Environmental Monitoring and Control at National Archives and Libraries in Eastern and Southern Africa
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Libri, 2005, vol. 55, pp. 154–168 Copyright Saur 2005
Printed in Germany All rights reserved
Libri
ISSN 0024-2667
Environmental Monitoring and Control
at National Archives and Libraries in
Eastern and Southern Africa
Patrick Ngulube
Information Studies Programme, School of Human and Social Studies,
University of KwaZulu-Natal
When national archivists and national librarians select and Libraries and archives may fail to provide access to their
acquire materials, they should ensure that the materials holdings over time if they do not take preventive measures
are accessible over time. All their efforts may come to to protect their holdings into the future. The current study
naught if the documentary materials were lost as result of investigated environmental management at national archival
being exposed to extreme environmental conditions. En- institutions and national libraries in eastern and southern
vironmental control and monitoring are keys to preventive Africa. The results revealed that little attention was being
preservation strategies in the management of collections in paid to environmental control and monitoring as a collection
libraries and archives. management strategy.
more governed by the climate than any other pro-
Caveats and context fessional concern (National Archives of the Neth-
All physical formats, from paper to magnetic tape, erlands et al. 2001). Controlling the effects of the
will decay over time. ”The storage environment environment in archives and libraries is the ”high-
and physical handling and use compromise est priority of any preservation program” (Dean
all formats” (Ngulube 2002:128). Some of the 2002). In that regard, this paper focuses on envi-
preservation activities that are fundamentals to the ronmental control and monitoring as a means of
survival of documentary formats into the future preserving recorded information in libraries and
include environmental control and monitoring, archives of eastern and southern Africa. The re-
handling and use of materials, reformatting, gion is largely affected by a tropical climate.
disaster preparedness, preservation planning Environmental control and monitoring is one
and policies, security, storage of documents, of the keys to sustainable collection management
conducting preservation surveys and holding in libraries and archives (Forde 2002; Peters 1996).
maintenance (Henchy 1998; Khayundi 1995; Put differently, environmental control and moni-
National Archives of the Netherlands et al. 2001; toring can extend the useful lives of library and
Ngulube 2003; Swartzburg 1995). archival materials. It is one of the major effective
However, environmental factors such as tem- preventive measures in preservation manage-
perature and humidity pose the major preserva- ment. Libraries and archives may fail to provide
tion challenges in most tropical countries (Kha- access to their holdings over time if they do not
yundi 1995:32; National Archives of the Neth- take preventive measures to protect their holdings
erlands et al. 2001:49; Porck and Teygeler 2000). into the future. Utilisation of knowledge stored
In fact, archival management in tropical areas is in libraries and archives depends on its current
Dr Patrick Ngulube, Senior Lecturer. University of KwaZulu-Natal (PMB) , School of Human and Social Studies, Department of
Information Studies , Private Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209, Pietermaritzburg , South Africa. E-mail: ngulubep@ukzn.ac.za
154Environmental Monitoring and Control at National Archives and Libraries
and future accessibility. Essentially, the utilisation by Forde (2002) revealed that the level of informa-
of knowledge ”is the core of information science tion and available advice on environmental moni-
and information work” (De Beer 1999:13). In that toring and control was very low in the United
regard, housing the collections in environmentally Kingdom. On the other hand, very little informa-
secure facilities may partly contribute to the tion based on research is available on environmen-
survival of documentary materials, and guarantee tal monitoring and control in Sub Saharan Africa.
current and future access to explicit knowledge Empirical research can provide objective means
codified in documentary materials in libraries and for critically evaluating and contextualizing the
archives. theories and concepts constructed outside Africa
It appears that little attention is being paid to as well as understanding the preservation prob-
environmental control and monitoring as a collec- lems that the continent is facing. According to the
tion management strategy worldwide, although National Archives of the Netherlands and others
the problem is more acute in developing coun- (2001:52), empirical research ”can give worthwhile
tries. Some studies have confirmed that environ- insight to the conservation needs” in the develop-
mental control and monitoring were not a priority ing world. The International Federation of Library
to many libraries and archival institutions. In 1986 Associations and Institutions (IFLA) Section on
Clements (1987) sent questionnaires to 300 ar- Conservation also supports the need for research
chives and 550 libraries worldwide and received into preservation matters (Manning 1998:115).
