuri: Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy):
Forest Exploitation by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
points of steep slope which could favour erosion. Carbo CS-3 5. Discussion
(at a point of more gentle slope) and CS-4 (on a very steep
slope), sampled on the southwest slope of Monte Cornaccio, The study of the charcoal platforms, when compared with the
present a good and a fair state of preservation, respectively. historical sources and ethnological information, is capable
The platforms have common features: of providing new knowledge concerning the human-forest
•• In their downstream part there are not any supporting relationship over the last centuries.
dry walls but only some boulders placed with the same
aim. 5.1 S patial analysis of the platforms’ distribution:
•• They have a semi-oval shape: from 4.5 to 6.5 m in complementarity between forest exploitation and
the larger diameter (perpendicular to the upstream- pastoral activities
downstream direction) and from 3.5 to 5 m the During their time in use, charcoal platforms are always
minor diameter (along the upstream-downstream located inside the forest or near to the timberline (Davasse,
direction). 2000). In our study areas, their presence just below the current
•• They are devoid of arboreal vegetation because of the timberline suggests that this ecotone did not undergo any
hostile micro-habitat created by a substrate rich in altitudinal regression since the 15th up until the 20th century.
charcoal which prevent forest recolonization (Carrari Many of the charcoal platforms in our study areas were
et al., 2016); also shrubby and herbaceous vegetation operating concurrently with important periods of sheep and
is absent, except for MC-2, covered by grass and moss, goat breeding. Indeed, examining the number of sheep and
and for CS-1, covered by blueberry. goats present in the study area over time (e.g. Roversi, 1983;
•• They present dark charcoal layers from 11 to 16 cm Gruppo Studi Capotauro, 2012; Rombaldi and Cenci, 2013),
thick that are not interrupted by light colour layers it emerges that there was a high number of sheep and goats
without charcoal, as observed in other research studies during the 18th–20th centuries (Benatti, 2018). Nevertheless,
(e.g. Montanari et al., 2000; 2002; Rouaud, 2013). at the time of the pastoral apogee, the forests just below
•• They have dark layers that are very rich in large the pasturelands (1700 m asl at Monte Cimone and 1600
charcoal pieces in a good state of conservation. m asl at Corno alle Scale) were not deforested to leave
•• They contain charcoal pieces with few but large radial space for such grazing activity, despite the grazing being
cracks. very intense. This suggests a well-managed exploitation
•• Concerning growth ring curvature, the moderately- of the two main resources of these mountains: pastures
curved category prevails in all the platforms, except and woodland. Such complementarity between pastoral
for Carbo CS-3, where the weakly-curved category activities and forest exploitation has also been observed in
prevails. Carbo CS-2 has a high percentage of other European mountain areas (e.g. Davasse and Galop,
fragments with strong growth-ring curvature compared 1990; Davasse, 1992; Paradis-Grenouillet, 2012; Bal et al.,
to all the other platforms (Figure 5). 2015). Many of the current European wood-pasture systems
have experienced a period of traditional multifunctional
Taxonomic identification shows almost exclusively Fagus management; one that has been historically guided by local
sylvatica (Figure 5). Only in Carbo MC-2 was a charcoal of needs and has generally involved the grazing of livestock,
Acer sp. identified. but also the use of raw material provided by the forest, such
Radiocarbon dates are rather recent (Table 1). Carbo CS-2 as products from coppicing (Hartel and Plieninger, 2014).
is the oldest, dated 1390–1477 AD, i.e. between the end of
the 14th and the end of the 15th century. All the other charcoal 5.2 Beech exploitation
platforms, overall, cover a period that spans from 1616 to The almost totality of Fagus sylvatica in the taxonomic
1948 AD, i.e. the beginning of the 17th to the mid–20th century. identification could suggest a preference for this wood species
Table 1. Radiocarbon dates with probability, altitude and geographic coordinates of charcoal platforms.
Study area Charcoal Age BP Age cal BP Age cal AD P Elevation Latitude/Longitude
platform name (2 σ) (2 σ) (%) ( m a.s.l.)
