Balancing the books: Making climate adaptation funding a reality - CIDSE
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Balancing the books: Making climate adaptation funding a reality
Acknowledgements Contents
This report was written and researched by SCIAF Executive Summary
policy officer Jill Wood, with contributions from
Philippa Bonella. 1. The case for concrete action on climate change: A justice and peace
perspective
The author would like to thank those who helped to
enable the research and everyone who kindly agreed 1.1 Climate adaptation and poverty
to be interviewed. Particular thanks go to Henrietta 1.2 Historical responsibility
Kalinda at KATC, Miniva Chibuye at JCTR and Francis
Chanda at Caritas Livingstone. Many thanks also to IN FOCUS: Organic Farming and Capacity Building at KATC, Zambia
Patrick Grady and Stephen Martin for comments on
draft versions of the report and to Lexi Barnett for CALL TO ACTION: Scotland: A Global Citizen
input and support at all stages. 1.3 Immediate and urgent need
Finally, a debt of gratitude to the farming 2. The global context: Time for a holistic approach to transformational
communities in Malawi and Zambia, where we were change
welcomed and humoured enormously.
IN FOCUS: The Kulima Sustainable Food Programme
2.1 Global institutions
2.2 Community level
2.3 National and local governance
2.4 Looking to the future
IN FOCUS: Disaster Risk Management in Livingstone, Zambia
3. Paying the price for climate adaptation: Developing a climate
adaptation fund
3.1 The global picture
3.2 Key principles for adaptation finance
4. Joined-up adaptation: What works on the ground?
4.1 Sustainable agriculture systems
IN FOCUS: Agroforestry via the UN research centre ICRAF, Malawi
4.2 Sharing knowledge
IN FOCUS: Communication, collaboration, integration at KATC Zambia
5. Lessons learned: The challenge of climate adaptation on the ground
5.1 Adaptive capacity
IN FOCUS: Gender
5.2 Political and commercial barriers
5.3 Physical and cultural barriers
5.4 Role of civil society
6. Conclusion and recommendations
Acronyms
AF UN Adaptation Fund
CAF (Scottish) Climate Adaptation Fund
CBO Community Based Organisation
CIDSE International alliance of Catholic development agencies
working together for global justice.
COP Conference of Parties (to the UNFCCC)
CSO Civil Society Organisation
FTT Financial Transaction Tax
GCF Green Climate Fund
ICRAF UN World Agroforestry Centre
ICTs Information and Communications Technologies
IDF (Scottish) International Development Fund
KATC Kasisi Agricultural Training Centre
LDCs Least Developed Countries
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MNC Multinational Corporation
NGO Non-governmental Organisation
PACJA Pan African Climate Justice Alliance
SCIAF Scottish Catholic International Aid Fund
SAS Sustainable Agriculture System
A girl operates a water pump in Mukuni, Zambia. UNCSD United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
ZCCN Zambia Climate Change Network
2
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Executive Summary
“Climate change is not only environmental
injustice, but a humanitarian and development
emergency of global proportions”
1
Climate change threatens the lives and the subsequent impacts; multiple stresses on the
livelihoods of marginalised communities and natural environment, resulting in degradation
people all over the world. It undermines their and depleted resources; lack of social
capacity to break the cycle of poverty and build protection; economies and livelihoods which are
resilience against further shocks. Throughout the dependent on agriculture; and many related
course of the 21st century, billions of people will multipliers of risk.
be affected by climate change, with impacts on
food security, livelihoods, health and other basic The international community has pledged to
needs.2 Those affected will be the poorest and provide $100 billion per year by 2020 for
most vulnerable, who have done least to cause enhanced action on climate change.3 However,
the problem. many leading experts calculate that this will be
far from adequate. These funds will take years to
Scotland has already done much to address this filter through to those in need on the ground.
agenda. The Climate Change Act 2009 is a real
example to other developed nations, showing A Scottish Climate Adaptation Fund of £9 million
that political leadership and challenging carbon per year, or just 0.026% of Scottish Government
reduction targets can win votes. In addition, the spending,4 would provide a clear example of
Scottish Government’s ongoing commitment to Scotland’s leadership in supporting poor
funding international development (£9 million communities to build resilience in the face of
annually to Scottish-based NGOs working in climate change, building on our example within
Africa and Asia) shows solidarity with the world-leading climate change legislation to
poorest communities, despite the continuing reduce our contribution to the problem.
economic challenges at home. The new Scottish Although a small nation, we can act as a model
Government, elected in 2011, has pledged to of good practice in establishing such a fund to
take the agenda further by implementing tough offer support to communities in developing
new measures to achieve the ambition of our countries to adapt. If lessons are learned from
climate legislation and take the agenda further what already works on the ground, the fund
by building a climate adaptation fund to support would have transformational impacts on the
communities affected by climate change in livelihoods of vulnerable communities
developing countries. threatened by climate change and consolidate
Scotland’s tradition of humanitarianism and
In developing countries, physical security, basic global social responsibility.
needs provision and livelihoods are endangered
by climate change. This is due to a combination SCIAF’s vision is for a just world, where human
of increased exposure to extreme weather dignity and human rights are upheld for all.
events compared with other parts of the world; Climate change undermines this vision. As
limited capacity to absorb shocks or adapt to Scotland’s largest international aid and
3
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development agency, SCIAF brings a
perspective to the climate change debate that This paper:
draws on the experience of its partners i) calls for integrated, locally-led climate
overseas, our reach into communities, schools adaption responses in developing
and parishes across Scotland, and is driven by countries, which focus on the most
the principles of Catholic Social Teaching. This vulnerable sectors of society;
report sets out our findings following recent ii) recommends ways in which Scottish
field research with SCIAF partners in Zambia climate adaptation funding channelled
and Malawi. It aims to provide Scottish policy- through civil society networks can feed
makers with recommendations for the into developing country adaptation at
establishment of a Scottish climate adaptation the national level;
fund. It also aims to provide a clear example of iii) points to existing innovation and ‘best
good practice for other nations considering practice’ with regard to climate
such a fund. Lastly, it aims to provide us with a adaptation initiatives in developing
clear understanding of the linkages between our countries; and
work with partners to improve food security and iv) advocates locally-based approaches to
foster sustainability, the growing need for tackle the barriers to change within
climate adaptation, and our advocacy agenda developing countries.
for climate justice at Scottish and international
levels. Our solidarity with the world’s poorest
people in overcoming the climate challenges
ahead will be vital in achieving a world where
every citizen is able to live life, and live it to
the full.
