Correctional Officer Safety and Wellness Literature Synthesis
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U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs National Institute of Justice National Institute of Justice Correctional Officer Safety and Wellness Literature Synthesis July 2017 Frank Valentino Ferdik Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice, University of West Florida, Pensacola Hayden P. Smith Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice, University of South Carolina, Columbia This paper was prepared with support from the National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice, under contract number 2010F_10097 (CSR, Incorporated). The opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the Department of Justice. NCJ 250484
U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs 810 Seventh St. N.W. Washington, DC 20531 Howard Spivak Acting Director, National Institute of Justice This and other publications and products of the National Institute of Justice can be found at: National Institute of Justice Strengthen Science • Advance Justice http://www.NIJ.gov Office of Justice Programs Building Solutions • Supporting Communities • Advancing Justice http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov The National Institute of Justice is the research, development, and evaluation agency of the U.S. Department of Justice. NIJ’s mission is to advance scientific research, development, and evaluation to enhance the administration of justice and public safety. The National Institute of Justice is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau of Justice Assistance; the Bureau of Justice Statistics; the Office for Victims of Crime; the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention; and the Office of Sex Offender Sentencing, Monitoring, Apprehending, Registering, and Tracking. Opinions or conclusions expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov
Correctional Officer Safety and
Wellness Literature Synthesis
Introduction
Correctional Officer Job Responsibilities
Correctional officers (COs) play a pivotal role within the wider prison system as they are
tasked with numerous responsibilities designed to ensure that their respective facilities
are operating efficiently. As the front-line bureaucrats of the prison institution (Lipsky,
2010), COs are charged with supervising the activities of inmates, enforcing rules and
regulations, affording offenders access to social services, and perhaps most importantly,
maintaining order (Crawley, 2004; Kauffmann, 1989). They are also tasked with responding
to administrative demands; searching cells for drugs, weapons, and other contraband;
and intervening to resolve potentially violent disputes among inmates (Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2013). COs play such a fundamental role in the functioning of any prison system
that Archambeault and Archambeault (1982) remarked that officers “represent the single
most important resource available to any correctional agency” (p. 72).
Recent scholarship has suggested that COs work under dangerous conditions that can
threaten their general safety and wellness. Following several legislative reforms that
started in the 1970s and included “get tough on crime” policies such as mandatory
minimum sentences and habitual offender laws (Mackenzie, 2001), correctional institutions
experienced dramatic changes in the composition of the inmate population. Not only did
the total number of incarcerated offenders skyrocket from roughly 300,000 to more than
1.5 million between 1975 and 2013, but the percentage of offenders imprisoned for violent
crimes increased from about 40 percent in 1985 to more than 60 percent by 2013 (Walmsley,
2013). Although incarceration rates have declined in recent years, the modern-day CO is still
required to interact with and supervise individuals in a dangerous environment (Glaze &
Kaeble, 2014).
Correctional Officer Safety and Wellness Literature Synthesis 1National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov
Officers are further responsible for Statistics (2013) noted that between 1999
maintaining safety in a setting with and 2008, a total of 113 U.S. COs lost their
significant numbers of gang members lives in the line of duty — a fatality rate of
(Lombardo, 1989), offenders with mental 2.7 per 100,000 full-time employees — the
illness (Kupers, 1999; Turner, 1975), drug 22nd highest among 115 professions.
addicts (Ross, 1981), and even terrorists
(Crawley, 2004), all of whom pose elevated Concerning mental health, there is
safety and health risks to COs. Further evidence that COs experience high levels
compounding these issues is that prisons of stress, burnout, and a variety of other
have long been described as “total mental health-related consequences as a
institutions,” defined as places “where a result of their employment (Brower, 2013;
large number of like-situated individuals, Stack & Tsoudis, 1997). According to the
cut off from the wider society for an Management and Training Corporation
appreciable period of time, together lead (2011), between 22 percent and 33 percent
an … enclosed life” (Goffman, 1961, p. xiii). of COs report high stress levels. Other
As a result, officers are required to interact studies (Lambert et al., 2005; Ferdik,
with and supervise potentially dangerous Smith, & Applegate, 2014a) found that
offenders in relatively unsafe and more than 35 percent of officers in
secluded surroundings. Collectively, these the sample recorded high stress levels.
observations have prompted correctional Together, the impact of negative physical
scholars and practitioners to characterize and mental health outcomes for COs
prisons as dangerous environments that can have deleterious effects on the wider
carry increased risk of harm to the people prison institution. Staff shortages and
working in them (Beck, Harrison, & Adams, officer absences from work can create a
2007; Crawley, 2004; Hensley, Koscheski, & cycle whereby low officer-to-inmate ratios
Tewksbury, 2005). and high turnover in officer staffing
threaten the effective implementation of
a correctional facility’s security mandates
Correctional Officer Health (Brower, 2013; Crawley, 2004; Ferdik, Smith,
& Applegate, 2014a).
Outcomes
The position of CO carries with it the
intrinsic danger of physical injury and Literature Search Strategy
mental stress. In terms of the former,
As previously mentioned, the intent of
figures from Harrell (2011) revealed
this report is to offer a comprehensive
that between 2005 and 2009, the rate of
synthesis of the literature so as to highlight
sustained nonfatal workplace injuries
any inherent limitations and offer
per 1,000 COs was 33.0, which, among 26
recommendations for future research
different professions, ranked third only
and policies designed to enhance the
to police officers and security guards
overall well-being of COs. Information
(77.8 and 65.0, respectively). Harrell
from published and peer-reviewed journal
(2011) further found that in 2011, COs
articles, state and federal government
experienced 544 work-related injuries or
reports, university and academic think-
illnesses that required absences from work
tank reports, and commercially published
per 10,000 full-time officers — the third
books was retrieved and summarized.
highest rate of nonfatal workplace injuries,
Emphasis was placed on collecting
again surpassed only by police officers and
research conducted since 2000 to account
security guards. Additional reports from
for current safety and wellness concerns
Brower (2013) and the Bureau of Labor
Correctional Officer Safety and Wellness Literature Synthesis 2National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov
confronting COs, although some earlier research. This report will conclude with a
research is referenced to provide a baseline discussion of how the safety and wellness
understanding of the various issues issues of law enforcement personnel
related to CO safety and wellness. The compare with those of COs and an overview
search phrase “correctional officer” was of the salient findings from this literature
cross-referenced with the words “safety,” synthesis and how they can be used to
“wellness,” “risk,” “stress,” “burnout,” inform decisions regarding CO well-being.
