GM CROPS research documenting the limitations, risks, and alternatives
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GM CROPS
GM CROPS – research documenting the limitations, risks, and alternatives Page 1
research documenting the
limitations, risks, and alternatives
Proponents claim that genetically modified (GM) crops:
• are safe to eat and more nutritious
• benefit the environment
• reduce use of herbicides and insecticides
• increase crop yields, thereby helping farmers and solving the food crisis
• create a more affluent, stable economy
• are just an extension of natural breeding, and have no risks different from naturally bred crops.
However, a large and growing body of scientific research and on-the-ground experience indicate that GMOs fail to live
up to these claims. Instead, GM crops:
• can be toxic, allergenic or less nutritious than their natural counterparts
• can disrupt the ecosystem, damage vulnerable wild plant and animal populations and harm biodiversity
• increase chemical inputs (pesticides, herbicides) over the long term
• deliver yields that are no better, and often worse, than conventional crops
• cause or exacerbate a range of social and economic problems
• are laboratory-made and, once released, harmful GMOs cannot be recalled from the environment.
The scientifically demonstrated risks and clear absence of real benefits have led experts to see GM as a clumsy,
outdated technology. They present risks that we need not incur, given the availability of effective, scientifically proven,
energy-efficient and safe ways of meeting current and future global food needs.
This paper presents the key scientific evidence – 114 research studies and other authoritative documents –
documenting the limitations and risks of GM crops and the many safer, more effective alternatives available today.
Is GM an extension of natural plant in major changes to the plant’s DNA blueprint1. These
mutations unnaturally alter the genes’ functioning in
breeding? unpredictable and potentially harmful ways2, as detailed
below. Adverse effects include poorer crop performance,
Natural reproduction or breeding can only occur between
toxic effects, allergic reactions, and damage to the
closely related forms of life (cats with cats, not cats with
environment.
dogs; wheat with wheat, not wheat with tomatoes or fish).
In this way, the genes that offspring inherit from parents,
which carry information for all parts of the body, are Are GM foods safe to eat?
passed down the generations in an orderly way.
Contrary to industry claims, GM foods are not properly
GM is not like natural plant breeding. GM uses laboratory
tested for human safety before they are released for sale3 4.
techniques to insert artificial gene units to re-programme
In fact, the only published study directly testing the safety
the DNA blueprint of the plant with completely new
properties. This process would never happen in nature. of a GM food on humans found potential problems5. To
The artificial gene units are created in the laboratory by date, this study has not been followed up.
joining fragments of DNA, usually derived from multiple Typically the response to the safety question is that
organisms, including viruses, bacteria, plants and animals. people have been eating GM foods in the United States
For example, the GM gene in the most common herbicide and elsewhere for more than ten years without ill effects
resistant soya beans was pieced together from a plant and that this proves that the products are safe. But GM
virus, a soil bacterium and a petunia plant. foods are not labelled in the US and other nations where
The GM transformation process of plants is crude, they are widely eaten and consumers are not monitored
imprecise, and causes widespread mutations, resulting for health effects.GM CROPS – research documenting the limitations, risks, and alternatives Page 2
Because of this, any health effects from a GM food would mice fed GM soya9 10 11
have to meet unusual conditions before they would be • GM peas caused allergic reactions in mice12
noticed. The health effects would have to:
• Rats fed GM oilseed rape developed enlarged livers,
• occur immediately after eating a food that was known often a sign of toxicity13
to be GM (in spite of its not being labeled). This kind of
• GM potatoes fed to rats caused excessive growth
response is called acute toxicity.
of the lining of the gut similar to a pre-cancerous
• cause symptoms that are completely different from condition14 15
common diseases. If GM foods caused a rise in
• Rats fed insecticide-producing GM maize grew more
common or slow-onset diseases like allergies or cancer,
slowly, suffered problems with liver and kidney function,
nobody would know what caused the rise.