417 replies from which he concluded that environ- When it comes to SSA, it is evident from the lit-
mental control and monitoring was neglected in erature and databases that little empirical research
most of the surveyed institutions. A survey carried has been conducted on preservation in general,
out in 1997 by the National Archives of Hungary and environmental monitoring and control in par-
revealed that regular environmental controls and ticular. Some of the few studies that deal with
maintenance of the buildings were not adequately preservation issues in SSA that were identified by
undertaken (Albrecht-Kunszeri 1999). the current study were those of Akussah (2002),
Environmental control was identified as one of Chida (1994), Kemoni (1996), Khayundi (1995),
the major problems of managing documentary Kufa (1998), Matangira (2003), Matwale (1995),
materials in surveys carried out by Kenenouvong Mazikana (1992; 1995), Murray (2002), Ngulube
(2002) and Fenn and Muir (2003). Hedstrom (n. d) (2003), Ojo-Igbinoba (1993) and Peters (1998). In
confirmed that there is a serious environmental any case, most of these studies only devoted a
problem at many institutions housing heritage paragraph or two to environmental management.
collections: The paucity of preservation studies in Africa
was also confirmed by the annotated bibliography
Thousands of repositories lack the means for disaster compiled by McIlwaine (1996). It has very few en-
prevention or adequate environmental controls to avoid
catastrophic loss of their holdings. The success stories and tries focusing on preservation in Africa. The most
regular use of established preservation methods are found recent bibliographies compiled by Alegbeleye
almost exclusively in developed countries. (2000) and the National Archives of the Nether-
lands and others (2001) also confirm the dearth of
In fact, the situation is steadily growing worse literature on preservation management in Africa.
as the infrastructures in many countries in Sub However, the literature on preservation of li-
Saharan Africa (SSA) have disintegrated with air- brary and archival materials has ”come to age”
conditioners and conservation equipment having in the North and the librarians in the developed
become non-functional (ESARBICA 2001; Mazika- world have developed preservation practices that
na 1992; Moyo 2001:110). On the basis of personal have ”their own history, methods, subspecial-
observations, surveys and reports from consult- ties, and philosophical schools” (Jordan 2000:4).
ants, like Mazikana (1992) and Alegbeleye (2000) A number of studies on preservation have been
one could dare to argue that the preservation done in Europe and the United States of America
scene in SSA is in a dismal state. (Conway 1991; Feather and Eden 1997; Lowell
The problem is exacerbated by lack of informa- 1986). While contributions from outside Africa are
tion resources and research on the subject. The acknowledged, we need to ask how and to what
problem is not entirely confined to Africa, a study extent should Africa’s preservation activities be
155Patrick Ngulube
rooted in African realities or shaped by trends in eralized to many countries in Africa, they are
Europe and the United States of America. limited to the countries in east and southern Afri-
We need to understand the appropriateness and ca, namely, Angola, Botswana, Kenya, Lesotho,
limitations of European and American preserva- Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa,
tion initiatives and adapt the ones applicable to Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, Zanzibar and Zim-
the African context. In fact, the western preserva- babwe. These countries are active members of
tionists and conservators have started to realize either the Standing Conference of Eastern, Central
that the problems faced in other parts of the world and Southern African Library and Information As-
are different and ”often more complex than their sociations (SCECSAL) or East and Southern Africa
own” (National Archives of the Netherlands et al. Regional Branch of the International Council on
2001:49). Archives (ESARBICA), two regional blocs that
For instance, until recently there was agreement are respectively concerned with the sustainable
among preservationists all over the world that sta- management of libraries and archives in eastern
ble temperatures of less than 70°F and a stable rel- and southern Africa.
ative humidity between 30% and 50% were ideal The focus of the study was national archival in-
climatic conditions for the storage of documentary stitutions and national libraries. Although nation-
materials. The Smithsonian scientists and other al archives and national libraries both deal with
experts have argued that the climatic conditions materials that include print, audio-visual and
that have always been perceived as suitable for electronic formats, they differ. National archives
the storage of documents are not globally applica- mainly keep unpublished records that document
ble (Erhardt et al. 1995; Peters 1996; 1998). That in the activities of government. On the other hand,
itself underscores the need to analyse situation by national libraries keep published materials. In that
situation in order to establish appropriate preser- regard, national libraries are the primary resource
vation conditions. for a nation’s published heritage while national
Therefore, research on issues related to preser- archives are largely a resource for the unpublished
vation of documents relevant to specific environ- national documents. A cursory look at the mission
ments like this one is very crucial. That could lead statements of national libraries and national ar-
to a better understanding of opportunities and chives underscores some of these differences.
problems facing the developing nations as well However, there is convergence of professional
as providing solutions to what is to be done, and interests of librarians and archivists. They are
how resources should be used. In that light, this increasingly becoming engaged in collaborative
study might be very important to libraries and efforts in order to preserve the documentary herit-
archives in eastern and southern Africa. age of their countries for the benefit of present and
The most significant part of the study is the sur- future generations. For instance, they realize that
vey results because the extent of environmental they face many common concerns in monitoring
management problems and challenges affecting li- and controlling the environment. The conver-
braries and archives in eastern and southern Afri- gence of concerns of information professionals led
ca has not been adequately addressed and evalu- Gilliland-Swetland (2000) to conclude that a new
ated. In addition, if the recommendations of the ”metacommunity” was emerging in the informa-
study were implemented they would lead to the im- tion management field. It is in the light of such
provement of the actual practice of the preserva- developments that the ”metacommunity” should,
tion of library materials and archives in eastern and for instance, work hand in glove and develop
southern Africa. As Mazikana (1995:27) asserted, long-term solutions to environmental manage-
the lack of research into preservation has remained ment at cultural heritage institutions.