“depression,” “danger,” “health,” “well
being,” “injury,” and “fatality” in the
following literature search engines: JSTOR, Dangers and Risks
Social Services Abstracts, Sociological
Confronting Correctional
Abstracts, Criminal Justice Abstracts,
EBSCOHost, Academic Search Complete, Officers
MEDLINE with full text, Applied Social Before proceeding to a discussion of the
Sciences Index and Abstracts, Hein unique workplace dangers and risks that
On-Line, ProQuest Dissertations and COs face, it is important to note conceptual
Theses, and Google Scholar. differences between these terms. Reichman
(1986) distinguished risks from dangers
This initial search led to the dual findings in the following manner: “The concept
that (1) COs are exposed to unique of risk should not be confused with that
workplace dangers that can jeopardize of danger; dangers are the causes of risk”
their general welfare and (2) exploring (p. 151). Reichman added that risks entail
CO perceptions of workplace safety and the “uncertainty of loss, or the probability
risk is an important and emerging area of that loss will occur,” and that “dangers
research. Using the same search engines, are those conditions which contribute to
a specialized literary search of specific the probability of loss” (p. 152). This is a
dangers to which COs are exposed as well key distinction as this report identifies the
as officer judgments of workplace safety and risks confronting COs and the dangers that
risk was conducted by cross-referencing the contribute to them.
search phrase “correctional officer” with
“gang,” “disruptive inmate,” “riot,” “mentally COs are exposed to a number of safety and
ill inmate,” “contraband,” “disease,” “risk wellness-related risks. Most notable are
perception,” and “safety perception.” Each the risks of death or physical injury, but of
resulting citation was reviewed by both equal concern are mental health-related
authors to determine its eligibility for the risks such as stress and burnout (Dowden &
literature synthesis. Reference pages of all Tellier, 2004; Lambert et al., 2005). These
obtained reports were scanned to exhaust risks can accumulate and place significant
all pertinent literature related to the topic pressure on a correctional administration,
of CO safety and wellness. particularly when a fatigued staff and
high turnover rates limit the degree to
Several themes emerged that form the which officers can effectively engage in
basis of discussion for this synthesis. the surveillance of inmates. Expanding on
These themes include the dangers and Brower’s (2013) typology, the categories
risks confronting COs, CO perceptions of of dangers contributing to officer safety
workplace safety and wellness as well as the and wellness-related risks can be broadly
consequences of their exposure to risk, the described as work-related, institution-
policies designed to enhance officer well related, and psycho-social. Using this
being, and finally considerations for future tripartite schema, this report examines
Correctional Officer Safety and Wellness Literature Synthesis 3National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov
the most salient workplace dangers that harm to COs in terms of both physical and
threaten CO safety and well-being and their mental health issues. These dangers are
consequences. Exhibit 1 summarizes the examined in greater detail below.
identified dangers under their respective
categories and the multiple mental and Inmates with Infectious Diseases
physical health-related risks connected
There is ample evidence that inmates
to each danger as identified in extant
disproportionately suffer from infectious
literature.
and communicable diseases (e.g., Hepatitis
B and C; Human Immunodeficiency
Virus, or HIV; and tuberculosis) (Alaird &
Work-Related Dangers Marquart, 2009; Bick, 2007). For example,
Work-related dangers are directly Ruiz and colleagues (2002) found that in
connected to officer safety and well-being. 2000, of the 5,730 inmates from a random
Under the work-related category are the sample of California prisons who received
dangers of infectious and communicable intake physical examinations during a two-
diseases (Macalino et al., 2004); the month period, 1.4 percent tested positive
presence of prison gangs, disruptive for HIV, 3.5 percent tested positive for
inmates, and contraband (Bouchard & Hepatitis B, 33 percent tested positive for
Winnicki, 2000; Fleisher & Decker, 2001; Hepatitis C, and 7 percent tested positive
Garcia, 2008); working alongside inmates for tuberculosis. According to a report from
with mental illness (Adams & Ferrandino, the World Health Organization (2013),
2008); and riots (Carrabine, 2005). Each of these estimates far surpass those for the
these dangers presents an elevated risk of general population. Moreover, Alaird and
Exhibit 1: Summary of Dangers and Risks Confronting Correctional Officers
Work-Related Institution-Related Psycho-Social Mental Health Physical Health
Dangers Dangers Dangers Risks Risks
Inmates with Infectious Role ambiguity/role Work/family conflict Stress Injuries
Diseases conflict
Prison Gangs Demanding work Media/political scrutiny Burnout Death
obligations
Disruptive Inmate Poor leadership/trust/
Behavior support
Contraband Presence No input into
decision-making
Inmates with Mental Inadequate resources
Illnesses
Riots Inadequate
employment benefits
Extended hours
Co-worker conflict
Understaffing
Correctional Officer Safety and Wellness Literature Synthesis 4National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov
Marquart (2009) noted that, as of 2008, 1.7 (2011) further stressed that gangs are
percent of the total U.S. custody population increasing in number across correctional
was infected with HIV and that between facilities (particularly those found in the
12 percent and 35 percent had either southeastern U.S.), and that gang affiliates
Hepatitis B or C. Similarly, a 2006 report are escalating in their level of violence and
issued by the Bureau of Justice Statistics criminal sophistication.