and showed higher levels of certain fats in their blood16
• be dramatic and obvious to the naked eye. Nobody
• Rats fed GM insecticide-producing maize over three
examines a person’s body tissues with a microscope
generations suffered damage to liver and kidneys and
for harm after they eat a GM food. But just this type
showed alterations in blood biochemistry17
of examination is needed to give early warning of
problems such as pre-cancerous changes. • Old and young mice fed with GM insecticide-producing
maize showed a marked disturbance in immune system
To detect important but more subtle effects on health, cell populations and in biochemical activity18
or effects that take time to appear (chronic effects),
long-term controlled studies on larger populations are • Mice fed GM insecticide-producing maize over four
required. generations showed a buildup of abnormal structural
changes in various organs (liver, spleen, pancreas),
Under current conditions, moderate or slow-onset major changes in the pattern of gene function in the
health effects of GM foods could take decades to gut, reflecting disturbances in the chemistry of this
become known, just as it took decades for the damaging organ system (e.g. in cholesterol production, protein
effects of trans-fats (another type of artificial food) to production and breakdown), and, most significantly,
be recognized. ‘Slow poison’ effects from trans-fats have reduced fertility19
caused millions of premature deaths across the world6.
• Mice fed GM soya over their entire lifetime (24
Another reason why any harmful effects of GM foods will months) showed more acute signs of ageing in their
be slow to surface and less obvious is because, even in liver20
the United States, which has the longest history of GM • Rabbits fed GM soya showed enzyme function
crop consumption, GM foods account for only a small disturbances in kidney and heart21.
part of the US diet (maize is less than 15% and soya bean
products are less than 5%).
Nevertheless, there are signs that all is not well with the
Feeding studies with farm animals
US food supply. A report by the US Centers for Disease Farm animals have been fed GM feed for many years. Does
Control shows that food-related illnesses increased 2- to this mean that GM feed is safe for livestock? Certainly
10-fold in the years between 1994 (just before GM food it means that effects are not acute and do not show up
was commercialised) and 19997. Is there a link with GM immediately. However, longer-term studies, designed to
food? No one knows, because studies on humans have not assess slow-onset and more subtle health effects of GM feed,
been done. indicate that GM feed does have adverse effects, confirming
the results described above for laboratory animals.
Animal studies on GM foods give The following problems have been found:
cause for concern • Sheep fed Bt insecticide-producing GM maize over
three generations showed disturbances in the
Although studies on humans have not been done, scientists functioning of the digestive system of ewes and in the
are reporting a growing number of studies that examine the liver and pancreas of their lambs22.
effects of GM foods on laboratory animals. These studies, • GM DNA was found to survive processing and to be
summarized below, raise serious concerns regarding the detectable in the digestive tract of sheep fed GM feed.
safety of GM foods for humans as well as animals. This raises the possibility that antibiotic resistance and
Bt insecticide genes can move into gut bacteria23, a
Small animal feeding studies process known as horizontal gene transfer. Horizontal
gene transfer can lead to antibiotic resistant disease-
• Rats fed GM tomatoes developed stomach ulcerations8 causing bacteria (“superbugs”) and may lead to Bt
• Liver, pancreas and testes function was disturbed in insecticide being produced in the gut with potentiallyGM CROPS – research documenting the limitations, risks, and alternatives Page 3
harmful consequences. For years, regulators and the Are GM foods more nutritious?
biotech industry claimed that horizontal gene transfer
would not occur with GM DNA, but this research There are no commercially available GM foods with
challenges this claim improved nutritional value. Currently available GM foods
are no better and in some cases are less nutritious than
• GM DNA in feed is taken up by the animal’s organs.
natural foods. Some have been proven in tests to be toxic
Small amounts of GM DNA appear in the milk and
or allergenic.
meat that people eat24 25 26. The effects on the health
of the animals and the people who eat them have not Examples include:
been researched. • GM soya had 12–14% lower amounts of cancer-fighting
Do animal feeding studies highlight potential health isoflavones than non-GM soya34
problems for people? • Oilseed rape engineered to have vitamin A in its oil had
much reduced vitamin E and altered oil-fat composition35
Before food additives and new medicines can be tested on
human subjects, they have to be tested on mice or rats. • Human volunteers fed a single GM soya bean meal
If harmful effects were to be found in these initial animal showed that GM DNA can survive processing and is
experiments, then the drug would likely be disqualified for detectable in the digestive tract.There was evidence of
human use. Only if animal studies reveal no harmful effects horizontal gene transfer to gut bacteria36 37. Horizontal
can the drug be further tested on human volunteers. gene transfer of antibiotic resistance and Bt insecticide
genes from GM foods into gut bacteria is an extremely
But GM crops that caused ill effects in experimental serious issue.This is because the modified gut bacteria
animals have been approved for commercialization in could become resistant to antibiotics or become factories
many countries. This suggests that less rigorous standards for Bt insecticide.While Bt in its natural form has been
are being used to evaluate the safety of GM crops than for safely used for years as an insecticide in farming, Bt toxin
new medicines. genetically engineered into plant crops has been found to
have potential ill health effects on laboratory animals38 39 40
In fact, in at least one country – the United States – safety
assessment of GMOs is voluntary and not required by • In the late 1980s, a food supplement produced using
law, although, to date, all GMOs have undergone voluntary GM bacteria was toxic41, initially killing 37 Americans
review. In virtually all countries, safety assessment is not and making more than 5,000 others seriously ill.