the main handicap to setting up sustainable pres- In recognition of the importance of collaboration
ervation programmes and facilities in Africa. between libraries and archives, the Pan-African
Conference on the Preservation and Conservation
of Library and Archival Materials held in Nairobi
Scope of the study and definition of terms
in 1993 emphasized the importance of ”a co-op-
Although the remarks on environmental monitor- erative approach to preservation and conservation
ing and control made in this study might be gen- issues” and recommended that African librarians
156Environmental Monitoring and Control at National Archives and Libraries
and archivists should join hands and work to- • Do archives and libraries in eastern and southern Africa
gether (Recommendations 1995:169). Even if the collaborate with other institutions concerned with envi-
ronmental management in places were cultural materi-
materials and methodologies of archivists and als are kept?
librarians vary, they share one important thing in
common: they both exist to preserve and provide • Are libraries doing better than archives in relation to
access to information contained in documents over controlling and monitoring the environment?
time (Feather and Eden 1997:53). In other words,
• What recommendations on environmental control and
they are both guardians of the written heritage of monitoring can be made?
humankind and are concerned with the survival
of culture and scholarship.
Before wrapping up this section we need to Methodology: The research story
define what we mean by environmental factors
in the context of libraries and archives. Scholars After the definition of the research problem,
are not agreed on what constitute environmental which was to establish the extent to which envi-
factors when it comes to the preservation of archi- ronmental management was practised at national
val and library materials. To Applebaum (1991) archives and national libraries in eastern and
environmental factors include temperature, rela- southern Africa, the exploration of existing scien-
tive humidity, lighting, air quality, and mould and tific work provided very few useful insights. The
pest control. Lull and Banks (1995), The National next logical step was to make a decision to carry
Library of Australia (1996), Smith (2000) and Wil- out an empirical investigation. The population of
son (1995) concur with the essence of this charac- the study were national archival institutions and
terization of environmental factors. On the other national libraries in eastern and southern Africa.
hand, the Society of American Archivists suggest The units of analysis that consisted of thirteen
that environmental control should be defined as: national archival institutions and twelve national
libraries were drawn from the IFLA (2004), SCEC-
The process of creating and maintaining storage or display SAL (2003) and ESARBICA (2004) websites. Infor-
conditions appropriate to protect materials from adverse
effects of temperature, humidity, air quality, light, and bio- mation on the existence of a national library in
logical infestation, as well as human risks associated with Zanzibar was not found.
housekeeping procedures, security, and fire and water Ethical issues related to informed consent,
damage (Pearce-Moses 2004). harm, deception, and confidentiality were consid-
ered when conducting this research (see Cohen,
In line with the foregoing definitions this paper Manion & Morrison 2000: 246). In that regard, the
posits that environmental factors that mainly affect respondents to the questionnaires were told the
archives and libraries include biological agents, purpose of the study and how the collected data
temperature, relative humidity (RH), air quality was going to be used, and that their participation
and light. Cunha and Cunha (1983:10, 62–63) and was voluntary. The outcome of the research is not
Swartzburg (1995:77) support this assertion. The likely to harm any of the respondents. In fact, if
investigation of environmental monitoring and the outcomes of the study were implemented they
control in archives and libraries in eastern and would contribute to ”best” practices in environ-
southern Africa was conducted in the context of mental management in national archives and na-
the variables that constitute environmental factors tional libraries in eastern and southern Africa.
listed above. The major questions were: The present study heavily relied on the quanti-
tative research approach and used questionnaires
• To what extent is environmental control and monitor-
ing considered important by archivists and librarians in
directed to national archival institutions and na-
eastern and southern Africa? tional libraries in the eastern and southern Africa
as the key sources of empirical data. The study
• What are the activities and strategies used in control- used a cross-sectional survey research strategy
ling and monitoring the environment by archivists and during July and August 2004.
librarians in eastern and southern Africa?
Although, many studies advocate methodologi-
• What is the level of skills in controlling and monitoring cal triangulation because it bridges issues of reli-
the environment in eastern and southern Africa? ability and validity; and strengthens confidence in
157Patrick Ngulube
research findings (Levine 2000), this study only state of the world patrimony. The response rates
used questionnaires because it was not feasible to for Akussah (2002) and Ngulube (2003) were 64%.
carry out interviews or to make observations due In that regard, the current study concluded that
to logistical constraints. The method was deemed the response rates of 75% and 95% from national
to be appropriate because previous studies on libraries and national archives respectively were
the preservation of documentary materials by adequate for data analysis.
Akussah (2002), Clements (1987), Conway (1991),
Council of State Historical Records Coordinators
(1998), Feather and Eden (1997), Khayundi (1995),
Results analysis and discussion
Lowell (1986), Mazikana (1995), Ngulube (2004)
and Trinkaus-Randall (1990) successfully used The previous sections gave the background to the
the quantitative approach with questionnaires as study and explained how the study was conducted,
major instruments for data collection. that is, what was done in order to collect data to
achieve the objective of the study. The following
texts provide the analysis and interpretation of the
Questionnaire and data collection
data obtained from the population of the study.