Carbo MC-1 245±30 269–320 BP 1631–1681 AD 54.30% 1700 44°12.176′N–10°41.188′E
Monte Carbo MC-2 225±35 142–219 BP 1731–1809 AD 42.20% 1689 44°12.238′N–10°41.190′E
Cimone Carbo MC-3 205±30 142–218 BP 1731–1809 AD 50.10% 1684 44°12.240′N–10°41.251′E
Carbo MC-4 165±30 131–230 BP 1720–1819 AD 49.30% 1704 44°12.221′N–10°41.241′E
Carbo CS-1 227±45 136–224 BP 1726–1814 AD 37.00% 1598 44°7′27.39″N–10°48′52.27″E
Corno alle Carbo CS-2 490±45 474–560 BP 1390–1477 AD 86.50% 1568 44°7′49.47″–N 10°49′1.78″E
Scale Carbo CS-3 237±45 258–334 BP 1616–1692 AD 34.10% 1507 44°6′27.44″N–10°48′45.84″E
Carbo CS-4 134±45 169–282 BP 1797–1948 AD 54.40% 1524 44°6′38.11″N–10°48′33.74″E
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Alessandra Benatti, Marie Bal, Philippe Allée, Giovanna Bosi, Daniele Dallai, Anna Maria Mercuri: Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy):
Forest Exploitation by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
by the charcoal burners, or, at least during the operational other platforms. This can suggest a repetitive and intense
period of the study platforms, that beech was probably the charcoal production that could have led over time to
only dominant tree species in the high mountains of our smaller log diameters. The operating period of this platform
study areas. In fact, although some plant species are more (15th century) coincides with the iron mining and industry
suitable than others for producing charcoal, the charcoal of the Garfagnana (a part of Tuscany region, bordering with
burners usually used all the woody plants available to them Modena province). This metallurgical industry led to timber
near their platforms (Montanari et al., 2000; Nelle, 2003). shortages and the consequent transfer of this activity towards
Abies alba, whose past presence is attested by palynological the Reggio Emilia and Modena Mountains (Lodovisi, 2006).
studies for the whole Holocene and by soil charcoal for It can be supposed that the charcoal fuel for the functioning
the Late Holocene (Watson, 1996; Vescovi et al., 2010a; of the forges also came from distant areas, such as our study
2010b; Compostella et al., 2013), was not found in the area. Exploitation of the natural resources of the Garfagnana
charcoal assemblages of our study platforms. As in many used many roads and mule tracks that favoured the transport
other Italian mountain areas, the presence of monocultures of goods such as wood charcoal (Lodovisi, 2006; Pelù,
of beech woodland could be due to the management practice 2006).
of coppicing – repeated over time – that would lead to During the 19th century, the studied charcoal platforms may
the elimination of other tree species (such as Abies alba), have supported the exploitation of the iron and copper mines
transforming the mixed woods into uniform beech woods of the Bologna Mountains and the functioning of the related
(Andreatta, 2008; Nocentini, 2009). ironworks and metal foundries. In addition, the activity of
The taxonomic identification agrees with what has the metalworkers and the production of lime, gypsum plaster
been affirmed by the last charcoal burners of the Modena and glass may have employed charcoal produced in the
Mountains (Fregni and Maccaferri, 2010) and with the platforms analysed in this study (Carpani, 1972; Bignardi,
historical sources, reporting that, during the modern and 1980; Gruppo Studi Capotauro, 2012; Rombaldi and Cenci,
contemporary age, the wood used to produce charcoal was 2013). Part of this charcoal may have been traded with the
beech only (Tonelli, 1895; Carpani, 1972; Rombaldi and Emilia-Romagna plain and nearby Tuscany (Tonelli, 1895;
Cenci, 2013). The fragment of Acer in Carbo MC-2 could Roversi, 1972).
have originated from a maple tree near the platform and The platform CS-4, which operated up until the mid-
have been used to light the woodpile. An inhabitant of the 20th century, may have provided charcoal for the fuel needs
Bologna Mountains, a descendant of charcoal burners, was caused by the two world wars, in particular by the energy
able to confirm that maple was considered a bad wood to crisis of the Second World War (Moreno and Montanari,
produce charcoal (pers. comm., Ettore Scagliarini, 2018). 2008). Confirming the importance of charcoal production
Probably, the beech wood used in the studied charcoal during war periods, the last charcoal burners of the Modena
platforms was previously seasoned: as suggested by the Mountains stated that they were exempted from conscription
few but large radial cracks in the charcoal fragments (pers. comm., Orlando Bettini, 2017).
