Counting the Hard to Count in a Census - Select Topics in International Censuses1 - UNFPA
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Counting the Hard to Count in a Census
Select Topics in International Censuses1
Released July 2019
INTRODUCTION Appendix A presents an infographic overview of this
material.
The United Nations (U.N.) 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development has continued recent international momen-
IDENTIFYING HTC POPULATIONS
tum in placing inclusion of marginalized populations at the
forefront of international development. As laid out by HTC populations are those for whom a real or perceived
U.N. Deputy Secretary-General Jan Eliasson in his 2016 barrier exists to full and representative inclusion in the
remarks to the U.N. General Assembly, “the fundamental data collection process. Some examples of commonly HTC
principles that underpin the new goals are interdepen- populations include people experiencing homelessness,
dence, universality and solidarity. They should be imple- historically marginalized groups, and nomadic peoples to
mented by all segments of all societies, working together. name just a few. Groups of people may be HTC for four
No one must be left behind. People who are hardest to main reasons, each of which roughly corresponds to a dif-
reach should be given priority.” ferent step in the process of identifying and enumerating
a populace (Chapin et al., 2018; Tourangeau, 2014). The
The first step in ensuring both representative inclusion types of HTC groups are:
for all populations in the national census process and the
accurate measurement of Sustainable Development Goals 1. Hard to Locate—Populations can be both hard to
is attention to the inclusion of those hard-to-count (HTC) sample and hard to identify by some characteristic-
individuals in national data collection. When national of-interest (e.g., nomadic peoples and those hard to
censuses miss members of HTC populations it can lead identify due to stigma/motivated misreporting).
to skewed demographic estimates, underrepresentation
2. Hard to Contact—Once located, populations can be
within government, and inefficient allocation of public and
difficult to physically access (e.g., gated communities
private resources.
or populations experiencing homelessness).
This technical note presents the four primary reasons why
any population may be HTC, four broad strategies for 3. Hard to Persuade—Once accessed, populations may
successfully addressing those challenges, and guidance be reluctant to participate in enumeration (e.g., politi-
on specific populations which have historically been HTC cal dissidents or those who feel that they are too busy
across national contexts. In so doing, this note will help to participate).
National Statistics Offices (NSOs) to produce higher qual- 4. Hard to Interview—Once engaged, enumeration itself
ity census data and position themselves to prioritize those may be hindered by some barrier (e.g., lack of a shared
“hardest to reach.” language, low literacy, or some form of disability).
1
This technical note is one in a series of “Select Topics in International Censuses” exploring matters of interest to the international statistical community.
The U.S. Census Bureau helps countries improve their national statistical systems by engaging in capacity building to enhance statistical competencies in
sustainable ways.These categories are not mutually exclusive as more than 3. Instruction on handling distrustful or otherwise chal-
one HTC challenge may apply to any HTC population. lenging respondent interactions.
NSOs can begin efforts to identify HTC populations early
Enumerator training can be improved by providing training
in the census planning process in the following ways:
documentation for enumerators, including a complete and
1. Use statistical techniques to identify low-response field-tested enumerator handbook. An adequate enumera-
areas and populations from past censuses. tor handbook is well indexed and has instructions on how
many conceivable scenarios should be handled along
2. Assess documentation from previous census analyses
with a mechanism for notifying the NSO if situations not
of undercounts.
covered by the handbook arise or where instructions are
3. Review coverage from outside sources that assessed unclear.
census efficacy and coverage.
Outreach and Partnerships
4. Predict enumeration area response using a priori
Outreach and partnership-based strategies leverage the
identification of HTC populations. E-census systems
strengths, assets, and expertise of stakeholders to improve
let NSOs monitor response in real time and act if rates
census coverage and data quality. These strategies are
deviate from anticipated distributions.
some of the most effective ways for NSOs to mitigate
See Appendix B for common methods for assessing cover- issues of distrust by respondents. Where issues of trust
age error and identifying HTC populations. exist, NSOs can:
1. Identify the distrustful population.
STRATEGIES FOR HTC INCLUSION
After identifying HTC populations and determining 2. Identify organizations and leaders trusted by that
which qualities make them HTC, NSOs can begin devel- population to act as surrogates for the NSO.
oping strategies to enumerate those populations. We 3. Convince surrogates to support the census and reach
group guidance by four broad strategic areas, including: out to HTC populations in trusted locations.