The design of the questionnaire was based on However, the survey data should be treated with
some suggestions in the literature (Cohen, Manion caution. The survey population was quite small
and Morrison 2000:248–250; Dillman 2000:32–148). and some units of analysis did not respond.
The questionnaire consisted of closed and open- The data that is presented in this section are not
ended items. The questionnaires were pretested associated with any particular library or archival
before they were distributed by electronic mail institution. To encourage full and frank participa-
and through the conventional postal system. tion, respondents were promised that their institu-
In order to enhance the validity and reliabil- tional data would not be individually identifiable.
ity of the results of the survey, the questionnaires That partly explains why results are presented in
were administered using some of the ideas from aggregate. The results are organised according to
the Tailored Design Method [TDM] (Dillman the major questions that guided the research as
2000) The TDM model advocates the distribution outlined in the section on the scope of the study
of a carefully constructed, respondent friendly above.
and pretested instrument, a personalized cover-
ing letter, inclusion of stamped return envelope
and multiple follow-up contacts encourage a high
Perception of climate control by archivists and
response rate (Dillman 2000:149–153).
librarians in eastern and southern Africa
To begin with, respondents were asked to rate
Response rates: The major concern in survey
the overall success of their environmental control
research
and monitoring programmes. The results are pre-
The response rate for national archival institutions sented in Table 1.
was 11 (85%) and that of national libraries was
9 (75%). Authorities are not agreed on what
constitute an adequate response rate. According Table 1. Level of success of climate control programmes
to Neuman (2000:267) anything below 50% is
considered to be poor and over 90% as excellent. Archives Libraries
Fre- Fre-
However, Babbie and Mouton (2001:261) asserted quency
Percent
quency
Percent
that a response rate of 50% is adequate for analysis
Very successful – – – –
while responses of 60% and 70% are good and
Moderately
very good respectively. successful
3 27.3 2 22.2
Previous researchers in the field of preservation Of limited success 5 45.4 4 44.3
achieved varying response rates. For instance, Unsuccessful 3 27.3 2 22.2
Clements (1987) got a response rate of 49% when No opinion – – 1 11.1
Total 11 100 9 100
he carried out an international study to assess the
158Environmental Monitoring and Control at National Archives and Libraries
Table 2. Summated scales on the attitude of the respondents towards activities related to climate control in libraries and
archives
Climate control activity Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Cumulative Score
disagree
5 4 3 2 1
Measuring and 75 (15) 20 (5) – – – 95
documenting RH,
temperature and light
levels and air quality in
areas where collections
are held
Having maintenance 25 (5) 48 (12) 3 (1) 4 (2) – 80
programmes for
environmental control
equipment
Establishing appropriate 100 (20) – – – – 100
environmental
conditions for different
materials in the
collections
Knowledge of 100 (20) X – – – 100
appropriate
environmental issues
Awareness of 70 (14) 24 (6) – – – 94
environmental standards
Regular use of 50 (10) 40 (10) – – – 90
environmental
monitoring information
for planning
preservation programme
Keeping records 50 (10) 32 (8) 6 (2) – – 88
of calibration and
maintenance of
all environmental
monitoring equipment
Keeping of all records 35 (7) 40 (10) 9 (3) – – 84
on environmental
monitoring and collating
them monthly
Their response to the question on the success of To ascertain the respondents’ perceptions about
their climate control programmes was influenced the importance of activities related to climate con-
by a number of factors as evident from the rea- trol, they were further asked their degree of agree-
sons they gave when elaborating on the reasons ment with certain variables that were considered
for their answers. Most of the respondents who to be key to environmental monitoring and con-
felt that their programmes were not successful trol on a Likert attitudinal scale and the raw scores
singled out lack of commitment and limited fund- and the summated scales are summarized in Ta-
ing for preservation activities as the major factors ble 2.