scientifically rigorous. For instance, the animal feeding • Several experimental GM food products (not
studies that GM crop developers routinely conduct to commercialised) were found to be harmful:
demonstrate the safety of their products are too short
• People allergic to Brazil nuts had allergic reactions to
in duration and use too few subjects to reliably detect soya beans modified with a Brazil nut gene42
important harmful effects.27
• The GM process itself can cause harmful effects. GM
While industry conducts less than rigorous studies on its potatoes caused toxic reactions in multiple organ
own GM products, 28 it has, in parallel, systematically and systems43 44. GM peas caused a 2-fold allergic reaction
persistently interfered with the ability of independent – the GM protein was allergenic and stimulated an
scientists to conduct more rigorous and incisive allergic reaction to other food components45. This
independent research on GMOs. Comparative and basic raises the question of whether GM foods cause an
agronomic studies on GMOs, assessments of safety increase in allergies to other substances.
and composition, and assessments of environmental
impact have all been restricted and suppressed by the Can GM foods help alleviate the
biotechnology industry.29 30
Patent rights linked with contracts are used to restrict
world food crisis?
access of independent researchers to commercialized GM The root cause of hunger is not a lack of food, but a lack
seed. Permission to study patented GM crops is either of access to food. The poor have no money to buy food
withheld or made so difficult to obtain that research and increasingly, no land on which to grow it. Hunger is
is effectively blocked. In cases where permission is fundamentally a social, political, and economic problem,
finally given, biotech companies keep the right to block which GM technology cannot address.
publication, resulting in much significant research never
Recent reports from the World Bank and the United
being published.31 32
Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation have identified
The industry and its allies also use a range of public the biofuels boom as the main cause of the current
relations strategies to discredit and/or muzzle scientists food crisis46 47. But GM crop producers and distributors
who do publish research that is critical of GM crops.33 continue to promote the expansion of biofuels. ThisGM CROPS – research documenting the limitations, risks, and alternatives Page 4
Safety scientist, Dr Doug Gurian-Sherman. It is based on
“The climate crisis was used to boost biofuels, helping to published, peer-reviewed studies conducted by academic
create the food crisis; and now the food crisis is being used scientists and using adequate experimental controls.
to revive the fortunes of the GM industry.” Daniel Howden,
Africa correspondent, The Independent (London), 200853 In the study, Dr Gurian-Sherman distinguishes between
intrinsic yield (also called potential yield), defined as the
highest yield which can be achieved under ideal conditions,
suggests that their priority is to make a profit, not to feed with operational yield, the yield achieved under normal field
the world. conditions when the farmer factors in crop reductions due
GM companies focus on producing cash crops for animal to pests, drought, or other environmental stresses.
feed and biofuels for affluent countries, not food for people. The study also distinguishes between effects on yield
GM crops contribute to the expansion of industrial caused by conventional breeding methods and those
agriculture and the decline of the small farmer around caused by GM traits. It has become common for biotech
the world. This is a serious development as there is companies to use conventional breeding and marker
abundant evidence that small farms are more efficient assisted breeding to produce higher-yielding crops and
than large ones, producing more crops per hectare of then finally to engineer in a gene for herbicide tolerance
land48 49 50 51 52. or insect resistance. In such cases, higher yields are not
due to genetic engineering but to conventional breeding.
“Failure to Yield” teases out these distinctions and
Do GM crops increase yield analyses what contributions genetic engineering and
conventional breeding make to increasing yield.
potential?