Staff Training, Outreach and Partnerships, Design and
Accommodations, and Special Programs. Initiatives can 4. Include surrogate individuals and organizations in the
fall into areas of overlap in these broad categories; how- planning and preparation of a census.
ever, this typology serves as a useful conceptual frame-
5. Employ members of HTC populations to be cultural/
work for NSO planning.
linguistic translators for census workers.
Staff Training 6. Maintain databases to track engagement with part-
Training strategies address challenges using clear enumer- ners, preventing duplication of effort and enabling
ator instruction. Important areas include: documentation of successful partnerships.
1. How complex and uncommon circumstances should The U.S. Census Bureau Complete Count Committee pro-
be handled. gram (Box 1) is an effective example of how NSOs can use
these recommendations to mitigate distrust.
2. Probing techniques to elicit complete responses and
avoid pre-identified common sources of error.
2 U.S. Census BureauDesign and Accommodations and Special Programs
Design and Accommodations and Special Programs strate-
Box 1.
Complete Count Committee Timeline
Con
gies both involve matching census materials, logistics, and For ad
Complete Count Committees are voluntary groups who
overall operations to meet the needs of HTC populations. Compl
Design and Accommodations refers to minor adjustments 2020 Census Timeline
design and institute efforts to promote census partici-
pation within their area.
please
to general census procedures and materials (e.g., develop-
ment of materials in nondominant languages or in large-
print format for those with difficulty seeing). In contrast, 2018 Please
Special Programs differ significantly from the standard • Tribal leader, governor, or highest ATLANT
methodology in some way and are developed when minor elected local official or community Atlanta.
changes to the general materials or methodology are leader determines Complete Count .partner
insufficient (e.g., special programs enumerating merchant Committees (CCCs) structure. @2020c
seafarers or nomadic populations). Another example of • CCCs receive 2020 Census training.
Special Program strategies is Service-Based Enumeration CHICAG
where populations are enumerated at locations where that Chicago
group commonly receives important services—such as
2019 .partner
• Continue establishing CCCs. @2020c
enumeration of those experiencing homelessness at soup
kitchens or emergency and transitional shelters. • Open Area Census Offices.
DALLAS
Table 1 presents detail on 16 groups that have been identi- • CCCs develop strategy and Dallas.rc
fied as being frequently HTC. The populations discussed work plan. .partner
here do not include every group that may be HTC within a @2020c
national context, nor will each group be HTC within all con- 2020
texts. Instead, they represent an overview of groups—iden-
• CCCs begin community organization
tified over a range of contexts—that present challenges mobilization.
for accurate enumeration. This guide provides a compre- LOS AN
hensive overview of the challenges and strategies associ- • 2020 Census advertising campaign Los.Ang
begins in early 2020. .partner
ated with census inclusion for each population, however @2020c
it should not be considered as an exhaustive text on all • CCCs support the 2020 Census.
methods that can be used and in all contexts in which each • CCCs encourage self-response. NEW YO
population might occur. Appendix A presents a quick ref- New.Yor
.partner
erence guide to the information provided for each popula-
April 1, 2020 – CENSUS DAY @2020c
tion, with each group matched to the strategic areas for
which guidance is provided and the classes of challenges • CCCs urge households who do
that generally apply for that population. not respond to cooperate with PHILAD
census takers. Philadel
.partner
@2020c
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Complete Count Committees, 2018.
U.S. Census Bureau 3Table 1.