found that the rate of confirmed Acquired
Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) cases Lyman (1989) defined a prison gang as “a
was between three and five times higher for violent organization that operates within
prisoners than for the general population, the prison system as a self-perpetuating
with 0.55 percent of inmates and 0.10 criminally oriented entity, consisting
percent of the general public having of a select group of inmates who have
contracted the disease. This represents a established an organized chain of
serious challenge to daily operations for command and are governed by a code of
COs. conduct” (p. 48). Prison gangs share many
similarities with their counterparts on the
COs are susceptible to the risk of outside, as one person is usually designated
contracting potentially fatal diseases as a leader, and that person oversees
on account of occupational mandates the other members and their criminal
that require them to routinely perform operations. Gangs have been described as
pat-down and cell searches, intervene violent, secretive, and abiding by a creed,
in offender altercations, and respond to motto, or constitution that dictates member
medical emergencies, accidents, and other behavior, and further as organizations
“situations where they may encounter that adopt unique symbols to define
sharp objects, blood, and bodily fluids” membership status (Fleisher & Decker,
(Alaird & Marquart, 2009, p. 441). High- 2001). Several major gangs have been
risk behaviors engaged in by inmates, such identified as being most problematic or
as unprotected sex, intravenous drug use, influential in the prison system, including
and tattooing, make officers particularly the Mexican Mafia (La Eme), the Aryan
vulnerable to risk. Although there are little Brotherhood, Black Panther groups (e.g.,
empirical data on the rates at which COs the Black Liberation Army), the Symbionese
contract any of the above-noted illnesses, Liberation Army, the Weatherman
practitioners and scholars consider Underground Organization, the La Nuestra
infectious and communicable diseases Family, and the Texas Syndicate (Skarbek,
among inmates to be a significant threat to 2014). These groups are motivated by a
the health and safety of COs. desire to earn money and exploit often-
overcrowded and understaffed prisons,
Prison Gangs thereby further threatening the safety of
COs (Fleisher & Decker, 2001).
Across correctional institutions, officers
must interact with noncompliant and
Disruptive Inmate Behavior
potentially violent inmates on a one-to-one
basis to ensure adherence to institutional Disruptive inmate behavior is viewed as
regulations. When inmates merge into violent conduct against staff or other
groups, such as prison gangs, the threat inmates (Rocheleau, 2014). Examples of
to security can become even more severe. this type of behavior include, but are not
Fleisher and Decker (2001) opined that limited to, successful or attempted physical
“prison gangs are a … prison manager’s and sexual assault, murder, suicide, and
biggest nightmare” (p. 2). A report from the even rape (Byrne, Hummer, & Taxman,
FBI’s National Gang Intelligence Center 2008). Disruptive inmate behavior has been
Correctional Officer Safety and Wellness Literature Synthesis 5National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov
shown to increase the rate of CO turnover inmates and offenders serving longer
(Patenaude, 2001), the rate of injury and sentences initiated the majority of these
death sustained by COs (Crawley, 2004), assaults (Beck, Harrison, & Adams, 2007).
and the prevalence of self-destructive
behavior, such as officers resorting to The role of place is also important to
drugs and alcohol as coping mechanisms inmate behavior, suggesting that there are
(Crawley, 2004). important differences both between and
within prisons. Garcia (2008) noted that
Although Byrne and colleagues (2008) maximum-security facilities and facilities
noticed a decline in the national rate of populated by a higher percentage of
inmate-on-inmate fatalities from 3.2 to 2.4 younger offenders are more likely to report
per every 1,000 offenders between 1995 higher rates of disruptive inmate behavior.
and 2000, they noted that these rates of Hensley and colleagues (2005) echoed
violent death remained a major concern some of these findings by revealing that
for correctional institutions. Between maximum-security facilities are statistically
1995 and 2000, these researchers noted an more likely to report higher levels of inmate
increase from 27.0 to 28.0 in the national sexual assault than are lower security
rate of inmate-on-inmate assault per every agencies. Since COs are responsible
1,000 incarcerated offenders. Rates of for controlling any type of disruptive
inmate assault against COs also increased inmate behavior and for ensuring that all
during this period, from 14.1 to 15.6 per individuals within the prison are protected,
every 1,000 officers (Byrne, Hummer, & they become more susceptible to the
Taxman, 2008). More recent figures from violence in these facilities, thus elevating
Wolff and colleagues (2007) showed that their risk for physical and mental harm.
across a nationally representative sample They must also intervene in incidents
of U.S. prisons, the rate of inmate-on that involve disruptive inmate behavior,
inmate assault ranged from 129 to 346 per noncompliance, physical and sexual
1,000 offenders, and inmate-on-officer violence, and aggression. Combined, these
assault ranged from 83 to 321 per 1,000 issues further compromise the safety and
COs. Variability in these rates was largely wellness of COs and increase their risk of
attributed to variance in institutional victimization.
characteristics (i.e., some prisons housed
more violent offenders than others) and Contraband Presence
to differences in reporting systems across
Although prison administrators attempt
correctional facilities.
to remove or reduce the presence of
contraband, a system of illicit contraband
Prison sexual assault has been a topic of
circulation has developed in many
considerable importance for correctional
institutional facilities, which has led to
administrators and researchers over
increased concern among correctional
the past few decades. In their study of a
practitioners about the potential for harm
maximum-security prison in the southern
associated with this illegal enterprise.