Based on studies on corn and soybeans, the two most
At best, GM crops have performed no better than commonly grown GM crops in the United States, the
their non-GM counterparts, with GM soya beans giving study concludes that genetically engineering herbicide-
consistently lower yields for over a decade54. Controlled tolerant soybeans and herbicide-tolerant corn has not
comparative field trials of GM/non-GM soya suggest that increased yields. Insect-resistant corn, meanwhile, has
50% of the drop in yield is due to the genetic disruptive improved yields only marginally. The increase in yields for
effect of the GM transformation process55. Similarly, field both crops over the last 13 years, the report finds, was
tests of Bt insecticide-producing maize hybrids showed largely due to traditional breeding or improvements in
that they took longer to reach maturity and produced up agricultural practices.
to 12% lower yields than their non-GM counterpart56.
The author concludes: “commercial GE crops have made
A US Department of Agriculture report confirms the no inroads so far into raising the intrinsic or potential
poor yield performance of GM crops, saying, “GE crops yield of any crop. By contrast, traditional breeding has
available for commercial use do not increase the yield been spectacularly successful in this regard; it can be solely
potential of a variety. In fact, yield may even decrease.... credited with the intrinsic yield increases in the United
Perhaps the biggest issue raised by these results is how States and other parts of the world that characterized the
to explain the rapid adoption of GE crops when farm agriculture of the twentieth century.”59
financial impacts appear to be mixed or even negative57.” Critics of the study have objected that it does not use
The failure of GM to increase yield potential was data from developing countries. The Union of Concerned
emphasised in 2008 by the United Nations International Scientists responds that there are few peer-reviewed
Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and papers evaluating the yield contribution of GM crops in
Technology for Development (IAASTD) report58. This developing countries – not enough to draw clear and
report on the future of farming, authored by 400 scientists reliable conclusions. However, the most widely grown
and backed by 58 governments, stated that yields of food/feed crop in developing countries, herbicide-tolerant
GM crops were “highly variable” and in some cases, soybeans, offers some hints. Data from Argentina, which
“yields declined”. The report noted, “Assessment of the has grown more GM soybeans than any other developing
technology lags behind its development, information country, suggest that yields for GM varieties are the same
is anecdotal and contradictory, and uncertainty about or lower than for conventional non-GE soybeans.60
possible benefits and damage is unavoidable.” “If we are going to make headway in combating hunger
due to overpopulation and climate change, we will need to
Failure to Yield increase crop yields,” says Dr Gurian-Sherman. “Traditional
The definitive study to date on GM crops and yield breeding outperforms genetic engineering hands down.”61
is “Failure to Yield: Evaluating the Performance of If GM cannot improve intrinsic (potential) yield even in
Genetically Engineered Crops”. Published in 2009, the the affluent United States, where high-input, irrigated,
study is authored by former US EPA and Center for Food heavily subsidized farming is the norm, it would seemGM CROPS – research documenting the limitations, risks, and alternatives Page 5
irresponsible to assume that it would improve yields in to 22,500 hectares, an 80% reduction in 4 years. By 2004,
the developing world, where increased food production 85% of farmers who used to grow Bt cotton had given up.
is most needed. Initiatives promoting GM crops for the The farmers found pest problems and no increase in yield.
developing world are experimental and appear to be Those farmers who still grew the crop did so at a loss,
founded on expectations that are not consistent with data continuing only because the South African government
obtained in the West. subsidized the project and there was a guaranteed market
In the West, crop failure is often underwritten by for the cotton.71
governments, which bail out farmers with compensation. A study published in Crop Protection journal concluded,
Such support systems are rare in the developing world. “cropping Bt cotton in Makhathini Flats did not generate
There, farmers may literally bet their farms and their entire sufficient income to expect a tangible and sustainable
livelihoods on a crop. Failure can have severe consequences. socioeconomic improvement due to the way the crop
is currently managed. Adoption of an innovation like
Three GM crops for Africa Bt cotton seems to pay only in an agro-system with a
sufficient level of intensification.”72
GM sweet potato
How will climate change impact
The virus-resistant sweet potato has been the ultimate GM
showcase project for Africa, generating a vast amount of agriculture?