Census Inclusion: Challenges and Responses for Select Hard-to-Count Populations
Population Challenges Responses
Complex households Enumeration: Households that are polyg- Enumerator training; questionnaire
amous, orphan-headed, or have unrelated design with country-specific commu-
members can be challenging to classify. nal arrangement options.
Young children Enumeration: Complex family relation- Enumerator training; outreach on the
ships can lead to young children being importance of including children.
left out of enumeration.
Access-controlled properties Canvassing and enumeration: Hard to Enumerator training; outreach to
physically access. properties and communities; adminis-
trative records; remote enumeration.
Anti-government Enumeration: Distrust of government Enumerator training; avoid prefilled
census efforts can lead to nonresponse. materials and administrative records.
Short-term renters Enumeration: Transitory and with fewer Partner with postal services and com-
resources available to enable census par- munity representatives; use locally
ticipation compared to homeowners. tailored enumeration strategies.
Migrants and minorities Enumeration: Fear of legal aspects of Outreach through trusted institutions;
being counted, unfamiliarity with census targeted advertising; questionnaire
benefits, and difficulty with dominant design.
national language(s).
Dense urban areas Canvassing: Common unconventional Partner with public services; hire
housing units. workers from the community; enu-
Enumeration: Poverty, government dis- merator training; administrative
trust, and under-education. records; paired enumeration.
Informal settlements— Canvassing: No legal claim to land; con- Careful census mapping; outreach
housing cealed and unconventional housing. through community canvassing initia-
Enumeration: High government distrust tives; paired enumeration.
and difficulty with national language(s).
Remote and rural Canvassing and enumeration: Can be Outreach through public events and
widely dispersed, lack traditional traditional/tribal authorities; paired
addresses, and be seasonally enumeration; quality control flexibility.
inaccessible. See Box 2.
Homelessness Enumeration: Physical address. Service-based enumeration.
Disasters Canvassing and enumeration: Chaotic Service-based enumeration; quality
conditions, unreliable follow-up, and refu- control flexibility; institutional strate-
gee camps. gies (see Institutions below).
Institutions Enumeration: Hard to access. Partner with officials for access;
administrative records; partner with
umbrella organizations.
4 U.S. Census BureauTable 1.—Con.
Census Inclusion: Challenges and Responses for Select Hard-to-Count Populations
Population Challenges Responses
Seafarers and fishers Canvassing: Ship quarters as the only Remote enumeration; institutional
residence. strategies (see Institutions on previous
Enumeration: Hard to access. page), extended enumeration; adminis-
trative records.
Nomadic and transitory Canvassing and enumeration: Widely Special census programs guided by
dispersed, migratory, and social margin- group characteristics and research;
alization. institutional strategies (see Institutions
on previous page).
Age, languages, and Enumeration: Difficulty with technology, Reference calendars of events; avoid
disabilities mental and physical challenges, and low self-/internet-enumeration; adaptive
literacy rates. technologies; language-focused hiring;
questionnaire design.
Limited connectivity Enumeration: No/limited phone or Inter- Mix enumeration methods; partner with
net access. schools, libraries, and national commu-
nication systems.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau.
Box 2.
2010 U.S. Census Rural Programs
With a newly formed American Indian and Alaska Natives Program, the 2010 U.S. Census used three programs to
enumerate especially rural populations based on increasing level of remoteness.
Update Enumerate Program
Challenge: Untraditional addresses and seasonal vacancies (e.g., vacation homes and Colonias on
the U.S.-Mexico border). Can be remote.
Response: Intensive canvassing: Multiple visits (with local enumerators) and phone calls focused
especially on seemingly vacant addresses.
Remote Update Enumerate Program
Challenge: Sparsely settled areas of Alaska and Maine with residents who may have extended
absences. Highly remote.
Response: One enumeration: Local staff, on-the-job training. Team leader checks on all vacant
housing units.
Remote Alaska Program
Challenge: Only accessible by small plane, off-road vehicles, dogsleds, or that are only seasonally
accessible. Most remote.
Response: One enumeration: All on-the-job training. Village leaders appoint staff and affirm data
accuracy. Weather may require special enumeration dates for these areas.