(Théry-Parisot and Henry, 2012). The last charcoal burner
of Modena Mountains affirms that wood was cut in spring,
seasoned for 4–5 months, and transformed into charcoal in 6. Conclusions
September (Fregni and Maccaferri, 2010).
Spatial analysis of the platforms’ distribution has highlighted
5.3 Uses of charcoal the existence of a spatial organization that includes both the
The thin dark charcoal layers could be due to the scarce forest and pasture resources as observed elsewhere (e.g.
and occasional use of these platforms. Close to the villages Davasse and Galop, 1990; Davasse, 1992) and a timberline
there are platforms with very thick dark layers of some tens that appears to be very stable, at least during the last few
of centimetres; furthermore, those platforms at the highest centuries. The charcoal was derived exclusively from
altitudes were probably utilised by the poorest of mountain seasoned wood obtained from coppice beech forest and it
families in order to obtain charcoal for domestic needs, was used for many domestic and industrial needs.
whereas charcoal production for industry and trade was Archaeobotany being useful in the reconstruction of
located closer to the villages (pers. comm., Ettore Scagliarini, cultural landscapes (e.g. Mercuri, 2014), this research has
2018). Wood diameter estimation suggests that the utilised contributed to the study of mountain cultural landscape
woods had a medium-large diameter, and thus the exploitation evolution as already shown by other studies in mountain
of these forests was restricted or well managed over time. and plain areas (e.g. Davasse, 2000; Montanari et al.,
Nevertheless, it must not be excluded that the erosion due to 2000; Bosi et al., 2015). Combined with information from
the steep slopes may have reduced the charcoal layers. The archaeobotany, the ethnobotanical and historical information
platforms discovered at about 1500 m asl on the northwest is useful to better interpret the anthracological results and
slope of Monte Cimone (Figure 2), in an area of little or very to improve our knowledge of charcoal production, a key
gentle slope, have dark layers that can reach 20–25 cm thick. activity for past societies and an important component of the
The oldest platform, Carbo CS-2, shows percentages historical-cultural heritage of the Apennines. As the charcoal
of fragments of small calibre (diameter) greater than production has now been completely abandoned, many
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Alessandra Benatti, Marie Bal, Philippe Allée, Giovanna Bosi, Daniele Dallai, Anna Maria Mercuri: Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy):
Forest Exploitation by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
people have focused their interest on the cultural aspects of Second international meeting of anthracology, Oct 2000, Paris. Paris:
this activity. In the year 2017, a day conference (Carbonaie Archaeopress, pp. 219–228.
BOSI, G., MERCURI, A.M., BANDINI MAZZANTI, M.,
e Carbonai; speaker A. Benatti) about the charcoal platforms FLORENZANO, A., MONTECCHI, M.C., TORRI, P., LABATE,
study, followed by a thematic mountain excursion, was D., RINALDI, R. 2015. The evolution of Roman urban environments
organised by the Italian Alpine Club (the oldest and largest through the archaeobotanical remains in Modena – Northern Italy.
association of mountaineers and mountain enthusiasts in Journal of Archaeological Science, 53, 19–3.
CABANIS, M., and MARGUERIE, D., 2013. Les ressources en bois
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This research was developed within the framework of a CARRARI, E., AMPOORTER, E., BOTTALICO, F., CHIRICI, G.,
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PhD thesis between the School “613 Sciences de la Société, old charcoal kiln sites in Central Italian forest landscapes. Quaternary
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