that influenced their answer. Eighteen (90%) at- Their attitudes were measured according to
tributed the infectiveness of their programmes to five degrees of agreement and disagreement. Each
lack of key preservation personnel. Fifteen (75%) point on the scale carries a score. Responses indi-
of the respondents attributed their lack of success cating the least favourable degree of agreement in
in controlling the climate to the fact that in many relation to activities related to climate control as-
instances preservation policies were still being signed the least score (1) and the most favourable
developed and had not reached implementation was given the highest score (5). The scale value for
stage. It is evident from the results that climate each level of response were assigned as: strongly
control needs urgent attention. agree = 5, agree = 4, undecided = 3, disagree = 2
159Patrick Ngulube
and strongly disagree = 1 as indicated in the sec- If a mission statement does not exist, plan-
ond to the sixth column in Table 2. The raw scores ning for preservation becomes very difficult if
given in brackets were computed to yield a total not impossible (Swartzburg 1995:30). In the end
score for the attitude of the respondents to each preservation activities become characterized by a
attribute. hit and miss approach. The words of Lewis Caroll
With a total of twenty respondents the following through the Cheshire Cat in Alice in Wonderland
scores were revealing: eloquently summarized the importance of mission
statements: ”If you don’t know where you are go-
• 20x5 = 100: strongly agree that climate control and
monitoring is important; ing, it doesn’t matter which way you go” (Chesh-
• 20x3 = 60: a neutral attitude; and
ire Cat 2001). The Book of Proverbs 29:18 in the
• 20x1 = 20: strongly disagree that climate control
Bible also underscored the importance of having a
and monitoring is important. vision: ”Where there is no vision, the people per-
ish”. An institution with a clear mission statement
That means that the cumulative score for any at- is likely to have a vision for dealing with various
tribute would fall between 20 and 100. If the score aspects of preservation including environmental
happens to be above 60 it shows that librarians management.
and archivists in eastern and southern Africa think Only a third (33.3%) of the surveyed national
that climate control and monitoring in areas hous- libraries had a specific vote for preservation ac-
ing collections is important and a score below 60 tivities, and preservation expenditure as a per-
demonstrates that monitoring and controlling the centage of their total annual budget was reported
environment is not at all important while a score to be between one and three percent. On the other
of exactly 60 would be suggestive of a neutral atti- hand, four (36.4%) national archives had a specific
tude. The fact that all the variables that were meas- vote for preservation activities and the allocations
ured had cumulative scores above 60 is notable. It to preserving the holdings have slightly increased
is evident that archivists and records managers in over the years. However, dedicated funding lines
eastern and southern Africa regard environmental for preservation activities were very difficult to es-
monitoring and control as fundamental to their tablish in six national libraries and seven national
management of heritage collections. archives. It was not clear as to how and to what
degree preservation was funded in most of these
institutions. Khayundi (1995:32) studied eastern
Activities and strategies used in controlling
and southern Africa, excluding South Africa and
and monitoring the environment
Namibia, and came to the same conclusion. The
Regarding the current environmental management visibility of preservation activities, in general and
activities and strategies in eastern and southern environmental management in particular, may be
Africa, findings are discussed in relation to mis- effectively achieved if there is a specific budget
sion statements and funding, preservation policies, dedicated to these activities.
standards for maintaining proper environmental
conditions, controlling and monitoring tempera-
Policies for environmental management in ar-
ture, RH and light level, biological agents and air
chives and libraries
quality.
Respondents were also asked to give details about
their preservation policies. According to Forde
Mission and funding for archives and libraries
(1997:165) preservation polices for cultural ma-
The respondents were asked if they had mission terials are indispensable tools for organisations
statements for their archives and libraries. Seven that are committed to facilitating the survival of
(63.6%) of the national archival institutions had materials in their custody. Policies are important
mission statements whereas five (55.6%) of the because they set out goals to be achieved as well
national libraries reported having one. Libraries as guidelines for implementing them.
and archives were at equilibrium when it came Most libraries and archives that were surveyed
to surveyed institutions that did not have mission supported some forms of preservation activities,
statements. although not all of their functions could be re-
160Environmental Monitoring and Control at National Archives and Libraries
garded as a formal programme based on a clearly preservation of archives and library materials they
articulated policy. Three (27.3%) archival institu- were not well understood by many archivists and
tions as compared to two (22.2%) libraries had librarians (Jones 2001).
written preservation policies. The fact that only Three (27.3%) national archival repositories and
a few institutions that were surveyed had written one (11.1%) national library that were surveyed re-
and formalized preservation policies means that ported that they adhered to storage standards, but
most national libraries and archives had what Me- they did not give details of the standards. One li-
nou (1991:50) referred to as de facto policies. brary and two archival institutions said they had in-
The problem with de facto policies is that they fluence over the formulation of national standards
tend to be conservative and uphold the status quo pertaining to the preservation of their written her-
rather than provide ”public intent of transforming itage. Like their counterparts in some parts of the
practice according to ideal values” Ranson (1995: developed world, national archives and libraries
440). On the other hand, codified and stipulated in developing countries should take a strong lead-
or prescriptive policies facilitate a creative alloca- ership role in the development and application of
tion of funds and staff, and specify other aspects standards that will ensure long-term access to, and
of implementation and monitoring. Lack of pres- preservation of library materials and archives.
ervation policies was also highlighted in the UK If we are to be fully confident about monitor-
as a factor that hindered effective preservation ing and controlling the environment in which ar-
management (Feather & Eden 1997:27). chives and library materials are stored we need to
Although the existence of preservation poli- know that our practices and procedures conform
cies does not guarantee their implementation, the to established standards. In that light Cox (1999:
Pan-African Conference on the Preservation and 12) concluded that:
Conservation of Library and Archival Materials
strongly recommended that each country should The application of standards enables libraries and ar-
chives to carry out their functions consistently, and to
establish a committee to develop a national an agreed level of quality. Having a benchmark against
preservation policy for implementation by gov- which performance can be measured helps to demonstrate
ernment (Recommendations 1995:170). Granted, professionalism, accountability and efficiency to staff, user
without funding and personnel with expertise, the groups and funding bodies.