global media coverage. Florence Wambugu, the Monsanto-
trained scientist fronting the project, has been proclaimed Industrial agriculture is a major contributor to global
an African heroine and the saviour of millions, based on warming, producing up to 20 per cent of greenhouse
her claims about the GM sweet potato doubling output gas emissions, and some methods of increasing yield can
in Kenya. Forbes magazine even declared her one of a tiny exacerbate this negative impact. For example, crops that
handful of people around the globe who would “reinvent achieve higher intrinsic yield often need more fossil fuel-
the future”.62 It eventually emerged, however, that the claims based nitrogen fertilizer, some of which is converted by
being made for the GM sweet potato were untrue, with soil microbes into nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas nearly
field trial results showing the GM crop to be a failure.63 64 300 times more potent than carbon dioxide. Minimizing
global agriculture’s future climate impact will require
In contrast with the unproven GM sweet potato variety, investment in systems of agriculture less dependent
a successful conventional breeding programme in Uganda on industrial fertilizers and agroecological methods of
had produced a new high-yielding variety which is virus- improving soil water-holding capacity and resilience.
resistant and has “raised yields by roughly 100%”. The
Ugandan project achieved success at a small cost and in GM seeds are created by agrochemical companies and
just a few years. The GM sweet potato, in contrast, in over are heavily dependent on costly external inputs such as
12 years in the making, consumed funding from Monsanto, synthetic fertilizer, herbicides, and pesticides. It would seem
the World Bank, and USAID to the tune of $6 million.65 risky to promote such crops in the face of climate change.
GM cassava Peak oil and agriculture
The potential of genetic engineering to massively boost According to some analysts, peak oil, when the maximum
the production of cassava – one of Africa’s most important rate of global petroleum extraction is reached, has already
foods – by defeating a devastating virus has been heavily arrived. This will have drastic effects on the type of
promoted since the mid-1990s. There has even been agriculture we practise. GM crops are designed to be used
talk of GM solving hunger in Africa by increasing cassava with synthetic herbicides and fertilizers. But synthetic
yields as much as tenfold.66 But almost nothing appears pesticides are made from oil and synthetic fertilizer from
to have been achieved. Even after it became clear that natural gas. Both these fossil fuels are running out fast, as
the GM cassava had suffered a major technical failure67, are phosphates, a major ingredient of synthetic fertilizers.
media stories continued to appear about its curing hunger
Farming based on the current US GM and chemical model
in Africa.68 69 Meanwhile, conventional (non-GM) plant
that depends on these fossil fuel-based inputs will become
breeding has quietly produced virus resistant cassavas that
increasingly expensive and unsustainable. The statistics tell
are already making a remarkable difference in farmers’
the story:
fields, even under drought conditions.70
In the US food system, 10 kcal of fossil energy is required
Bt cotton for every kcal of food consumed.73
In Makhatini, South Africa, often cited as the showcase Bt • Approximately 7.2 quads of fossil energy are consumed
cotton project for small farmers, 100,000 hectares were in the production of crops and livestock in the U.S.
planted with Bt cotton in 1998. By 2002, that had crashed each year.74 75GM CROPS – research documenting the limitations, risks, and alternatives Page 6
• Approximately 8 million kcal/ha are required to that tolerate drought, heat, flooding, and salinity.
produce an average corn crop and other similar In addition, advances in plant breeding have been
crops.76 made using marker-assisted selection (MAS), a largely
• Two-thirds of the energy used in crop production is for uncontroversial branch of biotechnology that can speed
fertilizers and mechanization.77 up the natural breeding process by identifying important
genes. MAS does not involve the risks and uncertainties of
Proven technologies that can reduce the amount of
genetic engineering.
fossil energy used in farming include reducing fertilizer
applications, selecting farm machinery appropriate for each The controversies that exist around MAS relate to gene
task, managing soil for conservation, limiting irrigation, and patenting issues. It is important for developing countries
organic farming techniques.78 to consider the implications of patent ownership relating
to such crops.
In the Rodale Institute Farming Systems Trial (FST), a
comparative analysis of energy inputs conducted by Dr
David Pimentel of Cornell University found that organic Non-GM successes for niche crops
farming systems use just 63% of the energy required If it is accepted that niche speciality crops may be
by conventional farming systems, largely because of useful in helping adaptation to climate change, there are
the massive amounts of energy required to synthesize better ways of creating them than genetic engineering.
nitrogen fertilizer, followed by herbicide production.79 Conventional breeding and marker-assisted selection have
Studies show that the low-input organic model of farming produced many advances in breeding speciality crops,
works well in African countries. The Tigray project in though these have garnered only a fraction of the publicity
Ethiopia, part-funded by the UN Food and Agriculture given to often speculative claims of GM miracles.