U.S., Hensley, Koscheski, & Tewksbury
Contraband can include weapons,
(2005) found that 18 percent of inmates
fermented alcoholic beverages, drugs,
reported inmate-on-inmate sexual threats
narcotics, restricted medications, and state-
and 8.5 percent reported that they had
owned equipment, tools, and other supplies
been sexually assaulted by another inmate
(Burke & Owen, 2010). Cellular telephones,
while incarcerated. Moreover, Beck and
a more modern form of contraband in U.S.
colleagues (2007) documented 3.75 alleged
prisons, have also raised safety concerns
inmate-on-inmate sexual assaults per every
for correctional officers and practitioners
1,000 inmates in state-run prisons. Younger
Correctional Officer Safety and Wellness Literature Synthesis 6National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov
(Fitzgerald, 2010). In recent years, inmates number of individuals with mental illness
have even coordinated the use of drones to under custodial control (McLearen & Ryba,
import contraband into prisons (Fitzgerald, 2003; Robertson, 2013). Significant growth
2010). Somewhat surprisingly, especially in the population of inmates with mental
considering the potential for harm illness made the Los Angeles County Jail
associated with contraband, some COs (15,000/23,000), New York Rikers Island
have been found to import contraband (5,500/10,000), and Cook County Jail in
items into the prison in the form of Chicago (5,000/10,000) the “three largest
cigarettes, drugs, and weapons (Jurik, psychiatric institutions in the country” in
1985; Tracy, 2004). According to nationally 2007 (Adams & Ferrandino, 2008, p. 913).
representative data from 101 U.S. prisons, Parenthetical figures reflect the average
contraband distribution was connected daily number of diagnosed mentally ill
with more than 200 inmate injuries and inmates per the average total daily inmate
30 CO injuries (Biermann, 2007), further population of all three jail facilities. James
reinforcing the point that contraband and Glaze (2006) further noted that in
circulation represents a considerable health 2005, 56 percent of state prisoners, 45
risk to COs. percent of federal prisoners, and 64 percent
of those in jail reported symptoms of at
Inmates With Mental Illnesses least one mental health problem.
A notable rise in the incarceration rate
COs are often ill prepared to address
of people with mental illnesses has been
the complex symptomology presented
observed across the U.S. over the past
by inmates with mental illness. These
several decades. As early as 1972, Abramson
vulnerable inmates require expensive
coined the phrase “criminalization of
medical services such as therapy,
the mentally ill” (p. 101) to describe
detoxification, and medication. They are
the growing number of individuals
more likely than other inmates to have
with mental illnesses serving time in
histories of drug and alcohol dependency
custody. McLearen and Ryba (2003)
and to suffer from a chronic physical
attributed much of that increase to the
health condition. Research has found that
deinstitutionalization movement of the
inmates suffering from mental illnesses
1970s, which saw large numbers of patients
are more susceptible to physical and sexual
released from psychiatric facilities. Upon
assault (Robertson, 2013), present a greater
their release back into the community,
physical threat to themselves and others
many former patients found themselves
(McLearen & Ryba, 2003), and are more
under the control of the criminal justice
likely to recidivate than inmates who do
system. These authors commented that this
not experience mental illness (Robertson,
occurred because individuals afflicted with
2013).
mental illnesses such as bipolar disorder
or schizophrenia often suffer an inability
Prison administrators and staff are severely
to restrain their behaviors and practice
limited in their ability to meet the needs
self-control. Sometimes, they unknowingly
of these inmates because of budgetary
perpetrate acts such as assaults that are constraints and insufficient resources
classified as legal transgressions, thereby (McLearen & Ryba, 2003). COs will typically
landing them under criminal justice system assist inmates with mental illness when
supervision. Combined with widespread
possible; however, officers rarely receive
closures of mental health institutions and
specific training in this area. These inmates
inadequate services to address the needs
may be considered a challenge to the safety
of this particular population, this has
and wellness of officers because of the
contributed to a drastic explosion of the multiplicity and complexity of their needs.
Correctional Officer Safety and Wellness Literature Synthesis 7National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov
Riots with the former conceptualized as “a
particular relationship between a person
A prison riot is the most serious threat
and an environment that is appraised
to the safety and well-being of COs.
by the individual as taxing … and …
Fortunately, they are relatively rare
endangering his/her well-being” (Lazarus
occurrences. From 1774 to 1990, the United
& Folkman, 1984, p. 19). Job burnout
States witnessed 300 prison riots, 90 percent
has been defined as a “gradual loss of
of which took place during the mid-to
caring or emotional exhaustion about a
late 20th century (Martin & Zimmerman,
job, co-workers, or clients” (Thompson
1990). Two of the most notorious examples
& Prottas, 2006, p. 100). Included in the
of inmate rioting in the United States are
list of institution-related dangers are role
the 1971 Attica (New York) and 1980 New
conflict and role ambiguity (Lambert et
Mexico prison riots (Carrabine, 2005).
al., 2005); demanding workloads, a lack of
Together, those riots resulted in more than
administrative leadership and officer input
100 officer and inmate casualties, numerous
into institutional decision-making, and
reported physical injuries, and a complete
inadequate benefits and resources (Brower,
breakdown of state control. The riots
2013; Finney et al., 2013); prolonged work
also resulted in more than $30 million in
hours, understaffing, and poor recruitment,
structural damage to the prisons themselves
selection, and training of officers (Hessl,
(Carrabine, 2005).