implementation of preservation policies would be
extremely difficult, but all the same efforts must Temperature and relative humidity in archives
be made to formulate policies that encompass all repositories and library stacks
activities that are fundamental to the preservation
of documentary materials into the future. The maintenance of proper temperature and rela-
tive humidity (RH) in archives and libraries stor-
age areas is very important, and it is of critical
Role of standards in storage of collections
importance in the preservation of documentary
Determining the use of standards in environ- materials because inappropriate temperature and
mental management was important to the study. RH contribute significantly to the deterioration of
Standards play an important role in the manage- materials (Peters 1998:42).
ment of libraries and archives. Standards address Respondents were asked to give details of the
aspects such as the who, what, when, where and strategies they used to control and monitor tem-
why of environmental control and monitoring. perature and RH. Three (27.3%) archival institu-
British Standard (BS) 5454:2000 (British Standards tions had a heating, ventilation and air condition-
Institution 2000) and International Standards ing (HVAC) system as compared to two (22.2%)
Organisation (ISO) 5466 and 6051 (ISO 2003) are national libraries. Two archival institutions and
example of a standards that cover aspects of pro- one national library reported that their HVAC sys-
tection of documentary materials. Ninety percent tems had broken down some few years back. The
of the respondents were not aware of the existence HVAC system was reported to be on at all times at
of such standards. A recent survey of library and two archival institutions and one national library.
archive collections in Welsh repositories revealed However, complete climate control provided by
that although there were many standards for the HVAC systems are costly and difficult to install,
161Patrick Ngulube
expensive to operate and maintain (Kerschner and torical Records Coordinators (COSHRC) in the US
Baker 2004), and the energy resources to keep an concluded that nearly half of the repositories re-
air-conditioning system running are prohibitive for ported that they had no humidity controls in their
most countries in sub Saharan Africa. As result storage areas (COSHRC 1998). In the case of the
some authorities recommend passive climate con- Massachusetts libraries and records repositories,
trol (Dean 2002; Giovannini 2000; Rowoldt 1998). Trinkaus-Randall (1990) revealed that 70% of the
They advocate the design of buildings that have institutions could not maintain a constant climate
‘natural’ methods of air-conditioning in order to throughout the whole year and most respondents
reduce the installation, energy and maintenance knew very little about the effects of the environ-
costs. ment on their collections. Khayundi (1995:32–33)
The feasibility of constructing such buildings in found that few archival institutions in eastern and
eastern and southern Africa where collections are southern Africa excluding South Africa and Na-
already housed in poorly designed structures re- mibia had equipment to control and monitor RH
mains to be seen. In addition to climate responsive and temperature, although some environmental
buildings, librarians and archivists in eastern and control systems had broken down.
southern Africa should consider the use of micro-
environments, especially, for materials that are
susceptible to changes in relative humidity. Mi-
Light in library and archives storage areas
croenvironments or protective enclosures such as
folders, boxes, envelopes and polyester film pro- Over and above controlling temperature and RH,
tect documents against rapid fluctuations in tem- archivists and librarians have to be concerned
perature and humidity, dust, light, atmospheric with light sources and their levels in the repositor-
pollutants and mechanical damage. ies. Light accelerates the deterioration of library
Furthermore, the survey results revealed that and archival materials by acting as a catalyst in
environmental control and monitoring was not their oxidation. Respondents were asked about
widely practiced in libraries and national archives the sources of light in their repository and how
in eastern and southern Africa. Three (27.3%) ar- they controlled light levels.
chives repositories and two (22.2%) national li- The major sources of artificial light that the
braries monitored temperature and RH levels in respondent gave were fluorescent lamps. Like
their repositories constantly. These institutions al- sunlight, fluorescent lights emit UV light that
so used environmental monitoring devices in their causes the deterioration of materials. Only five
repositories. (45.5%) archives and two (22.2%) libraries con-
One institution reported that the monitoring trolled natural light from the windows in their
units were last calibrated two years ago and the storage areas. None of the surveyed institutions
other institution was not aware as to when the took light level readings. Light levels should be
units were last calibrated. Four institutions used monitored in all areas housing collections. Blinds,
a hygrothermograph for measuring temperature shutters, curtains and/or ultraviolet filters might
and RH. On the other hand, only two (22.2%) archi- be used to reduce visible and ultraviolet light in
val repositories and one (11.1%) library controlled all areas housing collections (Dean 2002). Materi-
temperatures of between 16°C and 19°C in storage als particularly at risk from light damage, such
area in accordance with the British Standard 5454: as photographs, newspapers, or manuscript inks
2000 (British Standards Institution 2000). These in- should be identified, and their exposure to visible
stitutions also had controlled RH of between 45% and ultraviolet light should be minimised.