Organisation (FAO), compared yields from the application An example of such a non-GM success is the “Snorkel”
of compost and chemical fertilizer in farmers’ fields over rice that adapts to flooding by growing longer stems,
six years. The results showed that compost can replace preventing the crop from drowning.81 While genetic
chemical fertilizers and that it increased yields by more engineering was used as a research tool to identify the
than 30 percent on average. As side-benefits to using desirable genes, only conventional breeding – guided
compost, the farmers noticed that the crops had better by Marker Assisted Selection – was used to generate
resistance to pests and disease and that there was a the Snorkel rice line. Snorkel rice is entirely non-GM.
reduction in “difficult weeds”.80 This is an excellent example of how the whole range
of biotechnology tools, including GM, can be used most
GM crops and climate change effectively to work with the natural breeding process to
develop new crops that meet the critical needs of today.
Climate change brings sudden, extreme, and unpredictable
changes in weather. If we are to survive, the crop base
needs to be as flexible, resilient and diverse as possible. GM Are GM crops environmentally
technology offers just the opposite – a narrowing of crop
diversity and an inflexible technology that requires years
friendly?
and millions of dollars in investment for each new variety. Two kinds of GM crops dominate the marketplace:
Each GM crop is tailor-made to fit a particular niche. With • Crops that resist broad-spectrum (kill-all) herbicides
climate change, no one knows what kind of niches will exist such as Roundup. These are claimed to enable farmers
and where. The best way to insure against the destructive to spray herbicide less frequently to kill weeds but
effects of climate change is to plant a wide variety of high- without killing the crop
performing crops that are genetically diverse.
• Crops that produce the insecticide Bt toxin. These
GM companies have patented plant genes that they believe are claimed to reduce farmers’ need for chemical
are involved in tolerance to drought, heat, flooding, and insecticide sprays.
salinity – but have not succeeded in using these genes to
produce a single new crop with these properties. This is Both claims require further analysis.
because these functions are highly complex and involve
many different genes working together in a precisely GM crops and herbicide use
regulated way. It is beyond existing GM technology
The most commonly grown herbicide-resistant GM
to engineer crops with these sophisticated, delicately
crops are engineered to be resistant to Roundup. But the
regulated gene networks for improved tolerance traits. increasing use of Roundup has led to the appearance of
Conventional natural cross-breeding, which works numerous weeds resistant to this herbicide82. Roundup
holistically, is much better adapted to achieving this aim, resistant weeds are now common and include pigweed83,
using the many varieties of virtually every common crop ryegrass84, and marestail85. As a result, in the US, an initialGM CROPS – research documenting the limitations, risks, and alternatives Page 7
drop in average herbicide use after GM crops were GM crops and wildlife
introduced has been followed by a large increase as farmers
Farm-scale trials sponsored by the UK government
were forced to change their farming practices to kill weeds
showed that the growing of herbicide-resistant GM
that had developed resistance to Roundup86 87. Farmers have
crops (sugar beet, oilseed rape) can reduce wildlife
increased radically the amounts of Roundup applied to their populations105 106.
fields and are being advised to use increasingly powerful
mixtures of multiple herbicides and not Roundup alone88 89.
The case of Argentina
All of these chemicals are toxic and a threat to both the In Argentina, the massive conversion of agriculture to GM
farmers who apply them and the people and livestock that soya production has had disastrous effects on rural social
eat the produce. This is the case even for Roundup, which and economic structures. It has damaged food security
has been shown to have a range of damaging cellular and caused a range of environmental problems, including
effects indicating toxicity at levels similar to those found the spread of herbicide-resistant weeds, soil depletion, and
on crops engineered to be resistant to the herbicide90. increased pests and diseases107 108.