2001; Lambert, Hogan, & Allen, 2006); and
finally co-worker conflict (Morgan, 2009;
Adams (1992) described a prison riot
Morse et al., 2011; Swenson, 2008).
as “part of a continuum of practices …
that involves dissenting and/or protesting
Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity
activities by individuals or groups of
prisoners that interrupt their imprisonment Lambert and colleagues (2005) defined
by means of which they take over all or part role stress as “the degree of incongruity of
of the prison resources and either express expectations associated with the role of the
one or more grievances or a demand for employee and the results from work roles”
change, or both” (pp. 13-14). Post-hoc (p. 35). Two variations of CO stress analyzed
analyses of prison riots typically find similar in this report are role conflict and role
causes, such as retaliation against inhumane ambiguity. Lambert and colleagues (2005)
conditions, prison overcrowding, economic explain role conflict as a situation in which
factors, racial tensions, the disproportionate “compliance with one set of pressures makes
presence of young, violent offenders, and compliance with another set difficult”
poor building design (Carrabine, 2005). and define role ambiguity as “uncertainty
Although prison riots are rare, they can or a lack of information in carrying out
quickly become highly consequential and the duties and responsibilities of a given
produce numerous physical and mental position” (p. 35). For several decades,
health concerns for COs. prisons across the United States have
shifted among correctional philosophies,
including treatment/rehabilitation,
Institution-Related Dangers retribution, deterrence, and incapacitation
(Lambert et al., 2005).
Institution-related dangers pose greater
mental health-related risks than physical Fluctuations in punishment ideologies
risks. Many of the institution-related have been shown to negatively impact COs,
dangers discussed here have been linked as they are frequently left questioning
to increases in officer stress and burnout, their occupational role. Literature has
Correctional Officer Safety and Wellness Literature Synthesis 8National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov
shown that role conflict and ambiguity These problems have subsequently
significantly impact several outcomes. contributed to higher officer stress and
Lambert and colleagues (2013) found that burnout levels as well as low morale.
higher levels of role conflict significantly According to Brower (2013), budgetary
and negatively affect correctional staff job problems can also lead to strained
commitment, which, in turn, increases relationships between COs and correctional
officer stress. Occupational and general administrators. Adding to these issues,
stress measures were significantly increased Paoline and colleagues (2006) found
by higher levels of both role conflict and that officers who perceived American
ambiguity in Castle and Martin’s (2006) Correctional Association (ACA) directives
study. Researchers have linked heightened as confusing, and those who believed
stress as a result of role conflict and that inmates were afforded more social
ambiguity to increased officer turnover services than COs, were significantly more
(Leip & Stinchcomb, 2013; Matz et al., 2013; likely to report higher levels of job-related
Minor et al., 2010). Magnified officer stress stress. COs’ negative perceptions about
levels as well as elevated rates of turnover, managerial decision-making practices can
in turn, can jeopardize the security of create friction between both sides and
correctional facilities by resulting in higher contribute to higher levels of CO stress
inmate-to-officer ratios and a reduced and burnout (Finney et al., 2013; Lambert,
sense of safety for COs (Leip & Stinchcomb, Hogan, & Allen, 2006). Lambert and
2013). colleagues (2012) found that officer stress
and burnout could be predicted by their
Other Occupational Dangers distrust of the prison administration.
A National Institute of Justice (NIJ) study
Other institution-related dangers include
(Finn and Kuck, 2005) reported that high
a lack of administrative leadership and
caseloads, combined with demanding
an absence of officer input into decision-
paperwork and deadlines, constituted
making (Lambert, Cluse-Tolar, & Hogan,
the greatest institution-related dangers
2007; Tewksbury & Higgins, 2006a, 2006b).
affecting CO stress levels. Scholars have
Brower (2013) explained that mistrust
found that demanding shift work, extended
can have deleterious effects on the wider
work hours, poor pay and benefits, elevated
prison system, as officers may become more
perceptions of workplace danger and risk,
disengaged from their jobs, which can,
and insufficient staffing and resources
in turn, increase inmate violence levels
each contributed to increased stress levels
as well as the general level of danger in a
(Armstrong & Griffin, 2004; Garcia, 2008;
facility. If administrative officials desire to
Keinan & Malach-Pines, 2007; Lambert,
maintain harmony with correctional staff,
Hogan, & Barton, 2002; Morgan, 2009;
it is imperative, according to Brower (2013),
Morse et al., 2011; Swenson, 2008). Many
that they forge trusting and long-lasting
officers are asked to perform additional
partnerships with their subordinates.
tasks with limited resources, mostly because
of widespread budget constraints that
One final institution-related danger that
have financially handcuffed correctional
can contribute to CO stress involves the
administrative officials. As reported
relationships they forge with co-workers.
by Summerlin and colleagues (2010)
Paoline and colleagues (2006) found that
and Brower (2013), hiring freezes and
positive relationships with co-workers
terminations have forced many COs to
significantly reduced officer stress and
work with outdated equipment and limited
improved officer evaluations of job
training.
satisfaction. Dowden and Tellier’s (2004)
Correctional Officer Safety and Wellness Literature Synthesis 9National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov
meta-analysis of CO stress found that Finn (1998) suggested that this pattern can
strained co-worker relations predict be cyclical, as at-risk COs may direct their
increased stress, and their aggregated frustrations at family members who, in
findings support many of the results turn, redirect more frustration toward the
reported in this section. CO. Obidoa and colleagues (2011) add that
work-family conflict can also manifest as
depressive symptoms.
Psycho-Social Dangers
Of course, the challenge for COs is to
Psycho-social dangers are issues and balance family demands with the stressors
challenges that COs encounter as they of working in a correctional facility.
move between work and community This requires adaptation to two often
surroundings, including their home incompatible milieus — the prison context
environments. These dangers include versus the family. One of COs’ most
work-family conflict, public misperceptions, common reactions to this incompatibility is
and political scrutiny from individuals to become withdrawn and isolated (Brower,
possessing limited knowledge of the daily 2013). COs may experience difficulties in
challenges faced by officers. discussing daily work events with spouses
and loved ones (Crawley, 2004). Devoid of
Work-Family Conflict outlets for expressing their work-related
The most pressing issue related to work- frustrations and concerns, COs may
family conflict for COs is the fact they must experience elevated levels of emotional
balance what is termed “dual role conflict” stress and burnout (Brower, 2013; Crawley,
(Brower, 2013, p. 13). In their professional 2004). These issues can contribute to days
lives, COs are surrounded by and required missed from work, job-related apathy,
to supervise potentially violent individuals and increased security risks in their work
as well as people with special needs (e.g., environments (Crawley, 2004; Lambert et
mental and physical health care and drug al., 2005).