“[O]ver the next decade, between 75 and 250
million people, in Africa alone, are projected to
be exposed to increased water stress due to
climate change. Millions of others are expected
to become displaced due to climate change
related events” UN High Commission for Refugees
5
4
1. The case for
concrete action
on climate
change:
A justice and peace
perspective
Mwiya Nawa shows the empty dam in his community.
5
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Women working the fields in Chongwe, Zambia.
“Climate change is not only planned Scottish climate adaptation fund, based
on the lived experience of our partners on the
environmental injustice, but a ground. It also aims to provide a clear example of
humanitarian and development good practice for other nations considering such a
fund. Lastly, it aims to provide SCIAF and the
emergency of global proportions”6 wider international development movement with
a clear understanding of the linkages between our
SCIAF’s vision is of a just world, where human work with partners to improve food security and
dignity and human rights are upheld for all. foster sustainability, the growing need for climate
Climate change undermines every element of this adaptation, and our advocacy agenda for climate
vision. As Scotland’s largest international aid and justice at Scottish and international levels.
development agency, SCIAF brings a perspective After years of escalating concern, climate change
to the climate change debate that draws on the is now firmly at the centre of political agendas and
experience of our partners overseas, our reach the public imagination. Rising sea levels threaten
into communities, schools and parishes across to displace entire coastal regions and
Scotland, and the principles of Catholic Social communities; natural disasters, such as the floods
Teaching. which triggered humanitarian crisis in Pakistan in
Climate change is increasingly recognised as the 2010, are increasingly frequent and severe; and
biggest challenge faced by the world today and it rising mean temperatures are outstripping the
represents the greatest threat to the fight against bounds of infrastructure, as with the estimated
global poverty. Fundamentally, it is an issue of 35,000 fatalities across Europe in 2003. Many
justice. It impacts on areas such as health, gender millions of people worldwide face more frequent
equality, water supply, conflict, social inclusion, and more intense extreme weather events, such
financial markets, urbanisation and tourism at as drought, irregular rainfall or flooding.7
global levels, and most directly in the developing These enormous human costs are occurring
world. against a backdrop of environmental degradation
This report sets out our findings after recent field and depletion of natural resources, including
research undertaken with SCIAF partners acting to water. Intensified by climate change, these
reduce the impacts of climate change within poor environmental crises not only increase poverty,
communities in Zambia and Malawi. It aims to they also reduce poor communities’ ability to
provide Scottish policy-makers with withstand future impacts – their resilience to
recommendations for the establishment of the climate change.
6
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very differently across communities and
As well as threatening livelihoods and food households, and at regional and national levels.
security in developing countries, other People with the least access to resources and
impacts of climate change include: power are the most at risk from the realities of
climate change on the ground.
• huge implications in terms of health
(already resulting in over 150,000 deaths The UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
per year8) are due to expire in 2015 and debate over a new
• infringement of human rights global development framework is underway. This
rethink on poverty and inequality will cover food
• conflict, including over land tenure insecurity, access to resources including water,
• reduced access to (over-stressed) social gender equality, social protection, human
services development, and environmental degradation. If
the list is beginning to sound familiar, it is with
• challenges to struggling democratic
structures. good reason: climate change is arguably the
biggest challenge facing the international
development agenda. With the benefit of
All of these climate change impacts serve to hindsight and scientific advances since the MDGs
reinforce existing unjust power relations. This were ratified, it is now clear that climate change
undermines global efforts to eradicate poverty impacts must be considered within future poverty
and inequality, including between women and reduction targets.
men, and to achieve transformational change.
Scotland is seeking to address our responsibility,
most recently through the world-leading Climate
Change Act, which sets out ambitious targets to
reduce our carbon emissions. This will require the
involvement of every element of Scottish society,
and should lead to a major transformation of our
economy, including our energy production,
transport infrastructure and waste systems, as
well as our household energy consumption.
SCIAF campaigned for, and warmly welcomed,
this legislation. As we move into the
implementation phase, now is the time to review
our responsibilities as an industrialised nation.
Alongside a renewed commitment to maintaining
our £9 million international development fund, it
is now is the time to consider how we can support
developing countries to adapt to a fast changing
climate, and to keep the concerns of the poorest
people at the centre of this agenda.
1.1 Climate adaptation and poverty
Responding to the realities of climate change,
known as ‘climate adaptation’, is becoming
increasingly urgent all over the world. However,
the most severe and tangible impacts of climate
change are endured by the world’s most
marginalised people, who have the least
capacity to cope. Impacts are experienced
Climate change is hampering efforts to meet the
Millennium Development Goals.