A Canadian government study in 2001 showed that after
just 4-5 years of commercial growing, herbicide-resistant
GM crops and non-target insects and
GM oilseed rape (canola) had cross-pollinated to create organisms
“superweeds” resistant to up to three different broad- Bt insecticide-producing GM crops harm non-target insect
spectrum herbicides. These superweeds have become a populations, including butterflies109 110 111 and beneficial pest
serious problem for farmers both within91 92 and outside predators112. Bt insecticide released from GM crops can also
their fields93. be toxic to water life113 and soil organisms114. One study
reveals more negative than positive impacts on beneficial
In addition, GM oilseed rape has also been found to cross- insects from GM Bt insecticide-producing crops.115
pollinate with and pass on its herbicide resistant genes
to related wild plants, for example, charlock and wild
radish/turnip. This raises the possibility that these too may Can GM and non-GM crops co-exist?
become superweeds and difficult for farmers to control94. The biotech industry argues that farmers should be able
The industry’s response has been to recommend use of to choose to plant GM crops if they wish. It says GM and
higher amounts and complex mixtures of herbicides95 non-GM crops can peacefully “co-exist”. But experience
96
and to start developing crops resistant to additional in North America has shown that “coexistence” of
or multiple herbicides. These developments are clearly GM and non-GM crops rapidly results in widespread
creating a chemical treadmill that would be especially contamination of non-GM crops.
undesirable for farmers in developing countries. This not only has significant agroecological effects, but
also serious economic effects, damaging the ability of
Insecticide-producing GM crops organic farmers to receive premiums, and blocking export
markets to countries that have strict regulations regarding
Bt insecticide-producing GM crops have led to resistance
GM contamination.
in pests, resulting in rising chemical applications97 98 99.
Contamination occurs through cross-pollination, spread
In China and India, Bt cotton was initially effective in of GM seed by farm machinery, and inadvertent mixing
suppressing the boll weevil. But secondary pests, especially during storage. The entry of GM crops into a country
mirids and mealy bugs, that are highly resistant to Bt toxin, removes choice – everyone is gradually forced to grow
soon took its place. The farmers suffered massive crop GM crops or to have their non-GM crop contaminated.
losses and had to apply costly pesticides, wiping out their Here are a few examples of GM contamination incidents:
profit margins100 101 102 103. Such developments are likely
to be more damaging to farmers in developing countries, • In 2006 GM rice grown for only one year in field
trials was found to have widely contaminated the US
who cannot afford expensive inputs.
rice supply and seed stocks116. Contaminated rice
The claim that Bt GM crops reduce pesticide use is was found as far away as Africa, Europe, and Central
disingenuous, since Bt crops are in themselves pesticides. America. In March 2007 Reuters reported that US
Prof Gilles-Eric Séralini of the University of Caen, France rice export sales were down by around 20 percent
states: “Bt plants, in fact, are designed to produce toxins to from those of the previous year as a result of the GM
repel pests. Bt brinjal (eggplant/aubergine) produces a very contamination117.
high quantity of 16-17mg toxin per kg. They affect animals. • In Canada, contamination from GM oilseed rape has
Unfortunately, tests to ascertain their effect on humans made it virtually impossible to cultivate organic, non-
have not been conducted.”104 GM oilseed rape118GM CROPS – research documenting the limitations, risks, and alternatives Page 8
• US courts reversed the approval of GM alfalfa because Organic and low-input methods improve
it threatened the existence of non-GM alfalfa through
cross-pollination119
yields in Africa
There seems little reason to gamble with the livelihoods
• Organic maize production in Spain has dropped
of poor farmers by persuading them to grow experimental
significantly as the acreage of GM maize production has
GM crops when tried-and-tested, inexpensive methods of
increased, because of cross-pollination problems120
increasing food production are readily available. Several
• In 2009, the Canadian flax seed export market recent studies have shown that low-input methods such
to Europe collapsed following the discovery of as organic can dramatically improve yields in African
widespread contamination with an unauthorized GM countries, along with other benefits. Such methods have
variety121. the advantage of being knowledge-based rather than
costly input-based. As a result they are more accessible
• In 2007 alone, there were 39 new instances of GM
to poor farmers than the more expensive technologies
contamination in 23 countries, and 216 incidents have
(which often have not helped in the past).
been reported since 2005122.