Source: U.S. Cenus Bureau.
U.S. Census Bureau 5REFERENCES
Bates, N., and Mulry, M. H., Using a Geographic Johnson, T. P., Holbrook, A. L., and Atterberry, K.,
Segmentation to Understand, Predict, and Plan for Surveying Political Extremists, In Tourangeau, R., Hard-
Census and Survey Mail Nonresponse, Journal of Official to-Survey Populations, Cambridge University Press,
Statistics, 27(4), 601, 2011. Cambridge, MA, 2014.
Chapin, M. M., Kim, J., Lopez, J., and Belton, J., 2020 Tourangeau, R., Defining Hard to Survey Populations, In
Census: Counting Everyone Once, Only Once, and in Tourangeau, R., Hard-to-Survey Populations, Cambridge
the Right Place, Presentation at the National Advisory University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2014.
Committee on Racial, Ethnic and Other Populations Fall
United Nations, Indicators of Sustainable Development.
2018 Meeting, Suitland, MD, November 2018.
Framework and methodologies, United Nations
Eliasson, J., Deputy Secretary-General’s Remarks, Publications, New York, NY, 1996.
Presentation at the Ethics for Development Side Event,
United Nations Statistics Division, Principles and
UN General Assembly, New York, NY, January 2016.
Recommendations for Population and Housing
Erdman, C., and Bates, N., The Low Response Score (LRS): Censuses, Revision 3, United Nations Publications, New
A Metric to Locate, Predict, and Manage Hard-to-Survey York, NY, 2015.
Populations, Public Opinion Quarterly, 81(1), 144–156,
United States Census Bureau, Complete Count
2017.
Committees, Brochure D-1256 CCC, U.S. Census Bureau,
Fallica, H. Heimel, S., Jackson, G., and Zhang, B., 2010 Suitland, MD, 2018.
Census Update Enumerate Operations Assessment
United States Census Monitoring Board. Final Report to
Report, U.S. Census Bureau, Suitland, MD, 2012.
Congress, U.S. Census Bureau, Suitland, MD, 2011.
Hoffman, R., Census Interviewer Training Guide: SAVVY
(Sample Vital Registration with Verbal Autopsy),
U.S. Census Bureau, Suitland, MD, 2007.
6 U.S. Census BureauAppendix A.
Hard-to-Count (HTC) Groups—Challenges and Strategies for Specific Populations
Appendix A: Hard-to-Count (HTC) Groups - Challenges and Strategies for Specific Popula�ons
U.S. Census Bureau
What Makes Popula�ons HTC? Which Strategies Can be Effec�ve?
Frequently HTC Staff Training
Popula�ons can be Hard-to-: ST
L C P I Popula�ons ST DA SP OP
Locate L Persuade P
............ Complex Households .............
Contact C Interview I ................. Young Children ..................
...... Access-Controlled Proper�es........ Design and Accomoda�on
fy ............... An�-Government................
nti
Ta
sk DA
e
2:
/Id .............. Short-Term Renters..............
e
A
pl
rd to Locate
c
Hard to Conta
m
Ha ct
a
.......... Migrants and Minori�es ..........
ce
:S
ss
.............. Dense Urban Areas ..............
k1
Special Programs
Tas
.... Informal Se�lements - Housing ....
............... Remote and Rural ............. SP
.................. Homelessness ..................
...................... Disasters ......................
.....................Ins�tu�ons. ...................
Tas
Outreach and Partnerships
k
.............Seafarers and Fishers.............
4:
e
de OP
E
ag
Ha
g
r d t o I nt e rvie w H a r d t o Pe r s u a ...........Nomadic and Transitory...........
nu
En
m
er
at : .... Age, Languages, and Disabili�es.....
e s k3
Ta ............. Limited Connec�vity. ............
Source: U.S. Census Bureau
78
Appendix B.
Identifying and Measuring Hard-to-Count Populations
U.S. Census BureauYou can also read