7
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The brunt of hardship often falls disproportionately
on women, children and other vulnerable groups. KATC run 15 different training courses,
Conceptions of climate change are often based on covering sustainable farming methods, such
environmental degradation and natural disaster. as: beekeeping, biological pest management,
However, at heart, it is an issue of injustice and organic vegetable production, agribusiness
power. Climate change has become another system management, basic dairy and pastures, and
which perpetuates poverty and concentrates power animal traction and management. These are
in the hands of the rich. Climate justice requires us targeted primarily at small-scale farmers, with
to cede power to the poor. participation from teachers, government
officials, community leaders and NGO
workers also encouraged. Separate field days
IN FOCUS: ORGANIC FARMING are conducted on farms in rural areas, at local
AND CAPACITY BUILDING AT schools and at their on-site demonstration
KASISI AGRICULTURAL TRAINING plots. Meanwhile, KATC support for the
Chongwe district government’s new organic
CENTRE, ZAMBIA
farming programmes allows a far greater
The Kasisi Agricultural Training Centre degree of outreach into communities.
(KATC), a SCIAF partner, is an inspiring place Indeed, collaboration with other
to visit. Established in 1974, it has taught organisations is a particular strength at KATC.
organic farming for over twenty years and has Not least amongst the benefits these
long been a champion of sustainable networks and connections bring to farmers
agriculture systems (SAS). Technical experts they support is ad-hoc advice for selling
at the centre apply their knowledge within a crops in unpredictable markets.
broad vision to tackle poverty, inequality and Another cornerstone of the KATC approach is
environmental injustice, and promote the use accessible adult participatory education in
of organic farming to build resilience against the form of ‘study circles’ in villages
climate change. throughout the district. These study circles
focus on specific issues and techniques, such
The institution has a strong profile in Zambia
as small earth dam construction, manure
and has earned a high degree of respect and
handling and storage, food legume crops,
influence in the sector, working with a wide
and organic cotton production. At the core of
range of partners on an equally wide range of
the initiative is community identification of
innovative projects. In recent years, ‘lead farmers’ and ‘community facilitators’,
programmes at KATC have become who work closely with mentors at the centre
increasingly focused on the implications of to spread knowledge in farming communities.
climate change, leading the way in the field This system enhances the effectiveness of
of climate adaptation- both literally and programmes, by centralising the specific
figuratively. Their approach also includes learning needs of the farmers and particular
close collaboration with public and third conditions in each village. It fosters long-term
sector stakeholders, including advocacy and capacity building and greatly increases
campaigning organisations with a focus on potential for further uptake across the
climate justice. community.
“The environment is God’s gift to everyone, and in
our use of it we have a responsibility towards the
poor, towards future generations and towards
humanity as a whole.” Pope Benedict XVI
9
8
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1.2 Historical responsibility
PROFILE: ANNE MUTATA Extreme injustice is at the core of the issue. People
Mrs Anne Mutata is the head of an eleven- living in poverty across Africa, Asia and Latin
person household. She has four children of America are already suffering the devastating
her own at home and six orphaned nieces impacts of climate change and stand to bear the
and nephews in her care. She was elected brunt of severe consequences in the decades
by her community to serve as a lead farmer ahead. Yet these societies have produced the
in the organic farming programme. As lowest levels of harmful emissions and therefore
such, she heads their study circle and contributed least to the crisis. Meanwhile, in
supports village members in their learning countries like Scotland, economic development
and development. However, Anne gives up came at this price. We bear the historical
her time for anyone who comes to her for responsibility for climate change and must now
advice, even those not registered with the
support vulnerable countries as they grapple with
programme. She has witnessed the
the realities on the ground.
benefits of organic methods over a
relatively short period of time and wants to The food security of an estimated 2.5 billion people
share her knowledge with as many farming dependent on agriculture in the developing world11
families as possible. is threatened by changing climate systems.
Anne has also established a co-operative, Meanwhile, industrialised societies are protected
whose members are primarily women. by the technology and high-energy consumption
When prompted, she agrees that they pathways which created climate change in the first
probably find the example she sets to be place. This is the accumulated ‘climate debt’ we
inspiring. Since she founded the co-op in have a duty to repay.
2007, 18 farmers have joined and Anne has
high hopes this figure will reach 30 by next
year. She is also the only farmer to sit on CALL TO ACTION
the board of KATC- an important position. SCOTLAND: A GLOBAL CITIZEN
She represents her peers and female
household heads, voicing their In advance of the 2011 Scottish Parliament
perspectives and bringing her community election, SCIAF called for the new Scottish
a vital service. Government to create an international
Climate Adaptation Fund of £9 million per
Her endorsement of conservation farming
year. This would represent just 0.026% of
and the training she received is
unequivocal: “Before I went to the college, Scottish Government spending.12 The
I couldn’t make compost, the yield was election produced a SNP majority
very poor. Sometimes we had enough to government in the Scottish Parliament,
eat, sometimes we had nothing...[now] committed in its manifesto to building such
with money from cash crops, I can pay for an adaptation fund.13 This means Scotland
my children at school.”10 once again has the opportunity to lead the
world by example, by building and
disbursing a Climate Adaptation Fund
(CAF).
This report shows that supporting
vulnerable communities as they adapt to
climate change is a matter of justice.
Industrialisation over many decades has
fuelled both financial and social progress in
Scotland, and created harmful pollution
which contributes to climate change. No
climate adaptation funding from any one
country could ever be enough to fully
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accessible funding to support small-scale
producers and vulnerable groups throughout the
repay the ecological debt owed by the rich
world is needed now. The international youth
to the poor. However, an innovative, well-
movement has reminded us of this at recent UN
resourced CAF would consolidate
summits, with activists making powerful protest in
Scotland’s tradition of global social
t-shirts bearing the slogan “You have been
responsibility and solidarity with the world’s
negotiating all my life, you cannot tell me you
most disadvantaged people. It would
need more time”.
demonstrate continued leadership for
climate justice, complementing both the
world-leading ambition Scotland set out with
domestic mitigation targets and parallel
multilateral action. It would set an example
that other governments and organisations
could draw upon.