and 55% with an allowance of fluctuations of no
more than +/- 5% per 24. It was not clear from the
responses whether or not these institutions used
Control and monitoring of biological agents
environmental monitoring information for plan-
ning their preservation programme. The control of environmental factors has a posi-
Monitoring the environment where documen- tive impact on controlling biological factors such
tary materials are kept appears to be a worldwide as rodents, termites, silverfish, cockroaches, book-
problem. A study by the Council of State His- lice and beetles. These biological agents can cause
162Environmental Monitoring and Control at National Archives and Libraries
significant amounts of damage to materials. Seven Level of skills in controlling and monitoring the
(63.6%) of the archival institutions and six (66.7%) environment
national libraries had observed damage to materi-
als caused by moulds and insects. Insects prefer Skills and knowledge of preservation techniques
damp conditions to dry ones. On the other hand, and procedures are fundamental to controlling
silverfish and booklice do not favour dry condi- the climate in places where collections are housed.
tions. In that regard, monitoring and controlling They were nine people with knowledge and skills
the climate would greatly reduce insect infesta- in preservation among the twenty institutions
tions. that were surveyed. Six of them were found in the
libraries and the remainder was at the national
archives. The respondents were also asked their
level of expertise in environmental monitoring
Particulate control and gaseous
and control.
contamination
The results revealed that expertise in climate
Monitoring and controlling air quality is an essen- monitoring was limited, as 44.4% of the respond-
tial part of environmental control programmes. ents had no expertise in the area at all. It is very
Poor indoor air quality can adversely affect li- difficult to escape the conclusion that there is a
brary and archival materials. The two major types critical shortage of staff with expertise to control
of pollutants are gases and particulates. Burning the climate in libraries and archival institutions in
of fuels in power stations, factories, buildings and eastern and southern Africa. The problem of lack
automobiles lead to the emission of gaseous con- of expertise in preservation related matters is not
taminants. Gaseous pollutants are a very serious peculiar to eastern and southern Africa. A survey
problem for paper and leather, which are particu- carried out at the National Archives of Hungary
larly vulnerable to damage caused by acid. Paper revealed that the majority of staff had very limited
becomes discoloured and brittle, and leather be- and mostly out-of-date knowledge of preservation
comes weak and powdery when exposed to gases. problems and measures (Albrecht-Kunszeri 1999).
On the other side of the coin are total suspended A study by COSHRC (1998) confirmed that the
particulates (TSP) such as dust, soot and smoke problem of lack of expertise in preservation was
that damage materials. Although researchers also experienced from time to time in other parts
have not determined the exact level of gases that of the world. Ojo-Igbinoba (1993) discovered that
cause deterioration of documentary materials, ac- librarians in Sub Saharan Africa lacked expertise
ceptable levels of environmental control could be in the preservation of library materials.
achieved (Farshchi 2002; Muller 2003). According to Lyall (1994:263) the level of
Incoming air was filtered at four (36.4%) archi- knowledge in a country is one of the four major
val institutions and two (22.2%) libraries. None factors that determine the ability of any country to
of the respondents monitored or measured the develop a satisfactory preservation programme. It
level of pollutants in the air circulating in areas is very unlikely that preservation efforts in gen-
where collections were housed. Monitors using eral, and environmental monitoring and control
copper and silver sensors are effective in tracking in libraries and archives in particular can succeed
air quality in archives and libraries (Muller 2003). if the availability of resources is not supported by
Copper and silver react with harmful gases and the right expertise. Darling (1981:185), a preserva-
give reliable measurements of the level of reactiv- tion specialist argued that the real impediment to
ity in documentary storage areas. Reactivity moni- having viable preservation programmes was not
toring is often preferred over direct gas monitor- entirely resources-based, but lack of preserva-
ing for environmental assessments (Muller 2003). tion knowledge. According to Darling (1981:185–
In fact, Dutch archives use reactivity monitoring 186):
for detecting levels of pollutants in their repositor-
ies, and the Dutch standard is under review as an Financial constraints are serious and will become more
so; but until the preservation field reaches the point at
ISO standard (Muller 2003). On the other hand, in- which most people know what ought to be done, the lack
stalling filters and screens can reduce particulates of money to do it on a scale appropriate to the need is not
to acceptable levels. terribly significant.