rehabilitation). Few other professionals
work under such demanding conditions. Public Misperceptions and Political
Officers’ daily tasks include using unique Scrutiny
communication strategies designed to Apart from an inability to discuss work
reinforce behavioral boundaries and experiences with loved ones, COs are
compliance when interacting with inmates. also often reluctant to discuss their
The communication style required by the work with the general public because of
prison environment may be described as misconceptions about their profession.
assertive, direct, and unemotional. However, The misconceptions are often rooted in
this communication style may have no effect the frequently negative characterizations
or a negative effect on family members at of COs by the news media (Crawley, 2004;
home. What works for communicating in Moon & Maxwell, 2004), which often
prison may not work at home. involve negative events such as inmate
escapes, inappropriate staff-inmate
When COs experience dissonance between
relationships, and violations of inmate
work and family environments, their
rights. The portrayals of COs in other
level of well-being decreases dramatically
forms of media, such as movies and music,
(Brower, 2013). This can manifest in
can be even more damaging. COs are
the form of “chronic fatigue, cynicism,
often depicted as brutal, cruel, racist, and
pessimism, sarcasm, flattened drama/stress
educationally deficient. Moreover, because
response and exposure to trauma and other
the general public has very little experience
disturbing behaviors” (Brower, 2013, p. 8).
with corrections and correctional
Correctional Officer Safety and Wellness Literature Synthesis 10National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov
employees, they are apt to believe these (Alaird & Marquart, 2009; Dillon &
stereotypes (Schaufeli & Peeters, 2000). Allwright, 2005; Hartley et al., 2012), their
These misguided characterizations of COs risk of injury from specific prison-based
can influence political figures who are dangers (Ferdik, 2014), and their fear and
responsible to the public and its concerns. If risk of victimization by both inmates and
the public typecasts COs in a stereotypically co-workers (Gordon, Moriarty, & Grant,
negative way, the same political figures 2003; Gordon, Proulx, & Grant, 2013;
who are responsible for ensuring that Lai, Wang, & Kellar, 2012). The officers
officers conduct themselves appropriately surveyed worked in a variety of correctional
may express little to no support for those institutions, including juvenile detention
officers (Brower, 2013). Absent public or facilities and minimum-, medium-, and
political support, COs may experience a maximum-security adult prisons. In the
lack of respect and appreciation for their studies that surveyed officers’ perceptions
important work, resulting in higher stress of their risk of contracting an infectious
levels, isolation, and reduced self-esteem disease, respondents perceived those risks
(Brower, 2013). The isolated nature of as moderate to high. Specifically, Alaird
prisons and jails may exacerbate this and Marquart (2009) reported that 54
negative state of affairs by reinforcing the percent of respondents believed that they
stereotypes and further amplifying mental were at risk of contracting HIV/AIDS, and
health-related consequences for COs. Dillon and Allwright (2005) found that an
overwhelming 92.2 percent to 95.2 percent
of their sample believed that they were
Correctional Officers’ at risk of contracting either Hepatitis B
or C, or HIV/AIDS. Another study found
Perceptions of Workplace
that a majority of COs judged their entire
Safety and Wellness work environment to be dangerous, with
Given the harms to which COs are exposed, many officers reporting that they felt
it is surprising that little research has physically threatened by both inmates and
been conducted on their perceptions of co-workers (Hartley et al., 2012). Hartley
workplace safety and wellness. Scholars have and colleagues (2012) also found that more
discovered that employee perceptions of than half of their respondents perceived an
the work environment can fundamentally elevated risk of contracting an infectious
shape outcomes such as job performance, disease while on the job. Several statistically
co-worker and supervisor treatment, and significant covariates of officer risk
the intention to voluntarily resign (Ferdik, perceptions surfaced among the studies,
Smith, & Applegate, 2014a; Konovsky & including findings that greater knowledge
Pugh, 1994; Schein, 1990). Since COs play levels about HIV/AIDS and additional years
such a crucial role in establishing and of formal education reduced perceived
maintaining order in their institutions, it risk (Alarid & Marquart, 2009), and older
is vital to understand how they perceive and male officers perceived statistically
safety. A literature search produced eight significant increased levels of risk as
studies on this topic. A detailed discussion compared to their counterparts (Dillon &
of each study is provided below, with the Allwright, 2005).
accompanying table in the appendix
providing a comprehensive breakdown of Other studies examined COs’ perceptions
each study’s methodology and findings. of either fear or risk of victimization by
inmates and co-workers, but found lower
COs were surveyed on a variety of safety- levels of perceived risk when compared
related issues, including their general to the aforementioned investigations. For
perceptions of danger (Garcia, 2008), the example, Gordon and colleagues (2003)
risk of contracting an infectious disease and Lai and colleagues (2012) found that
Correctional Officer Safety and Wellness Literature Synthesis 11National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov
less than half of the officers sampled inventory measure of this outcome. Roughly
feared victimization by either inmates half of all officers across Garcia’s sample
or co-workers. Furthermore, only a few expressed some perceived job-related
officers in Gordon and colleagues’ (2003) danger. Statistically significant predictors
study perceived a risk of such victimization. of this outcome, at both the individual and
Authors of both studies attributed these institutional levels, included race, gender,
comparatively lower rates of perceived and security level, with non-white, female,
risk and fear to the types of inmates that and officers employed in higher-security
officers were responsible for supervising. facilities perceiving greater danger levels
For example, whereas officers in Alaird than their counterparts.
and Marquart’s (2009) and Dillon and
Allwright’s (2005) examinations were Ferdik (2014) asked a statewide population
employed in higher-security facilities, COs of COs in maximum-security facilities to
in the latter studies worked in juvenile rate their risk of injury from six specific
detention and minimum-security, adult workplace dangers, which included the
prisons. Those officers worked among presence of gangs and contraband. Not only
inmates who posed reduced health and did a majority of the sample perceive a high
safety threats as opposed to officers degree of injury risk from each danger, but
employed in higher-security facilities additional years of job-related employment
populated by more dangerous offenders. positively predicted officers’ perceived risk
Even considering this point, however, of injury.