Most importantly, support for innovation
and sustainable adaptation to climate
change has the potential to transform the
lives of people in poor countries, now and
for future generations. Solidarity with the
world’s poorest people will help achieve a
world where every citizen is able to “live
life, and live it to the full.”14
1.3 Immediate and urgent need
With each passing conference, Parties to the
United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) inch closer to
negotiating a functioning international climate “It is not too late. God’s
regime. Over the years, the equal importance of
climate change adaptation and mitigation, and
the need for huge financial input have become
world has incredible
cornerstones of the process, with numerous
commitments and pledges (see Chapter 3). These healing powers. Within a
mandates will ultimately make a real difference
and are to be credited. Nonetheless, fourteen
years after scaled-up support for adaptation
single generation, we could
needs in Least Developed Countries (LDCs) was
initially negotiated, lengthy clauses on paper
steer the earth toward our
mean nothing to people coping with the impacts
on the ground.15 The long-term commitment for children’s future. Let that
$100bn of climate finance per annum16 will not
trickle down to the grassroots level any time soon. generation start now, with
Meanwhile, the urgent need for adaptation to the
consequences of climate change continues to
build. In 2011, East Africa suffered from the
God’s help and blessing.”
deepest drought in 60 years, which the UN
estimates has led to 12 million people in need of Pope John Paull II & Patriarch Bartholomew I,
emergency aid.17 Pledges take years to translate 2002 18
into concrete action on the ground, whilst
102. The global
context:
Time for a holistic
approach to
transformational
change
Climate change has impacts on health and food security.
11...........................................................................
Today, the linked forces of globalisation and
climate change are making themselves felt around
the world. Widespread political protest has been IN FOCUS: THE KULIMA
assisted by new technologies. The fallout of the SUSTAINABLE RURAL FOOD
financial crisis continues, including perceptible SECURITY PROGRAMME
shifts in global power structures. The most severe
drought seen in 60 years in the Horn of Africa has The Kulima Sustainable Rural Food Security
led to humanitarian crisis. In a few short months, Programme (Kulima Programme) is a
unprecedented floods and landslides have collaborative initiative, funded by the
displaced thousands in Brazil and Hurricane Irene Scottish Government and implemented by
prompted the evacuation of Manhattan; one of a SCIAF and its partners. It promotes
record-breaking series of major ‘weather-extreme’ sustainable agriculture systems (SAS) which
disasters in the USA alone.19 can increase soil fertility and food
Media commentators have invoked apocalyptic production, and counteract certain impacts
themes in reporting such events. In fact, these of climate change. The Kulima Programme
multiple global crises - the financial crisis, the food brings together the expertise of nine
crisis and the energy/ climate crisis - can be better development and advocacy agencies and
understood as the current phase of globalisation. research institutions in Zambia, Malawi,
They are some of the most powerful signals yet Burundi and Scotland,20 with a strong focus
that the existing unsustainable and inequitable on innovation and long-term vision. The
model of economic development must be reset.
overarching aim is to increase food security
Any consideration of climate adaptation must
through a broad approach which considers
learn lessons from the challenges and
political and cultural factors inhibiting
opportunities at global, national and community
levels. uptake of SAS and emphasises local
knowledge and information flows.
In addition to training and supporting
Titus Kabwe small-scale farmers in SAS, the programme
received support is designed to: educate decision-makers
from KATC to
adapt to climate and civil society stakeholders with regard
change. to benefits; influence government policy;
strengthen the scientific evidence base for
SAS; and understand cultural practices
which inhibit uptake, despite demonstrable
benefits.
Sustainable systems such as conservation
farming and agroforestry are low-risk, low-
cost and can lead to a host of social,
economic and environmental benefits.
Details of projects pioneered by the Kulima
Programme’s partner organisations are
outlined throughout this report.
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2.1 Global institutions around people-centred approaches to climate
The current international political climate presents change and development, which focus on building
a crossroads (or spaghetti junction), with various communities’ resilience in the long term.
multilateral institutions and processes facing Whilst economic and political globalisation has
either impasse, collapse or endgame. With only a increased inequality and vulnerability throughout
few years until the MDGs expire, the majority of and between societies, the globalisation of
targets are way off-track. How a ‘post-2015 technology and information has enhanced
framework’ can address shifting geopolitical communities’ ability to respond. Transnational
landscapes, structural power imbalances which activism has snowballed. In both developed and
have hindered progress, and the monumental, developing countries, NGOs, community-based
ever-evolving challenges of climate change is yet organisations, trade unions, independent activists
to be seen. and others are in a strong position to develop
Meanwhile, the Doha Development Round of joint strategies, and to pressurise public and
negotiations under the World Trade Organisation private sector decision-makers. Just as shifts in
reaches its tenth anniversary in 2011, still having power at the level of global politics are imminent
failed to strike a deal which would counter over the coming decades, so too are new forms of
inequitable trade laws. Trade rules play a major civil society engagement and influence.
role in perpetuating global poverty and
2.3 National and local governance
maintaining the gulf between developing and
developed countries, increasing vulnerability to There is a missing link between international
climate change. structures and the grassroots pressure for pro-
poor change. It is increasingly clear that
In the world of finance, many dimensions of the
adequately resourced national and local
global architecture are under reform and very
governments in the Global South must lead
much under scrutiny. Regulation of capital
‘country-owned’ development and climate change
markets, governance of International Financial
Institutions, tax transparency and innovative adaptation planning.22 Developed country
sources of raising revenue have finally emerged as governments in the North must play their part
dominant themes on the political agenda. responsibly. Support to build capacity of
Innovative sources of finance, such as the Financial institutions and governance structures in some
Transaction Tax (FTT), are needed to meet costs of Least Developed Countries (LDCs) and fragile
the economic downturn, climate debts and states, will be essential to ensure that nationally-
commitments to international development. led climate adaptation and development plans are
integrated.