163Patrick Ngulube
Knowledgeable and skilled staff is likely to ex- Comparison climate control actives in librar-
pend scarce resources on projects that reflect ies and archives
the greatest needs. Lack of essential knowledge
and skills can be inimical to the preservation of It is generally perceived in some circles that li-
documentary materials and climate control. For brarians are ahead of archivists when it comes to
example, in Vietnam the poor physical conditions preserving documentary materials (Jordan 2000:
in libraries and archives, and problems of dete- 4). To Conway (1990:222), librarians in the United
riorating collections were reportedly exacerbated Kingdom and United States have made ”unprec-
by the well-meaning but uninformed activities of edented progress” in setting priorities, and devel-
untrained staff (Henchy 1998). oping and implementing nationwide preservation
strategies. In that regard, it has been pointed
out that archivists should learn from librarians
(Conway 1990:222). However, when it comes to
Collaboration in environmental management
climate control, the results of the current study do
activities
not strongly support the foregoing thesis. Table
In many countries there are a number of institu- 3 illustrates that national libraries in eastern and
tions such as libraries, art galleries, museums and southern Africa seem to be lagging behind nation-
research laboratories that are involved in environ- al archives in relation to using climate control as a
mental management activities at cultural institu- preventive preservation measure.
tions. The importance of collaboration between
such cultural institutions was underscored in the Table 3: Comparison of climate control activities in national
archives and national libraries
literature (Conway 1990:222; Manning 1998:115;
National
UNESCO 2000; Walters 1998:179). Climate control activity National Librarie
Archives
Respondents were asked if they collaborated Mission statements 7 (35%) 5 (25%)
with any such institutions in their countries, Funding for preservation 4 (20%) 3 (15%)
regionally and internationally. Collaboration Written policies 3 (15%) 2 (10%)
Using standards 3 (15%) 1 (5%)
seemed to be more pronounced at a regional and HVAC systems 3 (15%) 2 (10%)
international level than on a national basis. Their Monitoring temperature
3 (15%) 2 (10%)
collaboration with ESARBICA, International and RH
Controlling natural light 5 (25%) 2 (10%)
Council on Archives (ICA), IFLA, Joint IFLA/ICA Insect infestations 7 (35%) 6 (30%)
Committee on Preservation in Africa (JICPA), Filtering incoming air 4 (20%) 2 (10%)
SCECSAL and United Nations Educational, Sci- Knowledge and skills in
6 (30%) 3 (15%)
preservation
entific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) was
mainly confined to continuing education activities
such as conferences, seminars, workshops and in-
ternships. Collaboration at a local level was very
Concluding remarks
minimal with three national archives working
with three national libraries. Although many national archives and national
Libraries and archives are encouraged to libraries lacked mission statements, written
collaborate with institutions that preserve the preservation policies, appropriate environmental
cultural heritage and those that research on is- standards and funding, they performed limited
sues relating to preserving society’s collective environmental management activities. Librarians
memory. Co-operative approaches to preserving and archivists considered environmental control
the priceless and irreplaceable cultural heritage and monitoring to be one of the keys to safeguard-
were strongly encouraged by ESARBICA (2001), ing their written heritage, although climate control
the IFLA Section on Conservation (Manning 1998: did not seem to be a core activity of many institu-
115) and UNESCO (2000). The ability of librarians tions. The means of achieving the recommended
and archivists to preserve the written heritage of values of environmental control are inadequate in
humankind mainly lies in building partnerships many institutions in eastern and southern Africa.
and collaborating with professionals that share Pollutants in libraries and archives received much
their preservation concerns. less attention.
164Environmental Monitoring and Control at National Archives and Libraries
The majority of the respondents rated their cli- 2002; 2003). At the moment, digital conversion
mate control strategies as being of limited success. seems to be attractive in relation to enhancing ac-
The level of expertise in dealing with environmen- cess to documents.
tal monitoring and control was very low. There Although, monitoring will not, in itself, solve
was very little collaboration between cultural her- the difficult problem of climate management and
itage institutions and research laboratories within preservation, it is one of the most dependable
countries. National archives seemed to be dealing tools for decision-making. Libraries and archives
with environmental management better than na- should be encouraged to consistently maintain
tional libraries in the region. and implement agreed preservation standards. To
In a nutshell, library and archival documents have a real effect on the proper management of the
had the potential of being damaged due to in- climate in libraries and archives, librarians must
adequate environmental control and monitoring. be provided with ongoing guidance and training.
Incorporating preventive preservation strategies It is also important to note that the rapid changes
such as climate control in their practices might in environmental management technologies re-
libraries and archival institutions in preserving quire constant upgrading of knowledge and skills
their national heritage. In addition to having tools among librarians and archivists.
for controlling the climate in archives and librar- It is very clear from the angle that was taken by
ies repositories, institutions are encouraged to the current research that significant research still
have a systematic monitoring programme in or- needs to be done using other research tools. It is
der to effectively manage the environment where recommended that future studies should use the
documents are stored. Monitoring is the most triangulation approach in order to give a balanced
dependable tool for decision-making and it holds profile of climate control in the region. However,
the most promise for providing conditions favour- one thing that is clear is the need for archives and
able to the long-term survival of the written herit- libraries to include environmental management in
age of humankind. In that regard, archivists and their preservation strategies so that the recorded
librarians in eastern and southern Africa should heritage in their custody would survive into the
seriously consider using national standards, and future.
other standards such as BS 5454:2000 and ISO 5466
and 6051.
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