Gordon and colleagues (2003) and Lai and
colleagues (2012) argued that despite being Assessments of COs and their general
employed in lower-security facilities, officers perceptions of workplace safety and
were still cognizant of the fact that health risk carry a number of important
risks were a part of their job. considerations. When COs perceive high
levels of any type of risk in their work
In Gordon and colleagues’ (2013) environments, this perception can adversely
investigation, for which COs employed influence their job performance and
across predominantly medium- and even contribute to high levels of turnover
maximum-security facilities were surveyed, and a poorly managed prison facility
between 57 and 73 percent of respondents (Ferdik, Smith, & Applegate, 2014a). COs’
expressed moderate to high degrees of heightened risk perceptions can also
risk of victimization by inmates. Gordon elevate their stress and job dissatisfaction
and colleagues (2003, 2013) and Lai and levels (Garcia, 2008), which may, in turn,
colleagues (2012) found that statistically engender hostile interactions between
significant predictors of officers’ risk officers and offenders, thereby leading to
perceptions held across gender, race, mismanagement of the inmate population
and education levels. Women perceived (Gordon, Moriarty, & Grant, 2003; Gordon,
additional risk, as did non-white COs and Proulx, & Grant, 2013). Since COs play
those with more formal education. perhaps the most important role in
successful prison management, gathering
Two final studies examined COs’ insight into their levels of perceived
perceptions of job-related danger and risk workplace risk can aid interested audiences
(Garcia, 2008; Ferdik, 2014). Garcia (2008) in better understanding the specific threats
used multi-level modeling techniques to officer safety and wellness which, in turn,
and secondary data from the Prison can lead to policies and programs directly
Social Climate Survey to assess federal related to enhancing the overall well-being
COs’ perceived levels of danger using an of COs.
Correctional Officer Safety and Wellness Literature Synthesis 12National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov
Consequences of Risks to Corrections (SCDC), 2013; Vermont
Department of Corrections (VDC), 2013).
Correctional Officer Safety and
Fiscal problems have been recorded by
Wellness various correctional administrative officials
Numerous consequences have been as a result of losing so many officers, with
linked to the safety and wellness risks the SCDC operating at a $45.5 million
confronting COs. For example, contentious deficit in 2009. Budget constraints
relationships between officers and their subsequently forced remaining officers to
co-workers and supervisors as a result work with inoperable weapons, radios, and
of increased stress levels were revealed other necessary equipment (SCDC, 2013).
in various studies (Finney et al., 2013; Deprived of the most essential resources
Lambert, 2004). This, in turn, led to with which to successfully perform their
many COs reporting decreased work jobs, COs often find that their health
performance and even being distracted and safety come under additional threat.
while on the job (Brower, 2013; Finn, 2000). Elevated rates of officer turnover and
Griffin and colleagues (2009) found that absenteeism can lead to higher inmate
higher levels of stress were significant to-officer ratios and greater numbers of
predictors of three variations of officer inmate-on-inmate and inmate-on-staff
burnout: depersonalization, emotional assault (Lambert, 2004; Steiner, 2008).
exhaustion, and job ineffectiveness.
Lambert and colleagues (2002) and Hogan Researchers have also found that COs
and colleagues (2006) found that stress experience disproportionately higher
adversely and significantly impacted the rates of physical health problems such as
level of commitment of officers to their chronic neck, back, and knee injuries,
work. In a rare study that evaluated the heart disease, diabetes, high cholesterol,
influence of stress levels on perceived and hypertension, as compared with other
danger, Garcia (2008) found that higher professionals such as crisis counselors,
individual and institutional stress levels teachers, and law enforcement personnel
significantly increased perceptions of (Dowden & Tellier, 2004; Morgan, 2009).
danger in a sample of federal COs. Much of this can be attributed to the
demanding nature of this line of work,
Many studies have found safety and wellness including prolonged work hours, irregular
risks within the correctional environment to sleep patterns due to constantly changing
significantly influence officers’ desire to use shift assignments, and being tasked with
administrative sick leave (Lambert et al., extra duties that extend beyond their
2005; Lambert, Hogan, & Altheimer, 2010), traditional responsibilities (Brower,
as well as their desire to resign (Ferdik, 2013). Previously referenced dangers such
Smith, & Applegate, 2014b; Patenaude, as role conflict and ambiguity, public
2001; Udochukwu et al., 2007). The misconceptions about the CO’s job, and
Management and Training Corporation work-family conflict also exacerbate
(2011) estimated that between 2000 and physical health problems for COs (Morgan,
2008, 16.2 percent of all American COs 2009; Swenson, 2008). Even life expectancy
resigned from their posts after only three rates are lower for officers. One seminal
years on the job. More troubling figures study (Cheek, 1984) noted that the average
were reported in individual corrections lifespan of individuals in this line of work
departments, most notably those of was 59 years, some 16 years below the
Vermont and South Carolina, where each national average of 75. A more recent
respectively reported that 35 percent of study by the New Jersey Police Suicide Task
their COs voluntarily resigned in 2009 Force (2009) also found an average 59-year
alone (South Carolina Department of lifespan among COs.