Finally, the multilateral climate change regime
under the UNFCCC is under serious pressure. Supporting communities to become more resilient
Failure to reach a fair, ambitious and legally- to future climate shocks will become increasingly
binding package at the much-hyped 15th integral to international development agendas
Conference of Parties (COP15) in Copenhagen in over the coming years. Climate adaptation is
2009, dealt a serious blow to prospects for a closely linked to poverty reduction and food
progressive legal framework. With the Kyoto security - approximately 75% of the people in
Protocol due to expire in 2012, major diplomatic developing countries live in rural areas23 and are
progress is needed at the forthcoming COP largely dependent on agriculture for their
meetings and future summits.21 livelihoods.
2.2 Community level Disjointed policy-making runs the risk of
It is very clear that lack of political will is ‘maladaptation’, where superficial gains create
preventing these global processes from delivering new vulnerabilities in the long-run and exacerbate
for the world’s most vulnerable populations, in poverty.24 All levels of society – community groups
spite of much lip service to the issues. Despite this and NGOs, governments and
– or perhaps because of it – there has been a international institutions - must play a role in
proliferation of grassroots activity and thinking working to avoid this.
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2.4 Looking to the future pollution and air travel. The concept has earned
One forthcoming opportunity to champion the high-level support and was formally proposed at a
integration of development, environment and preparatory conference (PrepCom1) for Rio+20 in
climate thinking is the UN Conference on January 2011.26
Sustainable Development (UNCSD) in June 2012. Theory of change scholars highlight ‘policy
‘Rio+20’ will mark the 20th anniversary of the window’ opportunities which arise periodically at
inaugural sessions of the UNCSD, held in Rio de times of crisis.27 The international community has
Janeiro in 1992. Known as the ‘Earth Summit’, arrived at a crossroads, where solutions to the
that conference gave rise to international climate crisis can be harnessed to build resilience
environmental law in the form of three in vulnerable communities. This also presents an
conventions, including the UNFCCC. The stated opportunity to deliver across other social change
objectives of Rio+20: to further transition to the agendas. For instance the interests and rights of
green economy in the context of poverty minority groups, such as people living with
eradication and to strengthen global governance disability or HIV can be integrated in climate
of sustainable development, fit squarely with the adaptation processes.
aim of an integrated approach to building
This would be made possible by solutions to the
community resilience.25
climate crisis that centralise the voices of the poor,
Although it is not clear what degree of political address structural gender imbalances and seek to
ambition will be invested in Rio+20, global civil realign unjust power relations between the Global
society and many developing country South and Global North. Scotland can support
representatives will use the platform to promote a this through exerting pressure at UK and EU levels
unified position for change, and to learn from and through showing solidarity in funding
each other’s experiences. As twenty years ago, effective, localised adaptation initiatives, shaped
activists will push a renewed drive for equitable at grassroots level by individuals most affected by
solutions to an unsustainable status quo. They will the impacts.
seek to centralise the marginalised and powerless
in decision-making and adopt a broad approach As has been all-too-well documented, however,
to growth, incorporating climate change, natural the window of opportunity for climate action is
resource management and biodiversity. closing fast and a decisive, progressive and
unified response is needed without further
The western model of economic development prevarication. Acts of political leadership are
forms the basis of most growth strategies and urgently needed.
much collective aspiration across the developing
world. Yet it is not possible for these strategies,
pinned on steep growth trajectories and high IN FOCUS: DISASTER RISK
levels of consumption, to come to fruition. The MANAGEMENT in Livingstone,
world does not have enough resources for its Zambia
soon-to-be 9 billion citizens to consume at the
Livingstone, Zambia lies on the banks of
levels set by industrialised countries in the 20th
the Zambezi river, just several miles from
century; these are not sustainable patterns of
Mosi-oa-Tunya (Victoria) Falls. The falls are
behaviour.
world-famous as a force of nature, due to
Civil society stakeholders propose a parallel the scale and magnitude of their waters.
framework to the MDGs, which requires action to Over 2km in length, with an average flow
be taken in developed countries, in addition to rate of 1088 cubic metres per second,
financial contributions. The Millennium Mosi-oa-Tunya translates as “Smoke that
Consumption Goals (MCGs) would track progress thunders”, for the spray that can be seen
towards vital shifts in lifestyle norms, which must from an astonishing distance. Yet, farmers
complement the transition to low-carbon in the district struggle to overcome
economies. These would include benchmark extreme water shortages, which have
targets on (for example) working hours, personal/ steadily increased over recent years with
community/ municipal energy consumption,
14...........................................................................
irregular rainfall patterns and capacity building of civil society
recurring drought. organisations (CSOs) in rural
areas. These imperatives
In Bbilibisi Village,
are particularly
Sikaunzwe, lack of
pronounced in the
water has led to failed
changing context of
harvests and reliance unpredictable climatic
on short-term coping change.
strategies which
have serious impacts Members of the
on wellbeing- community told us
particularly of that the 2010-11
women and children. season has been
particularly harsh. In
According to villager
addition to drought
Mwiya Nawa, with
and unpredictable
climate change,
rainfall, Sikaunzwe
traditional reliance on Mwiya Nawa
experienced virtually
ground water has become
unprecedented low
increasingly insufficient and temperatures, with rarely seen frosts
sometimes women from his community decimating certain crops and killing fruit
travel 50km to the Zambezi for access to trees. This loss of crops and source of
water. In turn, this has consequences for the income has severe implications for some
health and education prospects of children, farmers, including Alicie and her family.
particularly girls, who must accompany their Usually she harvests enough to
mothers or take on other domestic sell surplus crops at
responsibilities. market. This year,
In consultation with local organisation (and however, due to
SCIAF partner) Caritas Livingstone, the need drought and frost, the
yield will only suffice
for a small dam was accordingly identified as
to feed her family.
the most applicable measure for the
She doesn’t know
community, under a government-supported
how she will pay
Disaster Risk Reduction initiative. However,
her children’s
the fledgling project is experiencing some
school fees.
teething problems. Although the dry season
still loomed ahead, when Mwiya took us to
see the water supply, much of it had drained
away. Caritas Livingstone were surprised-
struggling with resourcing constraints, the
last community visit and site inspection had
been several months before when the
waterhole had been full.