A 2008 United Nations report, “Organic Agriculture and
Food Security in Africa”, looked at 114 farming projects
Alternatives to GM in 24 African countries and found that organic or near-
Many authoritative sources, including the IAASTD report on organic practices resulted in a yield increase of more than
the future of agriculture123, have found that GM crops have 100 percent. In East Africa, a yield increase of 128 percent
little to offer global agriculture and the challenges of poverty, was found.133 The Foreword to the study states: “The
hunger and climate change, because better alternatives evidence presented in this study supports the argument
that organic agriculture can be more conducive to food
are available.These go by many names, including integrated
security in Africa than most conventional production
pest management (IPM), organic, sustainable, low-input,
systems, and that it is more likely to be sustainable in the
non-chemical pest management (NPM) and agroecological
long term.”134
farming, but extend beyond the boundaries of any particular
category. Projects employing these sustainable strategies in
the developing world have produced dramatic increases in
Organic and low-input methods improve
yields and food security124 125 126 127 128 129. farmer incomes in developing countries
Strategies employed include: Poverty is a major contributory factor to food insecurity.
According to the 2008 United Nations report, “Organic
• Sustainable, low-input, energy-saving practices that Agriculture and Food Security in Africa”, organic farming
conserve and build soil, conserve water, and enhance has a positive impact on poverty in a variety of ways.
natural pest resistance and resilience in crops Farmers benefit from:
• Innovative farming methods that minimise or eliminate • cash savings, as organic farming does not require costly
costly chemical pesticides and fertilizers pesticides and fertilizers;
• Use of thousands of traditional varieties of each major • extra incomes gained by selling the surplus produce
food crop, which are naturally adapted to stresses such (resulting from the change to organic);
as drought, heat, harsh weather conditions, flooding,
• premium prices for certified organic produce, obtained
salinity, poor soil, and pests and diseases130
primarily in Africa for export but also for domestic
• Use of existing crops and their wild relatives in markets; and
traditional breeding programmes to develop varieties • added value to organic products through processing
with useful traits activities.
• Programmes that enable farmers to cooperatively These findings are backed up by studies from Asia and
preserve and improve traditional seeds Latin America that concluded that organic farming can
• Use of beneficial and holistic aspects of modern reduce poverty in an environmentally friendly way.135
biotechnology, such as Marker Assisted Selection A recent study found that certified organic farms
(MAS), which uses the latest genetic knowledge to involved in production for export were significantly
speed up traditional breeding131. Unlike GM technology, more profitable than those involved in conventional
MAS can safely produce new varieties of crops with production (in terms of net farm income earnings).136 Of
valuable, genetically complex properties such as these cases, 87 per cent showed increases in farmer and
enhanced nutrition, taste, yield potential, resistance household incomes as a result of becoming organic, which
to pests and diseases, and tolerance to drought, heat, contributed to reducing poverty levels and to increasing
salinity, and flooding132. regional food security.GM CROPS – research documenting the limitations, risks, and alternatives Page 9
Who owns the technology? from farmers to seed companies. Consolidation of the
seed industry increasingly means that farmers have
In considering which agricultural technologies will most little choice but to buy GM seed. Centuries of farmer
benefit the developing world, it is crucial to ask who knowledge that went into creating locally adapted and
owns those technologies. The “Gene Revolution” that is varied seed stocks are wiped out.
proposed for Africa will be rolled out via public-private In contrast, low-input and organic farming methods do not
partnerships. The public side of such partnerships will involve patented technologies. Control of food production
be provided by Africa, whereas the private side will be remains in the hands of farmers, keeping farmer skills alive
provided by biotechnology companies based in the United and favouring food security.
States and Europe.
The transgenes used in creating GM crops are patented Conclusion
and owned by biotech companies. In the United States
GM crop technologies do not offer significant benefits.
and Canada, companies have launched lawsuits against
On the contrary, they present risks to human and animal
farmers whose crops were alleged to contain a company’s
health, the environment, farmers, food security, and
patented GM genes. Farmers’ claims that they have not
export markets. There is no convincing reason to take
intentionally planted GM crops have proved no defence in
such risks with the livelihoods of farmers when proven
court against large fines being imposed. successful and widely acceptable alternatives are readily
When farmers buy GM seed, they sign a technology and cheaply available. These alternatives will maintain
agreement promising not to save and replant seed. the independence of the food supply from foreign
They have to buy new seed each year from the biotech multinational control and offer the best insurance against
company, thus transferring control of food production the challenges of climate change.
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