Correctional Officer Safety and Wellness Literature Synthesis 13National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov
Crawley (2004) and Swenson (2008) often conflicting work responsibilities that
expanded on the above findings, noting increase their risk for physical and mental
that the physical demands of this profession health problems such as injuries, stress, and
can disrupt officers’ biological clocks and even death. Officers must interact with and
sleeping patterns; impair their cognitive, supervise potentially dangerous individuals
emotional, and motor functions; and such as gang members, inmates with mental
compromise their eating habits. These illness, and those with communicable
problems can manifest as multiple diseases, which further complicates officers’
psychological and emotional disorders. health issues. According to the research
For example, Morse and colleagues (2011) cited above, officers, regardless of security
found that 31 percent of COs reported assignment, recognize the danger to
serious psychological distress, twice the which they are subject as a result of their
rate of the general public. Spinaris and profession. Many scholars conclude that
colleagues (2012) found in a study of more employment as a CO is among the most
than 3,000 corrections professionals that dangerous and life threatening of all
27 percent of officers reported symptoms professions, including law enforcement.
of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), Given how COs are heavily relied upon
which surpassed rates of PTSD experienced to supervise inmate behavior, establish
by combat veterans, who reported just order in their facilities, and maintain wider
14 percent. PTSD symptoms among COs institutional security, it is paramount that
have been further linked to memory correctional practitioners, researchers,
impairment, depression, obesity, and a administrative officials, and other
higher prevalence of substance abuse interested stakeholders begin developing
(Spinaris, Denhof, & Kellaway, 2012). more effective and widely used strategies
for enhancing the general well-being of this
Intensive interviews with COs conducted critically important workforce.
by Crawley (2004) revealed that high levels
of stress led more than half of interviewees Fortunately, changes have begun. Policies
to resort to self-destructive behaviors that include employee assistance and peer-
such as alcohol and drug consumption to support programs have been implemented
cope with their jobs. The effects spilled across some prison systems. Despite the well-
over to families, as many officers brought intentioned purposes of these programs, few
work-related problems home. This led have come under scientific scrutiny, meaning
to increased levels of tension between little evidence attesting to their effectiveness
domestic partners and, in some cases, exists. These programs are few and far
officer suicide. Stack and Tsoudis (1997) between, implemented in only a few prisons.
found the suicide rate for COs to be 39 Although for several years researchers have
percent higher than that of the general extensively documented the numerous
working-age population. This finding was dangers and health risks associated with
supported by research by the New Jersey CO employment, relatively little is known
Police Suicide Task Force (2009), which about how to best address these problems.
found the rate of suicide for COs to be Moreover, with the exception of a handful
double that of police officers and the of studies, little is also known about how
general population. COs judge the dangerousness of their jobs
and the steps they take to protect themselves
Health and safety concerns, as from workplace dangers and risks.
demonstrated by the empirical literature
referenced thus far, appear to be attendant The next section of this report describes
consequences of employment as a CO. the policies and programs designed to
Officers are tasked with demanding and assist officers from a wellness standpoint,
Correctional Officer Safety and Wellness Literature Synthesis 14National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov
the empirical literature (or lack thereof) For example, although police officers are
related to their effectiveness, and an exposed to many occupational dangers
argument for why more research on CO such as gangs and physical retaliation from
safety and wellness is needed. Although community members (Anson, Johnson
much is known about why and how the & Anson, 1997; Jones & Newburn, 2002),
CO’s job is dangerous, we still do not have when compared to the dangers confronting
a foundational understanding of what COs, marked contrasts exist. Brower
can be done to enhance their safety — a (2013) suggests that the daily dangers
critical area of research, given the essential and pressures “faced by COs far exceed
role officers play in the functioning of any those experienced by police officers”
prison system. (p. 5). Whereas the dangers faced by law
enforcement personnel are periodic, those
faced by COs are constant. In fact, COs
Correctional Officer Wellness experience continued exposure to violent
and dangerous offenders throughout the
Policies and Considerations
entirety of their work shifts. In addition,
for Future Research although police officers must interact
with unpredictable citizens who may pose
a risk of harm, they also have multiple
Policies That Support Correctional
opportunities to forge partnerships with
Officer Safety and Wellness prosocial community members who can
Because COs are exposed to many help law enforcement maintain community
occupational dangers, correctional harmony (Brower, 2013). For COs, these
practitioners, researchers, and administrative opportunities are largely absent as they
officials must develop methods for are responsible for overseeing offenders
enhancing officers’ well-being. Such efforts who may be frustrated with their current
have been slow to develop (Armstrong & conditions and may express those
Griffin, 2004; Brower, 2013). Although some grievances against the very individuals
prison facilities have begun to institute charged with monitoring their behavior.
mental health counseling and other
measures designed to improve the general Other differences exist as well. Police
welfare of COs, many of these programs are officers are permitted to carry lethal and
in their infancy, have not been evaluated less-lethal devices for protection, whereas
using scientific methods, and exist in only a COs are not (Farkas & Manning, 1997).
handful of correctional facilities (Armstrong In addition, although there are negative
& Griffin, 2004; Brower, 2013; Morse et al., portrayals of the police in mainstream
2011). Many pundits have remarked that to media, they are often counterbalanced by
better address the safety and wellness threats positive images of law enforcement officers
to COs, it is perhaps best to examine the engaging in heroic acts (Chermak & Weiss,
broader law enforcement profession and 2005). The same cannot be said for COs,
what it is doing to ensure the well-being of with many media depictions stereotyping
police officers (Armstrong & Griffin, 2004; them as inhumane figures who have a
Brower, 2013; Delprino, 2001; Finn, 1998, fundamental disregard for human suffering
2000; Roland, 2011). (Crawley, 2004). All these issues can
predispose correctional officers to greater
Some scholars have discouraged applying levels of stress, injury, and even fatality
police research and policies to the when compared with law enforcement
correctional context because police officers (Garland, 2002).
and COs are employed in dramatically
different working conditions (Brower, 2013). Specific occupational differences aside, it is
widely recognized that both police officers
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