The land in Sikaunzwe was unable to retain
water using tried and tested technologies
successfully employed elsewhere. This
experience points to the need for
sustained resources to enable scaled-up
monitoring of projects on the ground, for
thorough assessment of local conditions
in the design of programmes, and for
Drought and frost have impacted on Alicie’s crop yield.
153. Paying the price
for climate
adaptation:
Developing a climate
adaptation fund
Watson Tebulu now teaches his neighbours the adaptation
techniques he learned from KATC, Chongwe, Zambia.
16...........................................................................
SCIAF was encouraged by the cross party
support for international development and justice
and peace work, in the run up to the 2011 PROFILE: VAINESS MOONGA
Scottish elections. We were particularly keen to
Vainess Moonga is a passionate convert to
see reference to climate change adaptation in
organic farming methods. She has
party manifestos. The SNP Manifesto 2011 states:
witnessed erratic seasonal weather
patterns in recent years, and increasing
“[a]nd we will increase our support to
hardships in Kazangula District in Western
developing nations as they respond to the
Zambia as a result. She heads a household
challenges of climate change. We have
of seven, including two young
heard the calls from many for Scotland to grandchildren, and has received support
create a Climate Adaptation Fund. Given from SCIAF partner KATC in adopting
the pressures on the Scottish sustainable techniques such as composting.
Government’s budget we will work with She described how increased yields at
partners in business, charitable harvest have enabled her to fortify the
foundations and non-governmental family home with iron, buy medicines for
organisations so we can co-ordinate her grandchildren and afford veterinary
efforts to build a Scotland-wide climate services for her livestock.
adaption fund.”28 Vainess works hard to persuade village
members of the benefits organic farming
The SNP’s “Justice and Peace Manifesto can bring. She also facilitates village
Spotlight” also echoed this: “[w]e recognise the meetings- a forum for farmers to discuss
need for a Climate Adaptation Fund and will challenges, including the increasing threats
work towards this.”29 of climate change, and to share
These pledges were strongly welcomed by SCIAF, experiences. It has become her ambition to
other international development agencies in establish a co-op. She hopes farmers
Scotland, environmental NGOs and the umbrella working together to secure fairer prices for
organisations Stop Climate Chaos Scotland and their produce and pressure local authorities
NIDOS. Collectively these groups have been to support organic farming will strengthen
calling for a Scottish Climate Adaptation Fund their ability to manage the impacts of
since 2007. climate change.
Scotland set an important example with the
Climate Change (Scotland) Act in 2009; a level of
ambition which campaigners have been able to
promote on the international stage. The pledged
introduction of a Scottish Climate Adaptation
Fund (CAF) presents an opportunity to show
continued leadership on climate justice and
consolidate Scotland’s record on global social
responsibility. However, this will only be effective
if the fund follows key principles of accountability
and transparency, and focuses its efforts on
supporting the most marginalised communities
and individuals in the developing world who are
in need of the most help.
17...........................................................................
3.1 The global picture “The human impact is
At the 2009 COP in Copenhagen, parties to the
UNFCCC pledged to provide resources obvious, but what is not so
apparent is the extent to
approaching $30 billion per annum (p.a.) in
climate finance for the period 2010-12 in ‘fast-
start’ finance. In parallel, developed countries
committed to increase this sum to $100 billion p.a.
by 2020.30
which climatic events can
There is broad consensus that $100 billion per
annum will not adequately cover the climate debts
undo the developmental
of developed countries. The World Bank estimates
that the “price tag” of adaptation alone will
gains put in place over
amount to between $70-100bn per annum (p.a.)
between 2010 and 2050, based on a 2 degree decades. Droughts and
Celsius rise in temperature by 2050.31 Other
studies add cross-sectoral adaptation costs, such
as water supply, human health, coastal zones,
floods destroy lives, but
infrastructure and ecosystems, leading to
significantly higher estimates in the region of
they also destroy schools,
$140bn-$210bn by 2030, and show that even the
most narrow interpretation of adaptation costs will economies and
incur sums well in excess of $100bn p.a.32
Secondly, the figure of $100bn is predicated on
opportunity.”
parallel cuts in greenhouse gas emissions, which
would cap global warming at 2C, whereas the Archbishop Desmond Tutu 36
current level of tabled emission-reductions targets
sets the world on a path towards a catastrophic
4C rise in temperature.33 Further, although the
Copenhagen Accord commits to a “balanced
allocation between adaptation and mitigation”,34
approved climate finance to date is weighted
heavily in favour of mitigation priorities.
Meanwhile, it is not known how the $100 billion
p.a. will be sourced, particularly in light of banking
sector and financial market meltdowns, austerity
packages and high national deficits. This has
advanced the debate on innovative sources of
funding, such as a Financial Transaction Tax (FTT),
particularly in the EU. However, several major
economies remain opposed to an FTT and it is
very uncertain how much of the revenue would
ultimately be earmarked for developing countries.
In this context, there is high risk of ‘double
counting’, whereby existing international
development budgets are rechanneled into
climate finance and yet chalked against both
targets. Developed countries must also increase
transparency with regard to climate finance
contributions.35
However, significant progress was made in terms
Archbishop Desmond Tutu calls for climate justice
at Copenhagen in 2009.
18...........................................................................
of climate finance at COP16 in Cancun. Parties closely linked to other social and development
agreed to establish a Green Climate Fund (GCF), indicators, the arguments for additional resources
which will “support projects, programmes, are clear.
policies and other activities in developing country
Much has been written about economy-wide
Parties” and receive a “significant share” of fast-
impacts and opportunities wrapped up with
start and long-term finance as it begins to roll in. 37
climate change. This includes the influential ‘Stern
A Transitional Committee spent 2011 designing
Report’ of 2006, which asserts that “[t]he benefits
the GCF, and will present proposals for approval
of strong early action on climate change outweigh
at COP17 in Durban. These gains were widely
the costs... ignoring climate change will eventually
heralded as a central success of the Cancun
damage economic growth”.39
conference.
At a humanitarian level, additionality increases
Yet, all of this reminds us of the cumbersome
prospects of sustainable livelihoods and food
nature of the multilateral process. The experience
security for the world’s poorest people. The
of the UNFCCC Adaptation Fund does not offer
metaphor of a double-edged sword is apt, as
comfort: the mandate for its creation was
failure to uphold these commitments would lead
negotiated in 2001, it finally became operational
to widespread loss of life and increased
in 2009.38 Once operationalised, climate financing
vulnerability throughout the developing world. All
cycles comprise of clunky layers of bureaucracy:
climate adaptation finance, whether through the
‘pledged’, ‘deposited’, ‘approved’ and
GCF, bilaterally or through co-funding
‘disbursed’. Following disbursal, implementing arrangements, must be additional to existing
agencies invest the funds in project cycles of their financial commitments.
own, which subsequently take significant time to
bear fruit. Meanwhile, farmers in drought-stricken • Public funding
areas cannot afford to bide time. The problem of Most analysts accept that innovative sources of
mobilising capital in the short-term is extremely funding, including leverage of private sector
pressing. revenues, will be necessary to mobilise colossal
sums of climate finance over the coming decades.
3.2 Key principles for climate adaptation However, public funding must remain at the
finance centre of climate finance. Investment in climate
In light of these substantial challenges, a number adaptation from private non-state bodies presents
of guiding principles have emerged as the complex challenges, due to fundamental conflicts
backbone of the call for good climate finance. The of interest, and accountability and sustainability
points below apply equally to international or issues.
smaller-scale approaches, such as a Scottish
Climate Adaptation Fund. • Accessibility
One of the most significant pro-development
• Additionality decisions to come out the UNFCCC has been the
The world of climate finance sees a high incidence accessibility of the existing Adaptation Fund (AF).
and risk of ‘double counting’ by developed ‘Direct Access’ is an approach centred on country-
countries, in order to meet political commitments owned adaptation and reduced bureaucracy, to
on paper. This is the repackaging of existing speed up disbursal of funds. Multinational agents,
pledges on climate change, development, disaster such as the EU or UN Food and Agriculture
relief or related programmes such as health, as Organisation, are eliminated from the process, with
‘new’ finance. In practice, the use of development oversight and financial management of programmes
budgets for climate adaptation diverts money passing to an equivalent national body.
away from other sectors tackling equally urgent Guidelines on allocation of resources by the AF
needs on the ground. include the obligation to assess:
‘Additionality’ is the concept that financial - Level of vulnerability;
support, and in this case climate adaptation
- Level of urgency and risks arising from delay;
funding, must not be drawn from existing national
or international budgetary commitments in other - Ensuring access to the fund in a balanced and
fields. Whilst climate adaptation is of course equitable manner;
19...........................................................................
- Lessons learned in project and programme which sidestep heavily bureaucratic and lengthy
design and implementation to be captured; processes, is clear-cut and urgent. A Scottish CAF
could complement the overarching process, by
- Securing regional co-benefits to the extent
ensuring that access modalities and guiding
possible, where applicable;
principles conform to those made under the
- Maximizing multi-sectoral or cross-sectoral UNFCCC. It could channel funding into innovative
benefits; programmes which integrate broad climate
- Adaptive capacity to the adverse effects of adaptation and development concerns, and lead
climate change.40 by example with effective reporting mechanisms.
A Scottish climate adaptation fund should A progressive approach to climate adaptation
emulate these guidelines to the highest possible would consolidate Scotland’s position at the
degree. forefront of climate policy and practice. It would
complement the ambition shown with national
• Eligibility criteria mitigation targets, plans to harness Scotland’s
enormous potential in renewable energies and
Finally, adaptation funding must be allocated to natural resources (our ‘climate surplus’43), and the
initiatives that directly aim to tackle the impacts of related Scottish government focus on technology
climate change on the ground. This is in line with transfer for water and sanitation.
AF and general UNFCCC guidelines, which
mandate funds for “concrete adaptation A CAF could also be a complementary partner to
activities”.41 Technology transfer of low-carbon the Scottish International Development Fund
innovations and other support for mitigation (IDF). As with the IDF, the development of
efforts in developing countries is an important working relationships between CSOs and research
element of the wider climate landscape. However, institutions, both in Scotland and ‘in-country’,
such programmes categorically do not qualify for should be a key feature. Furthermore, the Malawi
adaptation funding. Nor is ‘in-kind’ support from Development Programme incorporates
private sector or government agency experts an precedents such as an emphasis on development
appropriate substitute for finance. education through fostering links between
schools. This holistic approach to global
UNFCCC definitions around capacity-building and citizenship could be expanded to inform the
secondary adaptation practices (see Chapter 4) parameters of the climate adaptation fund, with a
are less clear, due to the range of financial similar focus on direct ‘people-to-people’ ties.
mechanisms employed (e.g. sector support,
This grassroots approach would also add value to
concessional loans).42 However, initiatives which
climate agendas at the UK level, playing on
aim to create broader enabling environments for
Scotland’s strengths and providing an example for
practical climate adaptation interventions can be
other socially-responsible governments.
appropriate within bilateral and co-funding
arrangements. • Objectives
• Parameters A Scottish Climate Adaptation Fund should work
towards a clearly defined set of objectives, against
One key set of questions revolves around ways in which funding is awarded to implementing
which an international CAF introduced in Scotland agencies and programmes subsequently
would complement the long-term goal of a monitored and evaluated. Lessons can be learned
nimble, accessible multilateral system. Careful from the early years of the IDF, which critics
planning will be needed to ensure such a fund suggest lacked coherence when first established.44
feeds into the wider picture of centrally co-
ordinated global financing for country-led plans. These objectives should include the following:
Given that the global climate financial architecture - To complement and feed into integrated,
is still very much in the early days of its evolution, nationally-led climate adaptation strategies, in
there is a clear opportunity for innovative parallel line with wider poverty reduction planning in
developing countries;
funding instruments, such as a CAF to lead the
way. The need for interim, short-term measures - To directly fund innovative adaptation
20...........................................................................
programmes, rather than offer ‘in-kind’ - systematically ensure that maladaptive
expertise or technology transfer relating to practices which are not aligned with nationally-
climate mitigation; led adaptation strategies are not supported;
- To allocate resources in line with ‘Direct - support Southern partners’ collaboration with
local government, traditional leadership and
Access’ funding access guidelines.
CSOs across sectors wherever possible;
Recipients of Scottish CAF grants should - monitor and evaluate programmes in line with
subsequently clearly demonstrate how climate the objectives and principles of the fund.
adaptation programmes will:
In the case that private sector finance is
- prioritise the needs of vulnerable and leveraged, one further crucial objective must be:
marginalised communities and households - to create and maintain robust systems which
within those communities, including women, ensure that donors are accountable to the
children and minority groups; principles of the fund.
“Climate change is the pre-eminent
geopolitical and economic issue of the
21st century. It rewrites the global equation for
development, peace and prosperity….
It will increase pressure on water, food and
land, reverse years of development gains,
exacerbate poverty, destabilize fragile states
and topple governments.”
45
Ban-Ki Moon, UN Secretary-General
214. Joined-up
climate
adaptation:
What works on
the ground?
A girl collects water from the nearest river, Mukuni, Zambia.
22...........................................................................
The impacts of climate change are evolving and the
risks are extremely hard to predict. Climate
PROFILE: MOSES MULENGA
adaptation must be forward-looking and innovative.
In developed countries, climate adaptation Moses Mulenga is a farmer in Chongwe
strategies can include investment in hi-tech flood district. In 1996 he attended his first
defence mechanisms, development of climate- training courses in sustainable practices at
resilient infrastructure, air-conditioning systems or SCIAF partner KATC, learning techniques
pioneering meteorological research and such as composting, green manures,
technology. agroforestry and diversification away from
In Least Developed Countries (LDCs) where dependence on staple crops like maize.
populations are highly dependent on small-scale Quickly seeing returns from tree-planting
agriculture, resources are limited, and infrastructure on his land, he gained permission from the
and institutional capacity are underdeveloped, Village Headman to erect a fence as
climate adaptation covers a wide range of coping protection from ‘charcoal burners’,(i) and
strategies which can save and transform lives. At set about reforesting his land. These trees
the community level these include sustainable now serve to enrich his soils and provide
agriculture initiatives, building natural flood barriers protection against extreme weather events
or small dams, and capacity-building through and drought. Moses cultivates a wide
community-based organisations. There is already a range of crops- including sorghum, pigeon
raft of good practice at community level from which peas, cotton, millet, soya, oranges and
Scotland can learn as it establishes a climate avocados- and sells the surplus at market.
adaptation fund. During a tour of his farm, Moses shared
expertise in an array of techniques: minimal
4.1 Sustainable agriculture systems
tillage to conserve moisture in the soil,
For the billions of people who the UN estimates will barrier plants which act as natural
“face shortages of water and food and greater risks pesticides, mulching, ‘potholing’ for
to health and life as a result of climate change”,46 a planting of avocado seeds, as well as
critical element of adaptation will be the scaling-up staples such as composting... the list goes
of existing sustainable agriculture systems.
on. He is also a very strong advocate for
Sustainable agriculture has been an area of focus sustainable organic agriculture: “I can now
for international development agencies for many make profits on what I sell, so use the
years. However current rates of human-induced money for school fees or for my health...I
climate change, particularly global mean am now a happy farmer”.47
temperatures, are occurring too rapidly for normal (i) “Charcoal
burners” cut down trees for fuel and to sell.
natural adaptation processes to keep pace. As The practice places a lot of strain on the land and on
climate change continues to present new energy security.
challenges to small-scale farmers, increasing focus
on sustainable agriculture systems will be a key
element of ‘climate-resilient’ development.
Sustainable agriculture includes methodologies
which reduce environmental degradation, increase
productivity and can therefore improve food
security. It aims to balance competing ecological,
economic and social pressures, within the limits of
living ecosystems. For instance, techniques such as
composting, mixed-cropping, crop rotation,
growing green manures, fallows and agroforestry
have the proven potential to restore and sustain
soil fertility by increasing levels of nutrient-rich
organic matter in the soil. Over time, these and
other methods can lead to increased yields and the
production of safe and affordable food. Some
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